Useful Equations for ME2121 (Part 1)

Part 1. Review of Basic Concepts and Properties of Pure Substances

1.1. Properties of Steam:

V
Specific volume: v = [m3/kg] (Eq 1)
m
where V is the absolute volume in m3, and m is the mass in kg

In the two-phase-mixture region,

v= v f + xv fg [m3/kg] where x is the quality of the steam (dryness fraction), and vfg = vg – vf (Eq 2)

u= u f + xu fg [kJ/kg] where x is the quality of the steam (dryness fraction), and ufg = ug – uf (Eq 3)

h= hf + xhfg [kJ/kg] where x is the quality of the steam (dryness fraction), and hfg = hg – hf (Eq 4)

s s f + xs fg [kJ/kg·K] where x is the quality of the steam (dryness fraction), and sfg = sg – sf (Eq 5)
=

1.2. Ideal Gas Equation of State:

PV = mRT = nR0T (Eq 6)

PV PV
1 1
= 2 2 (Eq 7)
T1 T2

where P is the pressure in N/m2, V is the volume in m3,

1.3. Specific Heats:

Cp
γ= (Eq 10)
Cv

C p − Cv =
R (Eq 11)

1.4. Mass Flow Rate of Fluid

 = ρ ⋅ A ⋅ Velocity [kg/s]
m (Eq 12)

1
where ρ = [kg/m3], and v is the specific volume [m3/kg]
v

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 Part 2. 1st Law of Thermodynamics
2.1. The first law of thermodynamics is essentially an expression of conservation of energy principle.
It is commonly expressed as

Ein − Eout =
∆E system [kJ] (Eq 13)

where Ein − E out : net energy transfer by heat, work and mass

∆E system = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE ≈ ∆U : change in internal, kinetic (negligible) and potential (negligible)
energies

2.2. For a closed-system (no mass transfer) and neglecting changes in KE and PE,

Q12 − W12 =U2 − U1 (Eq 14)

For a closed-system undergoing a complete thermodynamic cycle:

∫ Q = ∫ W (Eq 15)

2.2.1 Heat transfer during a certain process:

Q12 mC (T2 − T1 ) (Eq 16)

2.2.2 For ideal gases, change in internal energy during a process (Joule’s Law):

U1 mCv (T2 − T1 ) (Eq 17)

u = CvT (Eq 18)

2.2.3 Work during a process:

For an isothermal process, T = constant, dT = 0, hence PV = constant

2  V2 
W12
= ∫1 PdV PV
= 1 1 ln   (Eq 19)
 V1 

For an isobaric process, P = constant, dP = 0, hence V/T = constant

For an isochoric process, V = constant, dV = 0, hence P/T = constant

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 n −1
T P  n
For a polytropic process, PVn = constant (Eq 22), and 2 =  2  (Eq 23)
T1  P1 

2 PV
1 1 − P2V2
W12
= ∫=
PdV
1 n −1
(Eq 24)

γ −1
T P  γ
For isentropic process (reversible + adiabatic), n = γ and 2 =  2  (Eq 25) and s = constant, ds
T1  P1 
=0

2 PV
1 1 − P2V2
W12
= ∫=
PdV
1 γ −1
(Eq 26)

2.3. 1st Law of Thermodynamics for Flow Processes

For an open-system (with mass transfer across system boundaries) and neglecting changes in KE and
PE,

 C2   C2  dU
Q net in − W net out + ∑ m in  h + + gZ  − ∑ m  out  h + + gZ  =sys (Eq 27)
in  2 in out  2 out dt

For an open-system with steady-flow process (SFEE: Steady-Flow Energy Equation):

 C2   C2 
Qnet in − Wnet out + ∑ min  h + + gZ  − ∑ mout  h + + gZ  =
    0 (Eq 28)
in  2 in out  2 out
For an open-system with transient-flow over a finite time interval (finite mass transfer, e.g.
charging of tank), and neglecting changes in KE and PE,

Qnet in − Wnet out + ∑ min hin − ∑ mout hout = ( m2u2 − m1u1 )sys
∆Usys = (Eq 29)
in out

For ideal gas, change in enthalpy during a process:

H1 mC p (T2 − T1 ) (Eq 30)

h = CpT (Eq 31)

Part 3. 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

3.1. The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is defined as

Wnet out QL
ηth = = 1− (Eq 32)
QH QH

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3.2. The performance of a refrigerator or a heat pump is expressed in terms of coefficient of
performance (COP), which is defined as

QL 1
COPR
= = (Eq 33)
Wnet in QH
−1
QL

QH 1
COP
= = (Eq 34)
Wnet in 1 − QL
HP

QH

3.3. For Carnot cycles:

QH TH
= (Eq 35)
QL TL

Part 4. Entropy

4.1. Entropy change is defined as:

2  dQ 
∆S = S2 − S1 = ∫ 
1  (Eq 36)
T rev

A special case for a constant temperature:

∆Q
∆S = (Eq 37)
To

Clausius inequality:

dQ
∫ T
≤ 0 (Eq 38)

4.2. Entropy change for ideal gases:

 T   v 
S2 − S=
1 m ( s2 − s1=
) m Cv ln 2  + R ln 2   [kJ/K] (Eq 39)
  T1   v1  

  T2   P2  
S2 − S=
1 m ( s2 − s1 )
= m C p ln   − R ln   [kJ/K] (Eq 40)
  T1   P1  

4.3. Entropy balance equation:

4.3.1 For a closed-system, there is no mass transfer across system boundary. Thus, the entropy rate
of change of a closed system is

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 Qk
∑T + Sgen =
∆Ssys (Eq 41)
k

4.3.2 For an open-system, they involve one more mechanism of entropy exchange: mass flow across
system boundary. Thus, the entropy rate of change of an open system is
Qk
∑m s − ∑ mout sout + ∑
in in
Tk
+ Sgen =
∆Ssys (Eq 42)

For an open-system in the rate form:

Q k  dSsys
∑ m s − ∑m
in in
 out sout + ∑
Tk
+ Sgen =
dt
(Eq 43)

For a steady-flow process, the above equation simplifies to

Q k 
∑ m s − ∑m
in in
 out sout + ∑
Tk
0 (Eq 44)
+ Sgen =

4.4. An isolated system:

∆Siso− system = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings = Sgen (Eq 45)

4.5. Gibbs equation:

du = Tds – Pdv (Eq 46)

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