Chapter 2 : Differential Calculus

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Learning outcome
 demonstrate an understanding of calculus of one variable and solve problems on the rate
of change

Learning contents
 recognize the intuitive concept of the limit of a function
 recognize the concept of differentiation from first principle
 fundamental differential formulae
 addition rule, product rule, quotient rule and chain rule
 second derivatives
 implicit differentiation and parametric differentiation
 applications of differentiations

Reference books
 Croft, A., & Davison, R. (2008). Mathematics for Engineers - A Modern
Interactive Approach, Pearson Education.

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Differentiation - Interpretation of a derivative
Introduction
Differentiation is a technique for analyzing the way in
which functions change (i.e. the rate at which some
variable is changing). For example, the rate at which
the voltage across a capacitor is changing.

Differentiation also allows us to find the maximum and

minimum values of a function.

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Rates of change may be positive, negative or zero. The
following function y(t) has different rates of change
over different regions of t.

+ve
-ve

Exercise
Indicate the regions of t on which the rate of change
of y is positive, zero and negative respectively.
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 Average rate of change across an interval
The average rate of change of y(t) across the interval
t=t1 to t=t2 :
change in y y (t 2 )  y (t1 )
  gradient of chord AB
change in t t 2  t1

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e.g. The voltage, v(t), across a capacitor varies with time, t, according
To v(t )  5  2 e 2 t .

Find the average rate of change of voltage as time varies from t

= 0 to t = 5

Solution:
v(0)  5  2e 0  7.00
 2 ( 5)
v(5)  5  2e  5.00
v(5)  v(0) 5.00  7.00
  0.4
50 5
the rate of change   0.4

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 Rate of change at a point

rate of change at a point, A

= gradient(slope) of tangent to the curve at point,A

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 y(t)
y(t+d t) B

A
y(t)

t t d t

change in y y(t  d t )  y(t ) d y

Gradient of AB =  
change in t dt dt

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 Consider A as a fixed point and B move along the curve
towards A, as B gets closer to A (d t 0), the chord
approximates more closely to the tangent at A.

d y
Gradient of tangent at A = lim
d t 0 d t

In other words,
dy
lim
Rate of change of y at A = d t 0 d t

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Terminology and notation

The process of finding the rate of change of a given function is

called differentiation. The rate of change of a function is also
known as the derivative of the function.
dy
The derivative of a function y(t) is denoted as
dt
i.e. dy y(t  d t )  y(t ) dy
 lim  lim
dt d t  0 dt d t 0 d t

This is the formal definition (first principles) of derivative.

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e.g. Find the rate of change of y( t )  t  1
2

Or solution: dy y2  y1
lim  lim
d t 0 d t d t 0 t  t
2 1

[(t  d t ) 2  1]  (t 2  1)
 lim
d t 0 dt
t 2  2td t  (d t ) 2  1  t 2  1
 lim
d t 0 dt
d t (2t  d t )
 lim
d t 0 dt
 2t
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 dy
Other possible notation :  y '  y
dt

Similarly, if the function is y(x), the derivative is

dy
denoted as ; if the function is z(x), the derivative
dx
dz
is denoted as .
dx

Table of derivatives will be provided in next lecture to

determine the derivatives of different functions.

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 Existence of derivatives
For some functions the derivative does not exist at
certain points at which the function is discontinuous or
at which the function has a cusp or corner.

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Exercise
Refer to the figure, state whether y' is +ve, -ve or zero
at the points.

A 0
B +ve
C 0
D -ve
E +ve

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Tutorial for students
 We will demonstrate the following questions:

 Tutorial 4:
 Question 1
 Question 2

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 Differentiation-Table of derivatives & Higher derivatives

Table of derivatives
df ( x )
Function f (x) Derivative
dx
constant k 0
x 1
kx k

kx n knx n1
1
ln x x
1
ln kx
x
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 df ( x )
Function f ( x) Derivative dx

e kx ke kx
sin kx k cos kx
sin( kx   ) k cos( kx   )
cos kx  k sin kx
cos( kx   )  k sin( kx   )
2
tan kx k sec kx
2
tan(kx   ) k sec (kx   )
sec kx k sec kx tan kx
sec(kx   ) k sec(kx   ) tan(kx   )
Angles in radians

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 Rules of differentiation

d d
kf ( x )  k f ( x)
dx dx
d d d
( f ( x )  g( x ))  f ( x )  g( x )
dx dx dx

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e.g. Find
dy given y  x.
dx
Solution: 1
1
yx 2 dy d 2
 x
dx dx
1 12
 x
2
dz
e.g. Find given z  1 .
dx x
1

Solution: zx 2

1
dz d  2
 x
dx dx
1 3 2
 x
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 dz
e.g. Find given z is
dt

5t
5t
(a) e (b) cos( ) .
2
Solution
(a) (b) dz d 5t
dz d 5t  cos( )
 e dt dt 2
dt dt taking k 
5
2
5t
 5e 5
  sin( )
5t
2 2

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e.g. Find dy given y is
dx
1
(a) 5 x  ln(9 x )
3 (b) 8 sin 7 x  9e  7 3
3x

x
dy d dy d 1
 (5 x  ln 9 x)
3  (8 sin 7 x  9e  7 3 )
3x

dx dx x
dx dx d d d
d 3 d  8 sin 7 x  9 e 3 x  7 x 3
 5 x  ln 9 x dx dx dx
dx dx  56cos7x  27e3x  21x  4
1 1
 56cos7x  27e  21( 4 )
3x
 15 x 
2
x
x

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Evaluating a derivative
To find the rate of change of a function at a particular point, evaluate its
derivative at the point.
e.g. Find the value of the derivative of y  3 x 3
where x = 5. Interpret
the result.
Solution:
dy d 3
 3x
dx dx
 9x2
dy
x 5  9(5)  9  25  225
2

dx

dy y ' (5)
 Notation :
dx x5 or
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e.g. Find the rate of change of current i(t), given by
6 t
i (t )  3e  2t , t  0 when t = 0.5 seconds.

di d 6t
 3e  2t
dt dt
6t
 18e  2
di  6 ( 0 .5 )
t  0.5   18e 2
dt
 1.104
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 x
e.g. Find y ' ( ) given y( x )  cos
2
d x
y '  cos
dx 2
1 x
  sin
2 2
1 
y ' x    sin( )
2 2
 -0.5
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 Higher Derivatives
dy
The function is called the first derivative of y with
dx
respect to (w.r.t.) x.
dy
The derivative of is called the second derivative of
dx
d2y
y, denoted by 2
or y" .
dx
By differentiating the second derivative, the third
d3y
derivative 3
is obtained.
dx
The second and subsequent derivatives are known
as higher derivatives.
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 Notation :
If y is a function of x, we write y=y(x).
dy
If the 1st derivative exists, it is denoted by dx .
2
d y
If the 2nd derivative exists, it is denoted by 2 .
dx

3
d y
If the 3rd derivative exists, it is denoted by 3 .
dx

n
d y
If the nth derivative exists, it is denoted by n .
dx
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e.g. Find the first, second and third derivatives of y  x 5  e 3 x  sin x

Solution: dy d 5 3 x
 x  e  sin x
dx dx
 5 x  3e  cos x
4 3x

2
d y d
2
 5 x  3e  cos x
4 3x

dx dx
 20 x  9e  sin x
3 3x

3
d y
3
 60 x  27e  cos x
2 3x

© VTC 2016
dx
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 2 3
e.g. Determine d y and
d y given y  ln 2t  cos 5t .
2 3
Solution: dt dt
dy d
 ln 2t  cos 5t
dt dt
1
  5 sin 5t
t
d 2 y d 1
2
 t  5 sin 5t
dt dt
 t  2  25 cos 5t
d3y d 2
3
  t  25 cos 5t
dt dt
 2t 3  125 sin 5t
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Tutorial and Exercise for students
 We will demonstrate the following questions:

 Tutorial 4:
 Question 4
 Question 5
 Question 6

 The remaining questions in the tutorial should be done by

students

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 DIFFERENTIATION - The product rule and the quotient rule

Form of product function y ( x )  u( x ) v ( x )

u( x )
Form of quotient function y( x ) 
v( x )

e.g. This is a Product function with y( x )  x 2 cos x.

u(x)  x2 and v( x)  cos x

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 ex  x
e.g. y( x ) 
ln x

This is a quotient function with u ( x)  e x  x

and v( x)  ln x

e.g.
t2 1
y(t )  u( x)  t 2 1
cos t
v( x)  cost

e.g.
2 x u ( x)  (3 x  7)
f ( x )  (3 x  7)e
v( x)  e  2 x
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The product rule

Consider the function y ( x )  u( x ) v ( x )

Using the product rule, dy du dv
v u
dx dx dx
 vu 'uv '
dy
e.g. Find where y  x 2 cos x .
dx
Solution: u ( x)  x 2 , v( x)  cos x
dy du dv
v u
dx dx dx
d d
 cos x x 2  x 2 cos x
dx dx
© VTC 2016  2 x cos x  x 2 sin x
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e.g. Find y ' where y( x )  xe 2 x.
Solution:
dy du dv
 v u
dx dx dx
d 2 x 2 x d 12
 x e e x
dx dx
1 2x
 2e2 x x  e
2 x
df
e.g. Find f '  where f (t )  t 3 ln t .
dt df du dv
Solution: v u
dt dt dt
d d
 t 3 ln t  ln t t 3
dt dt
1
 t 3  3t 2 ln t
t
 t 2  3t 2 ln t
 t 2 (1  3 ln t )
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The quotient rule
u( x )
Consider the function y ( x ) 
v( x )
du dv
vu
Applying the quotient rule, dy vu 'uv '
 dx 2 dx 
dx v v2
e.g. Find y ' where y  cos x .
x
Solution:
u ( x)  cos x, v ( x)  x
du dv
v u
dy
 dx 2 dx
dx v
d d
x cos x  cos x x
 dx 2
dx
x
 x sin x  cos x

x2
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 ex  x .
e.g. Find y ' where y( x ) 
ln x
Solution:
u ( x)  e x  x, v( x)  ln x
du dv
v u
dy
 dx 2 dx
dx v
d x d
ln x (e  x)  (e  x) ln x
x

 dx dx
(ln x) 2
x
e
e x ln x  ln x   1
 x
(ln x) 2
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 where y(t )   1
2
e.g.3 Find dy t .
y '
dt cos 3t
Solution:
u ( x)  t 2  1, v( x)  cos 3t
du dv
v u
dy
 dt 2 dt
dt v
d 2 d
cos 3t (t  1)  (t  1) cos 3t
2

 dt dt
cos 2 3t
cos 3t (2t )  (t 2  1)3 sin 3t

cos 2 3t
2t 3(t 2  1) sin 3t
  2
© VTC 2016
cos 3t cos 3t
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 Differentiation - The chain rule

Composite function

Suppose y is a function of z, that is y = y(z), and that z is

a function of x, that is z = z(x). So y  y( z )  y( z( x ))

Hence y may be considered to be a function of x.

e.g.1 Write y in terms of x if y  z 3 and z  5x  7

Solution:
y  (5 x  7) 3

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 e.g. Write y in terms of t if y  ln z and z  t 2  5t
Solution:
y  ln(t  5t )
2

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 The chain rule dy dy dz
If y =y(z) and z = z(x), then  
dx dz dx
dy
e.g.1 Given y  z 3
and z  5 x  7 , find .
dx
Solution:
dy 2 dz
 3z ,  5
dz dx
dy dz
  3z  5
2

dz dx
 15 z 2

© VTC 2016
 15(5 x  7) 2

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 dy
e.g. Given y  ln z and z  t  5t , find
2
dt
.
Solution:
dy 1

dz z
dz
 2t  5
dt
dy dz 1
  (2t  5)
dz dt z
2t  5
 2
t  5t
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e.g. Given y  cos 5t
4
, find dy .
Solution: dt

Let z  cos 5t , then y  z 4

dy 3 dz
 4 z ,  5 sin 5t
dz dt
dy dz
  4 z (5 sin 5t )
3

dz dt
© VTC 2016
 20 sin 5t cos 5t
3

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 (sin x  x 2 ) dy
e.g. Given ye , find .
dx
Solution:
Let z  sin x  x , then y  e
2 z

dy z dz
 e ,  cos x  2 x
dz dx
dy dz
  e (cos x  2 x)
z

dz dx
(sin x  x 2 )
 (cos x  2 x)e
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 dy
e.g. Find given y  ln( x  x  1)
2

Solution: dx

Let z  x  x  1, then y  ln z
2

dy 1 dz
 ,  2x 1
dz z dx
dy dz 1 2x 1 f'
  (2 x  1)  2 
dz dx z x  x 1 f

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 Implicit differentiation

Whenever y is equated to an equation involving only x

terms then y is said to be expressed explicitly in terms

of x . We write y =f (x).

Examples:

y  x2  x
y  e  cos 2 x
3x

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 Sometimes you have an equation connecting x and y
such that it is impossible to write in the form of
y = f (x).
Examples x 2  y 3  sin x  cos y  5

sin( x  y)  e x  e  y  y 3

In this case, y is expressed implicitly in terms of x.

dy
If y is expressed implicitly in terms of x then
dx
will be expressed in terms of x and y.

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Method
Chain rule is the basic tool used to differentiate implicit
functions.
d 5
e.g. Find (y )
dx

Let zy 5
then find dz
dx

dz
Steps : a) Find
dy
 5y 4

b) Find dy
dx dy
c) By the chain rule, dz  dz dy  5y 4

dx dy dx dx
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 d
e.g. Find (cos y)
dx
Solution:
dy
( sin y)
dx
d df dy
In general, ( f ( y )) 
dx dy dx
d 4y
e.g. Find (e )
dt

Solution: 4y dy
4e
dt
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 dy
e.g. Find given y 4  x  x 7  3 y
dx
Solution: Differentiating both sides w.r.t x

dy dy
4y 3
1  7x  3
6

dx dx
dy
(4 y  3)
3
 7x 1
6

dx
dy 7 x  1
6
 3
dx 4 y  3
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e.g. Find y' given that x 3 y  3 xy 5  sin y  8
Solution:
d 3 d 3 3 dy
( x y)  y x  x  3x y  x y'
2 3

dx dx dx
d 5 d d 5
(3 xy )  y
5
3x  3x y  3 y 5  15 xy 4 y '
dx dx dx
d
(sin y  8)  (cos y ) y '
dx
3 x 2 y  x 3 y '3 y 5  15 xy 4 y '  (cos y ) y '
( x 3  15 xy 4  cos y ) y '  3 y 5  3 x 2 y
3 y 5  3x 2 y
y'  3
x  15 xy 4  cos y
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 Parametric differentiation
If x and y depend upon a third variable, say t, we call t a
parameter.
For example, if y  (5  t )2 and xt
(5  x ) 2 dy
By eliminating t, y = ___________ and can be
dx
determined.

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In some cases, elimination of t is difficult or impossible, but

dy
the derivative can still be found using the chain rule.
dx

dy
dy dy dt dt
 
dx dt dx dx
dt
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 dy
e.g. Given y  (5  t ) 2
and xt find .
dx
Solution:
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
dy
 dt
dx
dt
2(5  t )

1
© VTC 2016
 10  2t
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e.g. 2 Given y  cos t  t 3 and x  e 3t  t find
dy .
Solution: dx
dy
dy dy dt
   dt
dx dt dx dx
dt

dy
dt   sin t  3t
2

dx 3e  1
3t
dt

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Tutorial and Exercise for students
 We will demonstrate the following questions:

 Tutorial 5:
 Question 1 (a) to (c)
 Question 2 (a) to (d)
 Question 3 (a) to (c)
 Question 5 (a) to (b)

 The remaining questions in the tutorial should be done by

students

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Applications of differentiation (I)

Tangents and normals

The derivative gives the
rate at which the function is
changing. Alternatively, it Normal
can be interpreted as the Point of contact
gradient of a tangent to the
curve.
A normal is a line which is
perpendicular to a tangent Tangent
through the point of contact

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 Key points :
1.The equation of a straight line passing through the
point ( x1 , y1 ) with slope m :
y  y1
m
x  x1

e.g. The equation of a straight line passing through

(2,4) with m = 0 is given by:
y4
0 y4
x2

2.If two lines are perpendicular, the product of their

gradients is -1.
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e.g. Find the equation of the tangent to yx 2
at the point (2, 4)
Solution:
y  x2
dy Step 1 – Find the slope
 2x
dx
y '(2)  2(2)  4 Step 2 – Find the slope
at particular point
y  y1
 m Step 3 – Sub the point
x  x1 and slope into eqt
y  4
  4
x 2
y  4x  8  4 Step 4 – Rearrangement

 4x  4
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e.g. Find the equation of the normal to y  x at the point (2,4).
2

Solution:
Step 1 – Find the slope
m1  m2  1; m1  4
1
m2 
4
y  y1
 m2 Step 2 – Sub the point
x  x1 and slope into eqt
y4 1
 
x2 4
4 y  16   x  2
 x  18 Step 3 – Rearrangement
y
4
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e.g. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to y  x 1
when x = 3.
1
y  x 1 m1  m2  1 ; m1 
4
1
y'   m2  4
2 x 1
y 0
y ' (3) 
1

1  4
2 4 4
x 3
y0 1
 y  4x  12

x3 4
4y
 1
x 3 WRONG !!!
x3
y
4
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x  3 doesn' t mean y  0 y  x 1 ; x  3
y  3 1  2

Tangent : Normal :
y2 1 m1  m2  1; m2  4

x 3 4 y2
 4
 4y 8  x 3 x3
x5  y  2  4 x  12
y y  4 x  14
4
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 Applications of differentiation (II)

Maximum and minimum

D
B

X1
C
X2
A

Referring to the figure, indicate the type of maximum

and minimum for the points from x1 to x2.
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 The first derivative test for local max/min
dy
For a continuous function, y ' = 0 (i.e.  0 )
dx
The first derivative test states :
: to the left of a max pt, y ' is +ve ; to the right, isy ' -ve
y ' +ve
: to the left of a min pt , y ' is -ve, to the right, is

Remark :
The point at which y ' =0 is called a stationary (critical)
point.
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e.g. Determine the location of the maximum and
minimum points of y  x2  4
Solution: dy Step 1 dy
 2 x ; For continuous function, 0
dx dx
 2x  0 Step 2
x0
 x  0 is the stationary pt
y'  2 x Step 3
when x  0 (right side)  y '  0
  min. pt
when x  0 (left side)  y '  0
when x  0, y  -4 ;  (0,4)is the min. pt
© VTC 2016 Step 4 63
e.g. Determine the position of any maximum and
3 2
t
minimum points of y    2t  3t
3 2
Solution: y '  t 2  t  2 ; For continuous function, y'  0
Step 1
 (t  1)(t  2)  0 Step 2

 t  1 or t  2
 t  -1 or 2 are the stationary pts
when t  1 (right side)  y '  0
  max. pt
when t  1 (left side)  y '  0 Step 3
Step 4
When t  -1, y  4.17  (1,4.17)is the max.pt
when t  2 (right side)  y '  0
  min. pt
when t  2 (left side)  y '  0
When t  2, y  0.33  (2,0.33) is the min.pt
64
© VTC 2016
e.g. Sketch a diagram which shows that y ' does not have to
exist at a local maximum or minimum point. Give a reason for
your answer.
Solution:

y B At A and B, it is impossible to
draw tangents: that is, they
do not exist. Hence, at these
points, y’ does not exist.
A
x
0

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The nature of functions
When y’ >0 , y is increasing. When y’ <0, y is decreasing.
When y’ is increasing the function is concave up. In this case y” >0.
When y’ is decreasing the function is concave down. In this case y” <0.

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 The second derivative test states:
If y ' =0 and y" <0 at a point, then the point is a max point.

If y ' =0 and y" >0 at a point, then the point is a min point.

If y '=0 and y" =0, the second derivative test fails and we
must return to the first derivative test.

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 x3 x2
e.g. Use the second derivative test to find all y    2x 1
maximum and minimum points of 3 2
Solution: y'  x 2  x  2 ; y'  0 Step 2
Step 1
 ( x  2)( x  1)  0
 x  2 or x  1
Step 3
13 1
Step 4  Stationary pts are (2, ) or (1, )
3 6
y"  2 x  1
y" (2)  3  0  max  Step 5

y" (1)  3  0  min  Step 6
13 1
 (2, ) is the max pt; and (1, ) is the min pt.
3 6 68
© VTC 2016
Practical Example 1
e.g. A rectangular block, with square base of side x mm, has a
total surface area of 150 mm2. Show that the volume of the
block is given by V  1 (75 x  x 3 ) . Hence find the maximum
2
volume of the block. 150  2 x 2
Solution:
H 
4x

Surface Area  150mm 2 150  2 x 2

V  x2( )
 4 (H  x)  2 x 2 4x
Volume  x  H 2 75 x  x 3

2

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
1
2

75 x  x 3 
69
 dV 1
 (75  3 x 2 )  0
dx 2
3 2 75
 x 
2 2
 x5

d 2V 3
2
 (2 x)  3 x
dx 2
V " ( 5 )   3 ( 5 )   15  0  max.
1
 Maximum Vol.  ( 75 ( 5 )  5 3 )  125 mm 3
2

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Practical Example 2
A window frame is made in the shape of a rectangle with a
semicircle on top. Given that the area is to be 8 m2, show
that the perimeter of the frame is P  8  r (   2) . Find the
minimum cost of r 2
producing the frame if 1 metre costs $75.
Solution: r  radius
h  height r

Area  8m 2
r 2 h
 2rh 
2
2 r
P  2h  2r 
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 1 r 2
h  (8  )
2r 2

 1 r 
2
2 r
 P  2 (8  )   2r 
 2r 2  2
8 r
   r (2   )
r 2
8 
  r(  2)
r 2
8 
  r (  2)
r 2
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 2 
P '  8r  20
2
8
r  1.497 m

2
2
16
P"  3  P" (1.497 )  0  min .
r
minimum cost ($)  P ( r )  unit cost
 P (1.497 )  75
 10.689  75
© VTC 2016  801 .71
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Practical Example 3
A simply supported beam carries a uniformly distributed load (w)
with a constant flexural rigidity (EI) as shown in the following
figure. The bending moment (M) along the beam is governed by
the following equation.

M 
w
2

Lx  x 2 
where x is the distance from the support A.
wL2
Prove that the maximum bending moment, M max  .
8

EI
A B

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Solution
M 
w
2

Lx  x 2 
dM
dx

d w

dx  2
 
Lx  x 2  
w
L  2 x 
 2
dM
0
dx

w L
L  2 x   0 x
2
2
d 2M d w  w
  L  2 x    2   w  0  max
dx 2 dx  2 
 2

M max 
w L
2 
L
2
   
 L 
2

2 

w  L2 L2  wL2
    
2 2 4  8

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Practical Example 4
A wooden beam has a rectangular cross section of
height h cm and width w cm (see figure). The strength
S of the beam is directly proportional to its width and the
square of its height. What are the dimensions of the
cross section of the strongest beam that can be cut
from a round log of diameter 24 cm? (Given that S =
kh2w, where k is a constant of proportionality)

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© VTC 2016
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© VTC 2016
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 Absolute Maximum and Absolute Minimum
Consider the following figure again.
D
B

X1
C
X2
A
We know that B is a local max. point and C is a local
min. point.

A is called an absolute min. point and D is called an

absolute max. point in the interval between X1 and X2.

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Definition:
( a, f (a) ) is called an a maximum point of
y = f (x) in an interval I if f (x) < f (a) for all points in I.
( b, f (b) ) is called an absolute minimum point of
y = f (x) in an interval I if f (x) > f (b) for all points in I.

Steps in determining absolute max. and min. points

Let f be a function continuous on a  x  b.
1. Find all critical points of f on (a,b)
2. Find f (xmax), f (xmin), f (a) and f (b)
3. The largest and smallest values found in (2) are the
absolute max. and min. values of f .

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 e.g. Find the absolute max. and min. points of f ( x)  x 3  x 2  x  2
on the interval  2  x  2.
Solution:
f " ( x)  6 x  2
f ' ( x)  3x  2 x  1  0
2

1
 (3 x  1)( x  1)  0 f " ( )  4  0  max .
3
1 f " (1)  4  0  min .
x or x  1
3
1 1 1 3 1 2 1
when x  ; f ( )  ( ) ( ) ( )2
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1
    2  2.185
27 9 3
when x  1; f (1)  (1) 3  (1) 2  (1)  2
 111 2  1
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f (2)  (2)  (2)  (2)  2
3 2

 8  4  2  2
 8
f (2)  (2)  (2)  (2)  2
3 2

 842 2
4
(2,8) is the absolute min.pt
(2,4) is the absolute max.pt

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 Practical Example on Engineering

Maximum Power Transfer

 Consider the circuit in which a non-ideal

voltage source is connected to a load
resistor with resistance x.
 The source voltage is V and its internal
resistance is Rs. Calculate the value of x
which results in the maximum power x
being transferred to the load resistor.

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 Maximum Power Transfer

By Ohm’s law
V  i( Rs  X )
Let y be the power transferred to load resistor
y  i2 x
V 2x
y  f(x)
( Rs  x )2
Now power y is a function of x, Power depends on the value of x, given that
V and Rs are kept constant.
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 Maximum Power Transfer

 To find the maximum power y, we have to find the stationary point. We

differentiate y=f(x) w.r.t. x (load resistance)
V 2x
y  f(x)
( R s  x )2
dx d ( R s  x )2
( Rs  x ) 2
x
dy dx dx
V 2

dx ( R s  x )4
( R s  x )2  2 x( R s  x )
V 2

( R s  x )4
Rs  x
V 2
© VTC 2016 ( R s  x )3
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 Maximum Power Transfer

 Find the stationary point by letting

dy Rs  x
V 2
0
dx ( Rs  x ) 3

 Stationary point is at x=Rs

 The maximum power transferred occurs when the load resistance
matches the internal resistance of the source.
 We can verify if it attends a maximum by first derivative test:
dy Rs  x
V 2
0 when x  Rs
dx ( Rs  x ) 3

dy Rs  x
V 2
0 when x  Rs
© VTC 2016 dx ( Rs  x ) 3
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Tutorial and Exercise for students
 We will demonstrate the following questions:

 Tutorial 6:
 Question 1
 Question 2
 Question 4
 Question 5
 Question 6
 Question 10
 Question 11
 The remaining questions in the tutorial should be done by
students 87
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