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Useful Equations For ME2121 (Part 1)
Useful Equations For ME2121 (Part 1)
V
Specific volume: v = [m3/kg] (Eq 1)
m
where V is the absolute volume in m3, and m is the mass in kg
v= v f + xv fg [m3/kg] where x is the quality of the steam (dryness fraction), and vfg = vg – vf (Eq 2)
u= u f + xu fg [kJ/kg] where x is the quality of the steam (dryness fraction), and ufg = ug – uf (Eq 3)
h= hf + xhfg [kJ/kg] where x is the quality of the steam (dryness fraction), and hfg = hg – hf (Eq 4)
s s f + xs fg [kJ/kg·K] where x is the quality of the steam (dryness fraction), and sfg = sg – sf (Eq 5)
=
PV PV
1 1
= 2 2 (Eq 7)
T1 T2
Cp
γ= (Eq 10)
Cv
C p − Cv =
R (Eq 11)
= ρ ⋅ A ⋅ Velocity [kg/s]
m (Eq 12)
1
where ρ = [kg/m3], and v is the specific volume [m3/kg]
v
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Part 2. 1st Law of Thermodynamics
2.1. The first law of thermodynamics is essentially an expression of conservation of energy principle.
It is commonly expressed as
Ein − Eout =
∆E system [kJ] (Eq 13)
where Ein − E out : net energy transfer by heat, work and mass
∆E system = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE ≈ ∆U : change in internal, kinetic (negligible) and potential (negligible)
energies
2.2. For a closed-system (no mass transfer) and neglecting changes in KE and PE,
∫ Q = ∫ W (Eq 15)
2.2.2 For ideal gases, change in internal energy during a process (Joule’s Law):
2 V2
W12
= ∫1 PdV PV
= 1 1 ln (Eq 19)
V1
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n −1
T P n
For a polytropic process, PVn = constant (Eq 22), and 2 = 2 (Eq 23)
T1 P1
2 PV
1 1 − P2V2
W12
= ∫=
PdV
1 n −1
(Eq 24)
γ −1
T P γ
For isentropic process (reversible + adiabatic), n = γ and 2 = 2 (Eq 25) and s = constant, ds
T1 P1
=0
2 PV
1 1 − P2V2
W12
= ∫=
PdV
1 γ −1
(Eq 26)
For an open-system (with mass transfer across system boundaries) and neglecting changes in KE and
PE,
C2 C2 dU
Q net in − W net out + ∑ m in h + + gZ − ∑ m out h + + gZ =sys (Eq 27)
in 2 in out 2 out dt
C2 C2
Qnet in − Wnet out + ∑ min h + + gZ − ∑ mout h + + gZ =
0 (Eq 28)
in 2 in out 2 out
For an open-system with transient-flow over a finite time interval (finite mass transfer, e.g.
charging of tank), and neglecting changes in KE and PE,
Qnet in − Wnet out + ∑ min hin − ∑ mout hout = ( m2u2 − m1u1 )sys
∆Usys = (Eq 29)
in out
Wnet out QL
ηth = = 1− (Eq 32)
QH QH
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3.2. The performance of a refrigerator or a heat pump is expressed in terms of coefficient of
performance (COP), which is defined as
QL 1
COPR
= = (Eq 33)
Wnet in QH
−1
QL
QH 1
COP
= = (Eq 34)
Wnet in 1 − QL
HP
QH
QH TH
= (Eq 35)
QL TL
Part 4. Entropy
2 dQ
∆S = S2 − S1 = ∫
1 (Eq 36)
T rev
∆Q
∆S = (Eq 37)
To
Clausius inequality:
dQ
∫ T
≤ 0 (Eq 38)
T v
S2 − S=
1 m ( s2 − s1=
) m Cv ln 2 + R ln 2 [kJ/K] (Eq 39)
T1 v1
T2 P2
S2 − S=
1 m ( s2 − s1 )
= m C p ln − R ln [kJ/K] (Eq 40)
T1 P1
4.3.1 For a closed-system, there is no mass transfer across system boundary. Thus, the entropy rate
of change of a closed system is
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Qk
∑T + Sgen =
∆Ssys (Eq 41)
k
4.3.2 For an open-system, they involve one more mechanism of entropy exchange: mass flow across
system boundary. Thus, the entropy rate of change of an open system is
Qk
∑m s − ∑ mout sout + ∑
in in
Tk
+ Sgen =
∆Ssys (Eq 42)
Q k dSsys
∑ m s − ∑m
in in
out sout + ∑
Tk
+ Sgen =
dt
(Eq 43)
Q k
∑ m s − ∑m
in in
out sout + ∑
Tk
0 (Eq 44)
+ Sgen =
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