Fundamentals of Business Math Canadian 3Rd Edition Jerome Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF
Fundamentals of Business Math Canadian 3Rd Edition Jerome Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF
2. I = Prt = $6800(0.037) 13
12
= $272.57
I $145.50
3. t= = = 0.6 6 year = 8 months
Pr $4850 0.045
I $328.85
4. P=
rt
=
11
0.1025 12
= $3499.96
I $546.88
$15,00012 = 0.0875 = 8.75%
5. r= = 5
Pt
5
6. I = Prt = $5000(0.015) 12 = $31.25
I $500
7. P=
rt
=
5
0.043 12
= $27,906.98
I $ 75
$10,00012 = 0.0180 = 1.80%
8. r= = 5
Pt
9. I = Prt = $1800(0.0825) 16
12 = $198.00
I $11,602.50
10. t= = = 0.583 year = 7 months
Pr $612,0000.0325
Intermediate Problems
11. I = Prt = $3760(0.015)(3) = $169.20
I $292 .50
12. P= = = $6500.00
rt (0.009 )5
I $169.05
13. r= = = 0.0175 = 1.75% per month
Pt $4830(2 months)
I $221.65
14. t= = = 11 months
Pr $3100(0.0065) per month
15. The interest rate actually paid was
I $145.83
r=
Pt
=
$10,000 125
= 0.035 = 3.5%
The interest rate reduction applied for the early redemption was 5.5% – 3.5% = 2.0%.
I $2.65
7. r =
Pt
=
100% = 1.50%
30
$2149 365
Intermediate Problems
8. Number of days = (April 16) – (March 23)
= 106 – 82
= 24 days
I $8.00
r=
Pt
=
$218.83 365
24
100% = 55.60%
9. Number of days = (November 4) + 84 = 308 + 84 = 392 – 365 = 27
The loan was repaid on the 27th day of 2016, which is January 27, 2016.
10. Number of days = (March 16, 2016) – 92 = 75 – 92 = – 17 + 1 leap day + 365 = 349.
(Note the one day added to account for the fact that 2016 is a leap year, and the loan
spanned the entire month of February, 2016) Therefore, the loan started on day 349 of
the previous year, 2015. Day 349 is December 15, 2015.
I $2.50
14. r =
Pt
=
100% = 18.49%
15
$329 365
I $13.36
15. t = = = 0.11230 year = 0.11230 365 days = 41 days
Pr $2163 0.055
I $124.83
16. P =
rt
=
30
0.0825 365
= $18,409.27
Advanced Problems
In the following solution to problem 19, the number of days in each interval is determined
by adding the number of days for each partial month and full month in the interval.
Problems 20 and 21 are solved by an alternative approach—the interval length is
determined by using the serial numbers for dates (Table 6.2).
285
5. S = P(1 + rt) = $17,450 1 0.0625 = $17,450(1.0488014) = $18,301.58
365
S $5878.78 $5878.78
P
1 rt 1 0.088510
6. = = = $5475.00
12
1.07375
Intermediate Problems
S $15,379.58 $15,379 .58
P
7. =
1 rt 1 0.099 12
11
=
1.0907500
= $14,100.00
I $9.00
$162.50365 = 0.5946 = 59.46%
r= = 34
Pt
S $3701.56
P
16. =
1 rt 1 0.125 127
= $3450.00
Advanced Problems
17. In effect, $107.50 is the "maturity value" on October 1 of an $89.95 "investment" on
March 25. The "interest earned" is $107.50 – $89.95 = $17.55. The number of days
in the "term" is
October 1 – March 25 = 274 – 84 = 190
The annual interest rate implied by the saving is
I $17.55
r=
Pt
=
365
$89.95 190
= 0.3748 = 37.48%
The money borrowed at a cost of 12% per annum effectively “earns” 37.48% per annum.
Since the “return” is higher than the 12% per annum cost, it is in the buyer’s financial
best interest to borrow the money and purchase the tires today.
Another way to look at this analysis is to find the “today” value of the future price of
$107.50. The time is 190 days and the rate is 12% per annum.
S $107.50
P = = $101.18
1 rt 1 0.12190
365
Buying the tires on October 1 for $107.50 each is equivalent to paying $101.18 today.
By buying the tires today for the $89.95 sale price, the buyer is effectively saving
$101.18 - $89.95 = $11.23 in today’s dollars. Therefore, the buyer will save $11.23 in
current dollars by buying the tires today.
18. In effect, there is a $75 interest charge for paying the $2000 balance after 5 months
instead of paying at the beginning of the year. The annual rate of simple interest is
I $75
$200012 = 0.0900 = 9.00%
r= = 5
Pt
19. The $60 higher price for the deferred payment option may be viewed as a $60
interest charge on the cash price of $1535. The implied annual interest rate is
I $60
r=
Pt
=
$1535 612 = 0.0782 = 7.82%
If you can earn a rate of return greater than 7.82% on a 6-month investment, you
would be better off to invest the $1535 now and take A & B's deferred payment option.
7
2. S = P(1 + rt) = $1215 1 0.045 = $1246.89
12
174
3. S = P(1 + rt) = $5230 1 0.0525 = $5360.89
365
S $1480
P
4. =
1 rt 1 0.0675 365
60
= $1463.76
5. Number of days = 7 + 31 + 30 = 68
S $1000
P
1 rt 1 0.03365 = $994.44
= 68
Rounded to the nearest dollar, Vivian should accept $322,348 on June 15, 2015 as an
equivalent payment.
Intermediate Problems
S $5500
14. a. P
1 rt 1 0.082125
= = $5318.29
If she waits to pay the $5500 in 5 months from now, that option represents the
equivalent of a payment today of $5318.29. This is more than the option of paying
$5230 today. Therefore, Rashmi should choose the option of paying $5230 today.
S $5500
b. P
1 rt 1 0.135125
= = $5207.10
If she waits to pay the $5500 in 5 months from now, that option represents the
equivalent of a payment today of $5207.10. This is less than the option of paying
$5230 today. Therefore, Rashmi should choose the option of paying $5500 in 5
months from now.
c. I = S – P = $5500 – $5230 = $270.00
I $270.00
$523012 = 0.1239 = 12.39%
r= = 5
Pt
S $570
15. a. P
1 rt 1 0.1075365 = $560.10
= 60
If she waits to pay the $570 in 60 days from now, that option represents the equivalent
of a payment today of $560.10. This is $0.10 more than the option of paying $560
today. Therefore, Anna should choose the option of paying $560 today.
b. I = S – P = $570 – $560 = $10.00
I $10.00
$560 365 = 0.1086 = 10.86%
r= = 60
Pt
S $1280
a. P
1 rt 1 0.08512 = $1187.48
16. = 11
If he waits to pay the $1280 in 11 months from now, that option represents the
equivalent of a payment today of $1187.48. This is $27.52 less than the option of
paying $1215 today. Therefore, Jonas should choose the option of paying $1280 in 11
months from now.
b. I = S – P = $1280 – $1215 = $65.00
I $65.00
$121512 = 0.0584 = 5.84%
r= = 11
Pt
17. We can view the extra $2560 –$2495 = $65 cost at Store B as an interest
charge for a $2495 loan for 8 months. Let us compare the implied interest
rate on this “loan” to the interest rate Nicholas is earning on his CSBs.
In effect, the interest rate charged on the “loan” is
I $65
r= = 8
= 0.0391 = 3.91%
Pt $2495( 12 )
Since the interest rate on the “loan” is greater than the earnings on his CSB, he should
cash them in and purchase from Store A.
Chapter 6: Simple Interest 165
Exercise 6.4 (continued)
18. Marpole Furniture should accept a cash price equal to the sum of
$1845 $1845
plus the present value of 6 months earlier. That is,
2 2
$922.50
1 0.027512 = $922.50 + $909.99 = $1832.49
Cash price = $922.50 + 6
S $30,000
a. P
1 rt 1 0.08365 = $28,661.92
= 213
The current economic value of the $30,000 later payment is $28,661.92 which is
$661.92 higher than the $28,000 payment today. Therefore, the Matheson’s will save
$661.92 by selecting the September 30 installation date.
b. For the two payments to be equivalent, the Matheson family must be able to earn
$30,000 – $28,000 = $2000 of interest over the 213 days on their $28,000 invested.
I $2000
r= = 213
= 0.1224 = 12.24%
Pt $28,000( 365 )
I $27.29
t= = = 0.169858 year = 62 days later
Pr $7472.71(0.0215)
March 14, 2017 + 62 days = Day 73 + 62 days = Day 135.
Using the serial number chart, day 135 is May 15, 2017.
Advanced Problems
21. a. The current economic value of an offer is the present value of the payments
discounted at the interest rate the Chans can earn on low-risk short-term investments.
For the Smiths’ offer,
S $100,000
1 0.04512 = $142,799.51
P = $45,000 + = $45,000 +
1 rt 6
22. The current economic cost is the present value of the payments discounted at 4.8%.
$160,000
1 0.04812 = $284,440.15
a. Economic cost = $130,000 + 9
$290,000
1 0.04812 = $284,922.78
b. Economic cost = $5000 + 9
(continued)
Exercise 6.5
Basic Problems
$300
1 0.09512
1. Equivalent value today = $500.00 + 3
= $500.00 + $293.040
= $793.04
5
2. Equivalent value 5 months from now = $1000 1 0.055 + $1500.00
12
= $1022.92 + $1500.00
= $2522.92
$1140
3. Equivalent payment today = $850 +
1 0.0825 12
9
= $850.00 + $1073.57 = $1923.57
6
4. Equivalent payment today = $500 + $1000 1 0.0425
12
= $500 + $1021.25
= $1521.25
= $500 + $247.72
= $747.72
$500 $250
1 0.032365 1 0.032168
b. Equivalent value on June 30 = 63
+
365
= $497.254 + $246.371
= $743.63
7. For the Sylvestor Roofing quote, find the equivalent value of all three payments as at June
15. Then, compare that total to the quote from Rocca Roofing which is $8200 payable on
June 15.
Therefore, in current dollars, the Rocca Roofing quote is $8973.82 – $8200 = $773.82
cheaper than the Sylvestor Roofing quote.
8. Equivalent value 90 days from now = $900 1 0.0775 365
60
+
$1000
1 0.0775 120
365
= $911.466 + $975.154
= $1886.62
9. Equivalent value 60 days from now
60 $1500 $2000
= $1000 1 0.085 +
365 1 0.085 365
10
+
1 0.085 150
365
= $1013.97 + $1496.51 + $1932.50
= $4442.98
10. Equivalent value 45 days from now
120 45 $1750
= $1750 1 0.099 + $1750 1 0.099 +
365 365
1 0.099 365
30
(continued)
Exercise 6.6
Intermediate Problems
1. Let x represent the unknown payment.
Payment Date No. of days Present value
$1000 May 1 31 + 30 = 61 $991.713
1000 June 1 61 + 31 = 92 987.554
x July 1 92 + 30 = 122 0.9835624x
$1000 x
P= = $991.713 P =
1 0.05365
61
1 0.05122
365
= 0.9835624x
Original loan = Sum of present values of the payments
$3000 = $991.713 + $987.554 + 0.9835624x
$1020.733 = 0.9835624x
x = $1037.79
The July 1 payment should be $1037.79.
= 0.997540312x + 0.995092694x
= 1.992633006x
x = $501.85
Each loan payment is $501.85.
7. Let x represent the size of each loan payment. Then
$3000 = Sum of present values of all payments
x x
1 0.0825 365 1 0.0825150
= 50
+
365
= 0.988824924x + 0.967207685x
= 1.956032609x
x = $1533.72
Each loan payment is $1533.72.
Advanced Problems
8. Let x represent the size of each payment. Then
x x x
$2500 =
1 0.0875 12
2
+
1 0.0875 12
4
+
1 0.0875 12
7
= 0.9856263x + 0.9716599x + 0.9514371x
= 2.9087233x
x = $859.48
Each loan payment is $859.48.
I $158.66
t= = = 0.583309 years x 12 = 7 months
Pr $6800(0.04)
5. The number of days from September 8, 2016 to March 18, 2017 was
(365 – 251) + 77 = 191
191
a. S = P(1 + rt) = $17,000 1 0.0465 = $17,413.66
365
b. I = S – P = $17,413.66 – $17,000 = $413.66
6. The number of days from September 17, 2016 to March 11, 2017 was
(365 – 260) + 70 = 175
The interest rate earned was
I $212.45
r=
Pt
=
$3702.40 175
365
= 0.1197 = 11.97%
I $327.95
7. r =
Pt
=
$21,000 120
365
= 0.0475 = 4.75%
2
10. S = P(1 + rt) = $10,000 1 0.0395 = $10,065.83
12
Peter and Reesa will save $3926.29 $3900 = $26.29 in current dollars by paying the
early-booking price.
b. At a rate of 9.75%, the economic value today of the full price due in 4 months is
S $3995
P
1 rt 1 0.0975124
= = $3869.25
Peter and Reesa will save $3900 $3869.25 = $30.75 in current dollars by waiting and
paying the full price.
c. They will be indifferent between the alternatives if $3900 can earn $3995 – $3900 = $95
interest in 4 months. The corresponding interest rate would be
I $95
100% = 7.31%
r=
Pt
=
$3900 12 4
If money can earn 7.31% pa, Peter and Reesa would be indifferent between the two
prices.
A single payment of $8459.14 two months from now will place the payee
in an equivalent financial position.
= $4723.86
The current economic value of Stream 2 is $16.60 higher than the economic value of
Stream 1.
19. Let x represent the unknown payment.
Payment Date No. of days Present value
$8000 June 1 30 + 31 = 61 $7894.452
2000 July 1 61 + 30 = 91 1960.890
x Sept 1 91 + 62 = 153 0.967553812x
$8000 x
P= P=
1 0.08365
61
= $7894.452 1 0.08153
365
= 0.967553812x
Original loan = Sum of present values of the payments
$17,000 = $7894.452 + $1960.890 + 0.967553812x
$7144.658 = 0.967553812x
x = $7384.25
The September 1 payment should be $7384.25.
Advanced Problems
21. Interval Number of days Int. rate Interest
May 12 to Jun 28 179 – 132 = 47 5.5% $90.652
June 28 to Aug. 26 238 – 179 = 59 5.85% 121.039
Aug. 26 to Oct. 18 291 – 238 = 53 5.1% 94.790
Total: $306.481
I = Prt = $12,800(0.055) 365
47
= $90.652
Amount required to pay off the loan on October 18 is
S = P + I = $12,800 + $306.48 = $13,106.48
Chapter 6: Simple Interest 175
Review Problems (continued)
22. Maturity value of the first term deposit is
90
P(1 + rt) = $15,000 1 0.032 = $15,118.36
365
Maturity value of the second term deposit is
90
P(1 + rt) = $15,118.36 1 0.032 = $15,237.65
365
The total interest earned is $237.65.
23. The time period for which the money was borrowed was
I $190 .02
t= = = 0.37535 year = 0.37535 365 days = 137 days
Pr $7500 (0.0675 )
The loan began on November 7, 2016, which is serial number 311 of the year. The date
that is 137 days later is 311 + 137 = Day #448 – 365 = Day #83. Using the serial number
chart, day #83 of the year is March 24. Therefore, March 24, 2017 is the date coming 137
days after November 7, 2016.
24. a. Number of days from September 15 to April 1
= 15 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 28 + 31 + 1
= 198
$579
1 0.04198 = $566.70
Economic value =
365
The savings from the early purchase are equivalent to a 29.15% per annum rate of
interest.
$160,000
25. a. Current economic value of Offer A = $40,000 + = $193,846.15
1 0.04(1)
$166,500
1 0.0412 = $193,235.29
Current economic value of Offer B = $30,000 + 6
Fig. 3.—Amoeba devouring a plant cell; four successive stages of ingestion. (From Verworn.)
Again, as a second result of the nutrition, part of the food taken in goes to effect an increase of the living
protoplasm, and that of every part, not merely of the surface—it is "assimilated"; while the rest of the
food is transformed into reserves, or consumed and directly applied to the liberation of energy. The
increase in bulk due to nutrition is thus twofold: part is the increase of the protoplasm itself
—"assimilative growth," part is the storage of reserves—"accumulative growth": these reserves being
available in turn by digestion, whether for future true growth or for consumption to liberate energy for the
work of the cell.
We can conceive that our cannon might have an automatic feed for the supply of fresh cartridges after
each shot; but not that it could make provision for an increase of its own bulk, so as to gain in calibre
and strength, nor even for the restoration of its inner surface constantly worn away by the erosion of its
discharges. Growth—and that growth "interstitial," operating at every point of the protoplasm, not merely
at its surface—is a character of all living beings at some stage, though they may ultimately lose the
capacity to grow. Nothing at all comparable to interstitial growth has been recognised in not-living
matter.[12]
Fig. 4.—Amoeba polypodia in successive stages of equal fission; nucleus dark, contractile vacuole clear. (From Verworn,
after F. E. Schulze.)
Again, when an Amoeba has grown to a certain size, its nucleus divides into two nuclei, and its
cytoplasmic body, as we may term it, elongates, narrows in the middle so as to assume the shape of a
dumb-bell or finger-biscuit, and the two halves, crawling in opposite directions, separate by the giving
way of the connecting waist, forming two new Amoebas, each with its nucleus (Fig. 4). This is a process
of "reproduction"; the special case is one of "equal fission" or "binary division." The original cell is
termed the "mother," with respect to the two new ones, and these are of course with respect to it the
"daughters," and "sisters" to one another. We must bear in mind that in this self-sacrificing maternity the
mother is resolved into her children, and her very existence is lost in their production. The above
phenomena, IRRITABILITY, MOTILITY, DIGESTION, NUTRITION, GROWTH, REPRODUCTION, are all
characteristic of living beings at some stage or other, though one or more may often be temporarily or
permanently absent; they are therefore called "vital processes."
If, on the other hand, we violently compress the cell, if we pass a very strong electric shock through it, or
a strong continuous current, or expose it to a temperature much above 45° C., or to the action of certain
chemical substances, such as strong acids or alkalies, or alcohol or corrosive sublimate, we find that all
these vital processes are arrested once and for all; henceforward the cell is on a par with any not-living
substance. Such a change is called "DEATH," and the "capacity for death" is one of the most marked
characters of living beings. This change is associated with changes in the mechanical and optical
properties of the protoplasm, which loses its viscidity and becomes opaque, having undergone a
process of de-solution; for the water it contained is now held only mechanically in the interstices of a
network, or in cavities of a honeycomb (as we have noted above, p. 5), while the solid forming the
residuum has a refractive index of a little over 1.6. Therefore, it only regains its full transparency when
the water is replaced by a liquid of high refractive index, such as an essential oil or phenol. A similar
change may be effected by pouring white of egg into boiling water or absolute alcohol, and is attended
with the same optical results. The study of the behaviour of coagulable colloids has been recently
studied by Fischer and by Hardy, and has been of the utmost service in our interpretation of the
microscopical appearances shown in biological specimens under the microscope.[13]
The death of the living being finds a certain analogy in the breaking up or the wearing out of a piece of
machinery; but in no piece of machinery do we find the varied irritabilities, all conducive to the well-being
of the organism (under ordinary conditions), or the so-called "automatic processes"[14] that enable the
living being to go through its characteristic functions, to grow, and as we shall see, even to turn
conditions unfavourable for active life and growth to the ultimate weal of the species (see p. 32). At the
same time, we fully recognise that for supplies of matter and energy the organism, like the machine,
depends absolutely on sources from without. The debtor and creditor sheet, in respect of matter and
energy, can be proved to balance between the outside world and Higher Organisms with the utmost
accuracy that our instruments can attain; and we infer that this holds for the Lower Organisms also.
Many of the changes within the organism can be expressed in terms of chemistry and physics; but it is
far more impossible to state them all in such terms than it would be to describe a polyphase electrical
installation in terms of dynamics and hydraulics. And so far at least we are justified in speaking of "vital
forces."
The living substance of protoplasm contains a large quantity of water, at least two-thirds its mass, as we
have seen, in a state of physical or loose chemical combination with solids: these on death yield
proteids and nucleo-proteids.[15] The living protoplasm has an alkaline reaction, while the liquid in the
larger vacuoles, at least, is acid, especially in Plant-cells.[16]
Metabolism.—The chemical processes that go on in the organism are termed metabolic changes, and
were roughly divided by Gaskell into (1) "anabolic," in which more complex and less stable substances
are built up from less complex and more stable ones with the absorption of energy; and (2) "catabolic"
changes in which the reverse takes place. Anabolic processes, in all but the cells containing plastids or
chromatophores (see p. 36) under the influence of light, necessarily imply the furnishing of energy by
concurrent catabolic changes in the food or reserves, or in the protoplasm itself.
Again, we have divided anabolic processes into "accumulative," where the substances formed are
merely reserves for the future use of the cell, and "assimilative," where the substances go to the building
of the protoplasm itself, whether for the purpose of growth or for that of repair.
Catabolic processes may involve (1) the mere breaking of complex substances into simpler ones, or (2)
their combination with oxygen; in either case waste products are formed, which may either be of service
to the organism as "secretions" (like the bile in Higher Animals), or of no further use (like the urine).
When nitrogenous substances break down in this way they give rise to "excretions," containing urea,
urates, and allied substances; other products of catabolism are carbon dioxide, water, and mineral salts,
such as sulphates, phosphates, carbonates, oxalates, etc., which if not insoluble must needs be
removed promptly from the organism, many of them being injurious or even poisonous. The energy
liberated by the protoplasm being derived through the breakdown of another part of the same or of the
food-materials or stored reserves, must give rise to waste products. The exchange of oxygen from
without for carbonic acid formed within is termed "respiration," and is distinguished from the mere
removal of all other waste products called "excretion." In the fresh-water Amoeba both these processes
can be studied.
Respiration,[17] or the interchange of gases, must, of course, take place all over the general surface,
but in addition it is combined in most fresh-water Protista with excretion in an organ termed the
"contractile" or "pulsatile vacuole" (Figs. 1, 4, etc.). This particular vacuole is exceptional in its size and
its constancy of position. At intervals, more or less regular, it is seen to contract, and to expel its
contents through a pore; at each contraction it completely disappears, and reforms slowly, sometimes
directly, sometimes by the appearance of a variable number of small "formative" vacuoles that run
together, or as in Ciliata, by the discharge into it of so-called "feeding canals." As this vacuole is filled by
the water that diffuses through the substance, and when distended may reach one-third the diameter of
the being, in the interval between two contractions an amount of water must have soaked in equal to
one-twenty-seventh the bulk of the animal, to be excreted with whatever substances it has taken up in
solution, including, not only carbon dioxide, but also, it has been shown, nitrogenised waste matters
allied to uric acid.[18]
That the due interchanges may take place between the cell and the surrounding medium, it is obvious
that certain limits to the ratio between bulk and surface must exist, which are disturbed by growth, and
which we shall study hereafter (p. 23 f.).
The Protista that live in water undergo a death by "diffluence" or "granular disintegration" on being
wounded, crushed, or sometimes after an excessive electric stimulation, or contact with alkalies or with
acids too weak to coagulate them. In this process the protoplasm breaks up from the surface inwards
into a mass of granules, the majority of which themselves finally dissolve. If the injury be a local rupture
of the external pellicle or cuticle, a vacuole forms at the point, grows and distends the overlying
cytoplasm, which finally ruptures: the walls of the vacuole disintegrate; and this goes on as above
described. Ciliate Infusoria are especially liable to this disintegration process, often termed "diffluence,"
which, repeatedly described by early observers, has recently been studied in detail by Verworn. Here we
have death by "solution," while in the "fixing" of protoplasm for microscopic processes we strive to
ensure death by "desolution," so as to retain as much of the late living matter as possible. It would seem
not improbable that the unusual contact with water determines the formation of a zymase that acts on
the living substance itself.
We have suggested[19] that one function of the contractile vacuole, in naked fresh-water Protists, is to
afford a regular means of discharge of the water constantly taken up by the crystalloids in the
protoplasm, and so to check the tendency to form irregular disruptive vacuoles and death by diffluence.
This is supported by the fact that in the holophytic fresh-water Protista, as well as the Algae and Fungi,
a contractile vacuole is present in the young naked stage (zoospore), but disappears as soon as an
elastic cell-wall is formed to counterbalance by its tension the internal osmotic pressure.
Digestion is always essentially a catabolic process, both as regards the substance digested and the
formation of the digesting substance by the protoplasm. The digesting substance is termed a "zymase"
or "chemical ferment," and is conjectured to be produced by the partial breakdown of the protoplasm. In
presence of suitable zymases, many substances are resolved into two or more new substances, often
taking up the elements of water at the same time, and are said to be "dissociated" or "hydrolysed" as the
case may be. Thus proteid substances are converted into the very soluble substances, "proteoses" and
"peptones," often with the concurrent or ultimate formation of such relatively simple bodies as leucin,
tyrosin, and other amines, etc. Starch and glycogen are converted into dextrins and sugars; fats are
converted into fatty acids and glycerin. It is these products of digestion, and not the actual food-
materials (save certain very simple sugars), that are really taken up by the protoplasm, whether for
assimilation, for accumulation, or for the direct liberation of energy for the vital processes of the
organism.
Not only food from without, but also reserves formed and stored by the protoplasm itself, must be
digested by some zymase before they can be utilised by the cell. In all cases of the utilisation of reserve
matter that have been investigated, it has been found that a zymase is formed by the cell itself (or
sometimes, in complex organisms, by its neighbours); for, after killing the cell in which the process is
going on by mechanical means or by alcohol, the process of digestion can be carried on in the
laboratory.[20] The chief digestion of all the animal-feeding Protista is of the same type as in our own
stomachs, known as "peptic" digestion: this involves the concurrent presence of an acid, and Le Dantec
and Miss Greenwood have found the contents of food-vacuoles, in which digestion is going on, to
contain acid liquid. The ferment-pepsin itself has been extracted by Krukenberg from the Myxomycete,
"Flowers of tan" (Fuligo varians, p. 92), and by Professor Augustus Dixon and the author from the
gigantic multinucleate Amoeba, Pelomyxa palustris (p. 52).[21] The details of the prehension of food will
be treated of under the several groups.
The two modes of Anabolism—true "assimilation" in the strictest sense and "accumulation"—may
sometimes go on concurrently, a certain proportion of the food material going to the protoplasm, and the
rest, after allowing for waste, being converted into reserves.
Movements all demand catabolic changes, and we now proceed to consider these in more detail.
The movements of an Amoeboid[22] cell are of two kinds: "expansion," leading to the formation and
enlargement of outgrowths, and "contraction," leading to their diminution and disappearance within the
general surface.[23] Expansion is probably due to the lessening of the surface-tension at the point of
outgrowth, contraction to the increase of surface-tension. Verworn regards these as due respectively to
the combination of the oxygen in the medium with the protoplasm in diminishing surface-tension, and
the effect of combination with substances from within, especially from the nucleus in increasing it.
Besides these external movements, there are internal movements revealed by the contained granules,
which stream freely in the more fluid interior. Those Protista that, while exhibiting amoeboid movements,
have no clear external layer, such as the Radiolaria, Foraminifera, Heliozoa, etc., present this streaming
even at the surface, the granules travelling up and down the pseudopodia at a rate much greater than
the movements of these organs themselves. In this case the protoplasm is wetted by the medium, which
it is not where there is a clear outer layer: for that behaves like a greasy film.
Motile organs.—Protoplasm often exhibits movements much more highly specialised than the simple
expansion or retraction of processes, or the general change of form seen in Amoeba. If we imagine the
activities of a cell concentrated on particular parts, we may well suppose that they would be at once
more precise and more energetic than we see them in Amoeba or the leucocyte. In some free-swimming
cells, such as the individual cells known as "Flagellata," the reproductive cells of the lower Plants, or the
male cells ("spermatozoa") of Plants as high as Ferns, and even of the Highest Animals, there is an
extension of the cell into one or more elongated lash-like processes, termed "flagella," which, by beating
the water in a reciprocating or a spiral rhythm, cause the cell to travel through it; or, if the cell be
attached, they produce currents in the water that bring food particles to the surface of the cell for
ingestion. Such flagella may, indeed, be seen in some cases to be modified pseudopodia. In other cases
part, or the whole, of the surface of the cell may be covered with regularly arranged short filaments of
similar activity (termed "cilia," from their resemblance to a diminutive eyelash), which, however, instead
of whirling round, bend sharply down to the surface and slowly recover; the movement affects the cilia
successively in a definite direction in waves, and produces, like that of flagella, either locomotion of the
cell or currents in the medium. We can best realise their action by recalling the waves of bending and
recovery of the cornstalks in a wind-swept field; if now the haulms of the corn executed these
movements of themselves, they would determine in the air above a breeze-like motion in the direction of
the waves (Fig. 5).[24] Such cilia are not infrequent on those cells of even the Highest Animals that, like
a mosaic, cover free surfaces ("epithelium cells"). In ourselves such cells line, for instance, the
windpipe. One group of the Protozoa, the "Ciliata," are, as their name implies, ciliated cells pure and
simple.
Fig. 5.—Motion of a row of cilia, in profile. (From Verworn.)
The motions of cilia and of flagella are probably also due to changes
of surface tension—alternately on one side and the other in the
cilium, but passing round in circular succession in the flagellum,[25]
giving rise to a conical rotation like that of a weighted string that is
whirled round the head. This motion is, however, strongest at the
thicker basal part, which assumes a spiral form like a corkscrew of
few turns, while the thin lash at the tip may seem even to be quietly
extended like the point of the corkscrew. If the tip of the flagellum
adhere, as it sometimes does, to any object, the motions induce a
jerking motion, which in this case is reciprocating, not rotatory. When
the organism is free, the flagellum is usually in advance, and the cell
follows, rotating at the same time round its longitudinal axis; such an
anterior flagellum, called a "tractellum," is the common form in
Protista that possess a single one (Figs. 29, 7, 8; 30, C). In the
spermatozoa of Higher Animals (and some Sporozoa) the flagellum
is posterior, and is called a "pulsellum."
(ii.) Most living beings are able to maintain their level in water by
floating or crawling against Gravity, and they react in virtue of the
same power against centrifugal force. This mode of irritability is
termed (negative) "geotaxy" or "barotaxy." We can estimate the
power of resisting such force by means of a whirling machine, since
when the acceleration is greater than the resistance stimulated
thereby in the beings, they are passively sent to the sides of the
vessel. The Flagellates, Euglena and Chlamydomonas, begin to
migrate towards the centre when exposed to a centrifugal force
about equal to ½ G (G = 32.2 feet or 982 cm. per second); they
remain at the centre until the centrifugal force is increased to 8 G;
above that they yield to the force, and are driven passively to the
sides. The reaction ceases or is reversed at high temperatures.
Cell-Division
In ordinary cases of fission of an isolated cell the cell elongates, and
as it does so, like other viscid bodies, contracts in the middle, which
becomes drawn out into a thread, and finally gives way. In some
cases (e.g. that of the Amoeba, Fig. 4) the nucleus previously
undergoes a similar division by simple constriction, which is called
direct or "amitotic" division. But usually the division of the nucleus
prior to cell-division is a more complex process, and involves the co-
operation of the cytoplasm; and we must now study in detail the
nucleus and its structure in "rest" and in fission.[34]
The chromosomes are now completely split, each into its two
daughter-segments, which glide apart (Fig. 7, G, ep), and pass each
to its own pole of the spindle, stopping just short of the centrosome
(I). Thus, on the inner side of either centrosome is found an
aggregation of daughter-segments, each of which is sister to one at
the opposite pole, while the number at either pole is identical with
that of the segments into which the old nucleus had resolved itself at
the outset. The daughter-segments shorten and thicken greatly as
they diverge to the poles, and on their arrival crowd close together.
In many Sarcodina and some Sporozoa the nucleus gives off small
fragments into the cytoplasm, or is resolved into them; they have
been termed "chromidia" by E. Hertwig. New nuclei may be formed
by their growth and coalescence, the original nucleus sometimes
disappearing more or less completely.
We know that in many cases, and have a right to infer that in all, chemiotaxy
plays an important part in attracting the pairing-cells to one another. In
Mammals and Sauropsida there seems also to be a rheotactic action of the
cilia lining the oviducts, which work downwards, and so induce the sperms to
swim upwards to meet the ovum, a condition of things that was most puzzling
until the nature of rheotaxy was understood. A remarkable fact is that equal
gametes rarely appear to be attracted by members of the same brood, though
they are attracted by those of any other brood of the same species.[50] It may