Describe the parts of the reproductive system and their functions - each compartment contains 1-4 seminiferous tubules

ferous tubules that

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM converge to form a single straight tubule leading into the rete
- The system involved in sexual reproduction testis
- Male and female reproductive system Seminiferous tubules – 900 of each testis
- Similarities: developed from the same embryological structures, and some - where sperm develop
hormones are commonly found in both male and female, in varying - 125 meters of this tube are packed in the testes
quantities and produce different responses Interstitial cells/ Leydig - produce male sex hormones
- humans depend on reproduction for the survival of the human specie - located between the seminiferous tubules within a
lobule.
Four Functions: (Within the context of producing offspring)
- To produce egg and sperm cells
- To transport and sustain these cells
- To nurture the developing offspring
- To produce hormones
A. Male Reproductive System
Functions:
1. Secretion of the male sex hormones
2. Production of sperm cells
3. Transfer of sperm cells
Parts: Spermatogenesis – process of making sperm cell
1. Scrotum – consist of skin
- It becomes firm and wrinkled in cold temperature reducing the
overall size of the scrotum Spermatogenesis - the process of producing mature sperm
- Where the testes are located
- Hangs loosely outside the body cavity
- Sperm production requires slightly lower temperature than the
human body
2. Testis/ Testes/ Testicles – organ within the scrotum
- provides a temperature about 3° C below normal body
temperature
- this lower temperature is necessary for the production of viable
sperm
- Each about 4-5 cm long
- Composed of cone shaped lobules that contain the seminiferous
tubules in which sperm cells develop
- Each testis contains 250 lobules/ compartments Spermatogonia – stem cells (diploid, sperm-producing cells)
- imbedded in the walls of seminiferous tubules
 - where sperm actually produced B. Prostate Gland – secretes a thick, milky alkaline fluid to counteract
- produced an average of up to 30 million sperm cells/ day the acidic vagina and the urethra and it activates the sperm
- 12.5 million/hour C. Bulbourethral Gland/ Cowper’s Gland – produces lubricating effect
- 208 thousand/ minute - Release alkaline fluid that neutralizes traces of acidic urine
- 3,500/ second int the urethra
- non-motile
- 65-75 days to develop before they go to the lumen of the
seminiferous tubules

3. Epididymis – sperm remain here for about two weeks/ 14 days to

become mature and motile 5. Ejaculatory Duct – connects into the prostate gland and ends by joining
- About 20 feet long the urethra within the prostate gland
- Is tightly coiled series of thread-like tubules that form a comma-
shaped structures on the posterior side of the testes
- Secretions from the duct walls help sperm mature
- The sperm cells continue to mature along this tube and undergo
formation of flagellum to gain the ability to swim
- When a male is sexually aroused sperm cells begin their journey
through the vas deferens
4. Vas Deferens – the wall of this tube is composed of smooth muscles
- The vas deferens emerges from the epididymis and ascends along
the posterior side of the testes to become associated with the
blood vessels and nerves that supply the testes
- Sperm collect fluid along the way
Semen – sperm in combination with the three fluids
A. Seminal Vesicles – secrete a thick fluid that contains nutrients
- Sugar-rich fluid for energy
 6. Urethra – semen is expelled during ejaculation
- Penis is hard, erect and enlarge
- a common pathway for both urine and semen, but this does not
exit the urethra at the same time (there is no mixing)
- nervous system prevents urine from mixing with the semen
during ejaculation
7. Penis – the only accessory organ for reproduction
- Organ for copulation
- Function: transfer of sperm cells from the male to the vagina of the
female
- Composed of erectile tissues
Erection – the engorgement of the erectile tissue with blood causes the
penis to enlarge and become firm

TESTOSTERONE – the male sex hormone secreted by the testes

- This hormone is responsible for the normal development of the
organs of the male reproductive system 2. Midpiece/ Metabolic region
- Brings about the changes experienced during puberty - contains mitochondria that provide adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Secondary Male Characteristics 3. Tail/ Locomotor region
1. Growth of facial, underarm, chest, pubic and body hair - uses a typical flagellum for locomotion
2. Enlargement of voice box and deepening of voice - the sperm are released into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule and
3. Development of the male musculature leave the testes
4. Increased secretion of sweat and oil
5. Responsible for male’s muscular strength SPERMATOGENESIS – the process of forming sperm cells
- Some athletes take steroids that contain testosterone or similar - Takes place within the seminiferous tubules
compounds 1. Spermatogenesis begins in the walls of the seminiferous tubules
- But taking steroids produce harmful effects that may result to 2. The spermatogonia (diploid cells) divide by mitosis and produce more
mental problems spermatogonia
3. Some enlarge ad become primary spermatocytes, which undergo meiosis
PARTS OF THE SPERM CELL and produce gametes (haploid)
1. Head/ Nuclear region 4. Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I, which produces two secondary
- contains the 23 chromosomes surrounded by a nuclear membrane spermatocytes (haploid)
- the tip of the head is covered by an acrosome 5. In meiosis II, each of the two secondary spermatocytes give rise to two
Acrosome spermatids (haploid). Four spermatids are produced from the original
- contains enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the female gamete primary spermatocyte
6. Each spermatid differentiates into mature sperm
 Sertoli Cells – provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells A. Labia Minora & Labia Majora
- Also secrete hormones and other signaling molecules – folds of skin that cover and protect the opening of the female
Leydig Cells – produce testosterone in the presence of Luteinizing reproductive system
Hormone (LH) B. Clitoris – small erectile structure, located in the anterior margin of the
vestibule
2. Vagina
- female organ for copulation
- a muscular canal that receives the sperm during copulation
- Function: to receive the penis during intercourse
- provides lubrication during intercourse
- a passageway for menstrual flow
- a channel through which the baby passes through during childbirth
- Can expand during intercourse and childbirth
Hymen
- a thin mucous membrane that covers the vagina in young females
- it can completely close the vaginal opening, in which case it must be
1. Female removed to allow menstrual flow
Reproductive System - but this can be thorn at some earlier time in young females life
Functions: during a variety of activities or strenuous exercise
1. Production of female sex cells - it is not a reliable indicator of virginity
2. Production of sex hormones 3. Cervix
3. Reception of sperm cells from the male – end of the vaginal canal
4. Nurturing the development of and providing nourishment for the new - It is a sphincter muscle that controls the opening into the uterus
individual 4. Uterus/ Womb
– a hollow muscular organ in which the fertilized egg can develop
- as big as a medium-sized pear
- the uterine cavity continues through the cervix as the cervical canal
- where the fetus is implanted to develop and grow
5. Fallopian Tubes/ Oviducts/ Uterine Tubes
– upper end of the uterus where the mature egg cell and sperm cell meet
- fertilization usually occurs in the part of the uterine tube near the ovary
6. Ovary/ Ovaries – the female gonad that produces egg cell
- about the size of an almond nut suspended in the pelvic cavity by a
ligament
PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Ovarian Follicle – found in the ovary w/c contains oocyte (female germ cell)
1. Vulva/ Vestibule - expand and rupture (when they reach maturity) to release the egg
– are the external structures of the female reproductive system during ovulation
 - the remaining cells of the ruptured follicle transform into Corpus Menstruation
Luteum (glandular structure) after ovulation - occurs because of the interplay between the pituitary gland
Corpus Luteum - a yellowish mass of progesterone-secreting (hypothalamus), ovary, and uterus under the influence or action of the
endocrine tissue different female sex hormones they produce
Female Sex Hormones
- Control ovarian and uterine cycle
- Control the secondary characteristics
1. Development of breast
2. Growth of underarm and pubic hair
3. Rounded body shapes due to widespread layer of fat in abdomen, hips
and thigh
4. Widening of the hips in preparation for childbirth
5. Development of higher pitch voice
- ovarian cycle and uterine cycle
Two Major Cycles of the Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual Cycle 1. Ovarian Cycle
– because of the hormonal changes and the effect they produced 2. Uterine Cycle
- the typical cycle is 28 days
- may start from age 10-13 and continues about 40 years
- consist of two cycles which happens simultaneously
Menarche – first menstrual discharge of blood from the vagina
- signals the beginning of cyclic changes in the ovary
- oocytes that were unripe or untouched are now brought up to
become active A. Ovarian Cycle
Three Phases of the Ovarian Cycle
1. Follicular Phase – days 1-13
- the ovarian follicles mature and get ready to release the egg
2. Ovulation Phase – day 14
- the mature egg is released from one of the ovarian follicles down the
fallopian tube
3. Luteal Phase – days 15-28
- marked after the released of the mature egg
- FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the follicle to transform into
Corpus Luteum, which produces progesterone
 Estrogen
- initiates the regeneration/ thickening of the endometrium
- by day 12, level of estrogen surge into the bloodstream which reach
the hypothalamus resulting in the secretion of GnRH which give signal
to the pituitary gland to secrete LH
- estrogen is secreted as the follicle cells develop

LH
- causes the follicle to bulge and trigger the rupture of the follicle
Ovulation – maturation of follicle which result because of LH and FSH
- at start of the cycle, the pituitary gland secrets increased amount of FHS - the releasing of the matured egg
which allow an ovarian follicle to mature - usually occurs on the 14th day of the cycle
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - the egg is ready for fertilization during ovulation and last for
- secreted in anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (along with the 24 hours from its release
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)) that signals the start of puberty
- stimulates development of ovary and ovarian follicles
- helps follicles to mature
Follicles
- developing follicles consist of immature eggs and cells which
secrete estrogen
- signal an increased level of estrogen level in the blood and the
pituitary gland secrets LH while it matures and multiply
- becomes filled with a fluid containing the hormone estrogen
when the egg reaches maturity
- the rising level of FSH stimulates follicle maturation and estrogen
production B. Uterine Cycle
- most follicles degenerate by day 7 and only one follicle grow and - A series of changes in the uterus as a consequence of the hormones
mature, rupture and discharge out of the ovary while events are taking place in the females’ ovary
- after the ovum has been discharge, the follicle turns into yellow
body called corpus luteum
Corpus Luteum
- the yellow body formation is controlled by the LH
- it produces/ secretes progesterone
Progesterone
- brings about secondary characteristics primarily on the breast
- causes breast enlargement during pregnancy
- maintains thickening (growth of the mucus lining) of the uterus
1. Menstrual Phase
– lasts for about five days
- surface of the endometrium or wall begins to disintegrate and the
blood vessels rupture due to low levels of progesterone
- blood and some accompanying endometrial tissues flow out of the
vagina
2. Proliferative Phase
- lasts for 6-14 days
- endometrium starts to build up due to increasing amount of
estrogen by the developing follicles in the ovary
- formation of Corpus Luteum and secretion of progesterone trigger
the endometrium to double in thickness and prepare itself for
developing embryo
- the uterine glands become mature and produce a thick secretion

3. Secretory Phase
– begins on the 15th day before the onset of the next menstrual phase
- as the Corpus Luteum produces progesterone, this causes the
endometrium to become receptive to implantation of blastocyst
(developing zygote) and supportive of the early pregnancy
- this cycle may be interrupted by stress, health concerns and
pregnancy
MENSTRUATION IN A NUTSHELL 4. The ovary releases an egg on day 14. Now assume that no sperm was
1. The pituitary gland begins the cycle present.
2. The pituitary releases the hormones that cause the egg in the ovary to 5. The egg moves through the oviduct and enters the uterus
mature 6. The uterus continues to thicken
LH- initiates maturation of follicles 7. The egg has not been fertilized, therefore it will not attach to the uterus
- Converts ruptured follicles into the corpus luteum and cause the 8. The thick uterus is no longer necessary, so it begins to break apart. The
secretion of progesterone cells of the thickened uterus break off and leave the vagina. The
FSH- assists in the maturation of the follicles and cause the secretion of unfertilized egg is also lost. Some blood is lost also
estrogen from the follicles 9. After menstruation, the cycle starts again
3. Meanwhile, the ovary releases estrogen
Estrogen – causes changes in the female reproductive system Common Menstrual Problems
- Causes the uterus to increase in thickness 1. Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
- The uterus become thicker so that the fertilized egg can – hormonal events before a period can trigger a range of side effects in
attached to it women at risk, including fluid retention, headaches, fatigue and irritability
- treatment options include exercise and dietary changes
2. Dysmenorrhea (Menstrual Cramp)
– or painful periods
- it is thought that the uterus is prompted by certain hormones
(prostaglandins) to squeeze harder than necessary to dislodge its lining
- treatment options include pain-relieving medication and the oral
contraceptive pill
Conditions that can Cause Cramping
a. Endometriosis
- A condition in which the tissue lining the uterus (the endometrium) is
found outside of the uterus
- because these pieces of tissue bleed during your period, they can
cause swelling, scarring and pain
b.Adenomyosis
- a condition where the lining of the uterus grows into the muscle of
the uterus
- this condition can cause the uterus to get much bigger than it should
be, along with abnormal bleeding and pain
c. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
- an infection caused by bacteria that starts in the uterus and can
spread to other reproductive organs
- PID can cause pain in the stomach or pain during sex
 d.Cervical stenosis
- narrowing of the cervix, or the opening to the uterus. Homeostasis
e. Fibroids (benign tumors) - tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment
- growths on the inside, outside or in the walls of the uterus - maintaining homeostasis at each level is key to maintaining the body's
f. Heavy menstrual bleeding overall function
– if left untreated, this can cause anaemia - the different body systems complement each other to create internal
- treatment options include oral contraceptives and a hormonal balance
intrauterine device (IUD) to regulate the flow 1. body temperature
g. Amenorrhea 2. the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady,
– or absence of menstrual periods along with pH and the concentration of glucose. If these values get too
- this is considered abnormal, except during pre-puberty, pregnancy, high or low, you can end up getting very sick
lactation and postmenopause 3. the stomach maintains a pH that's different from that of surrounding
- possible causes include low or high body weight and excessive exercise organs, and each individual cell maintains ion concentrations different
Describe the feedback mechanisms involved in regulating processes in the female from those of the surrounding fluid
reproductive system (e.g., menstrual cycle)
- homeostasis can be affected by many things
FEEDBACK MECHANISM/ FEEDBACK LOOP
1. toxins in our environment
- the process through which the level of a certain substance influences the
2. food we eat
level of another substance
3. our state of mind
- is the physiological regulatory system in a living body that works to return
4. how healthy we are
the body to the normal internal state or homeostasis
5. the makeup of our DNA
- is the mechanism of the body to maintain the levels of hormones in the
6. the effects of medication and recreational drugs
body in the desired limits
- any of these can affect us at a cellular (receptor, control center, or
- require three components to adjust specific physiological pathways:
effector) level and cause feedback mechanism abnormalities
1. Receptor (sensor)
- the healthier we are, the better our feedback mechanisms work
- receives information and sends this to the control center (https://biologydictionary.net/feedbackmechanism/#:~:text=In%20biology%2C%20a%20feedback%20mechanism,return%20the%20body%20to%20homeostasis)

2. Control center (or evaluator) Negative Feedback Mechanism of the Menstrual Cycle
- processes receptor information and stimulates the effector
3. Effector
- carries out a stimulatory or inhibitory effect according to control
center instructions
 3. Osmoregulation (ADH is secreted to retain water when dehydrated and its
release is inhibited when the body is hydrated)
Two Types of Feedback Mechanism
1. Negative Feedback Mechanism/ Loop
- whenever there is a change in the normal state, the messages are sent to
‘increase’ secretions if there is a fall below normal or to ‘decrease’
secretions if there is a rise above normal to restore the normal body
state
- affects the production of hormones in the menstrual cycle
- high levels of one hormone may inhibit the production of another
hormone
FSH – stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen
- high levels of estrogen prevent more production of FSH
Estrogen – stimulates the release of LH from the pituitary gland
LH- controls the production of progesterone
- high level of progesterone can inhibit the further release of LH 2. Positive Feedback Mechanism
- involves a response that reinforces the change detected (it functions to
amplify the change)
- will continue to amplify the initial change until the stimulus is removed
Examples:
1. Childbirth – stretching of uterine walls cause contractions that further
stretch the walls (this continues until birthing occurs)
2. Lactation – the child feeding stimulates milk production which causes
further feeding (continues until baby stops feeding)
3. Ovulation – the dominant follicle releases estrogen which stimulates LH
and FSH release to promote further follicular growth
4. Blood clotting – platelets release clotting factors which cause more
platelets to aggregate at the site of injury

- involves a response that is the reverse of the change detected (it

functions to reduce the change)
Other examples:
1. Thermoregulation (if body temperature changes, mechanisms are induced
to restore normal levels)
2. Blood sugar regulation (insulin lowers blood glucose when levels are high;
glucagon raises blood glucose when levels are low)
Role of Hormones in Sexual Desire of Females FEEDBACK MECHANISM IN PRODUCTION OF SPERM
Why there should be homeostasis in hormones?
1. Estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone all affect sexual desire and arousal.
- having higher levels of estrogen in the body promotes vaginal lubrication
and increases sexual desire
- increases in progesterone can reduce sexual desire
- there is some debate around how testosterone levels affect female sex
drive
2. When a person breastfeeds, it can lower estrogen levels in the body, which
may prevent ovulation occurring

-
Key Points
• The onset of puberty is signaled by high pulses of GnRH secreted by the
hypothalamus; this in turn signals the release of FSH and LH from the
pituitary gland.
• FSH causes the Sertoli cells of the testes (which help nurse developing
sperm cells) to begin the process of spermatogenesis in the testes.
• LH triggers the production of testosterone from the Leydig cells of the testis;
testosterone causes the development of secondary sex characteristics in the
male.
• As spermatogenesis and testosterone production increase, the Sertoli cells
produce inhibin, which, together with rising levels of testosterone, inhibit
the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland.
OVULATION DAYS: UNSAFE DAYS
Key Terms A negative feedback system occurs in the male with rising levels of
Puberty testosterone acting on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit the
- the age at which a person is first capable of sexual reproduction release of GnRH, FSH, and LH. The Sertoli cells produce the hormone inhibin,
Sertoli cell which is released into the blood when the sperm count is too high. This inhibits
- a kind of sustentacular cell which serves as a “nurse” cell of the testes and the release of GnRH and FSH, which will cause spermatogenesis to slow down.
which is part of a seminiferous tubule If the sperm count reaches 20 million/ml, the Sertoli cells cease the release of
Leydig cell inhibin, allowing the sperm count to increase.
- one of the interstitial cells, located next to the seminiferous tubules inside TESTOSTERONE
the testicle, that produce testosterone - males have 7-8 times more than females
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - primary male sex hormone
- a gonadotropic glycoprotein hormone, secreted in the anterior pituitary, - made in the testis
that stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in female mammals, and - can be converted into
induces spermatogenesis in male mammals 1. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) 2. Estrogen
- a hormone, produced by part of the pituitary gland, that stimulates DNA
ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum in female mammals, - specific part of DNA are genes
and the production of androgens by male mammals - made up of millions of genes
Inhibin - genes are segment of DNA
- a peptide hormone, secreted by the gonads, which inhibits the secretion - testosterone bind into the gene of the DNA
of follicle-stimulating hormone Main Functions of Testosterone
testosterone 1. Make the reproductive organs of males during
- steroid hormone produced primarily in the testes of the male; it is 2. Sperm production
responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics in the 3. Secondary sex characteristics
male Other functions:
At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus begins secreting high pulses 1. Increases or enhance sex drive/ libido/ orgasm
of GnRH, or gonadotropin-releasing hormone. In response, the pituitary gland 2. Influence in bone production
releases follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) into 3. Stabilize mood
the male system for the first time. FSH enters the testes, stimulating the Sertoli 4. May have positive effect on cognition
cells, which help to nourish the sperm cells that the testes produce, to begin Low Testosterone
facilitating spermatogenesis. LH also enters the testes, stimulating the 1. Changes in mood
interstitial cells, called Leydig cells, to make and release testosterone into the 2. Lack of motivation
testes and the blood. 3. Reduced libido
Testosterone, the hormone responsible for the secondary sexual High Level of Testosterone
characteristics that develop in the male during adolescence, stimulates 1. Possible increased risk of prostate cancer
spermatogenesis, or the process of sperm production in the testes. Secondary 2. Male pattern baldness
sex characteristics include a deepening of the voice, the growth of facial, Ways we Reduce Testosterone
axillary, and pubic hair, and the beginnings of the sex drive. 1. Bisphenol A
 - found in polycarbonate plastic (water bottles)
2. Being overweight or obese
- adipose tissue contains aromatase
- converts testosterone into estrogen
- diabetes reduce testosterone levels
3. Reduced sleep
- increases cortisol levels
- lower morning testosterone level
- second half of night more important
4. Dietary factors
- consuming soy foods
- low fat diets
- zinc deficiency
- vitamins E and C deficiency
5. Stress
- increased cortisol level
- increases gonadotropin-inhibiting hormone
- reduced testosterone level
6. Alcohol consumption
- hops in beer are estrogenic
7. Asexuality

10 Ways to Increase Testosterone Levels

1. Avoid use of plastics, drink from glasses or stainless steel
2. Avoid eating soy products
3. Limit consumption of alcohol
4. Avoid drinking beer (vodka instead in limitation)
5. Sleep in dark room at least eight hour p[er night
6. Reduce stress through relaxation
7. Lose weight
8. Increase zinc consumption
9. Increase consumption of healthy fats
10. Have a healthy sexual life
From Fertilization to Birth Embryonic and Fetal Development
1. Egg cell are formed in the ovaries
2. Each month, one ovary releases a mature egg (ovulation)
- the ovaries usually take turns in releasing the eggs
3. Once released from the ovary, the egg moves into the fallopian tube or
oviduct
4. Sperms are released into the vagina, into the uterus, and into the fallopian
tubes.
- if an egg is present, fertilization takes place
- if fertilization does not take place menstruation occurs
5. If fertilization takes palace, the fertilized egg or zygote moves down the
fallopian tube
- the zygote starts to form cleavage and undergo cell division, until it
becomes a 64-cell morula
- a cavity forms within the morula and become a blastocyst
6. The blastocyst then attaches itself to the uterine wall (implantation)
- once attached, it will remain there for nine months as it develops into
baby
Embryonic Stage
- after a blastocyst implants in the uterus around the end of the first week
after fertilization (the internal cell mass embryoblast) is now known as the
embryo
- the embryonic stage is short but developments that occur during this stage
bring about enormous changes in the embryo
- during the embryonic stage, the embryo becomes not only bigger but also
much more complex
The adverse health effects of
bisphenol A and related
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31299621/#:~:text=As%20an%20endocrine%20disruptor%2C%20BPA,and%20mutagenesis%20in%20animal%20models.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial component commonly

used in synthesis of polycarbonate plastics, epoxy resin and other
polymer materials. Due to its mass productions and widespread
applications, the presence of BPA is ubiquitous in the environment.
BPA can enter the body via different ways such as digestive tract,
respiratory tract and dermal tract. As an endocrine disruptor, BPA
has estrogen-like and anti-androgen effects causing damages to
different tissues and organs, including reproductive system,
immune system and neuroendocrine system, etc. Recently, it has
been shown that BPA could induce carcinogenesis and
mutagenesis in animal models. Here, the underlying mechanisms
of BPA-induced multi-organ toxicity were well summarized,
involving the receptor pathways, disruption of neuroendocrine
system, inhibition of enzymes, modulation of immune and
inflammatory responses, as well as genotoxic and epigenetic
mechanisms.