Chemistry Notes Class 9

PENNFOSTER’S NOTES BY MUHAMMAD TARIQ
CHEMISTRY NOTES SSC I

CHAPTER: 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY
Q.1: Define the given terms: matter, substance, element & compound?
Ans: Matter: Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter. E.g. solid, liquid & gas
Substance: Any pure matter which has particular set of characteristics and differs from other
kind of matter called substance. E.g hydrogen, oxygen, water etc
Element: A substance which cannot be converted into another substance is called element.e.g
gold, sodium, copper, hydrogen, eater etc.
Compound: A compound is a pure substance that contains two or more elements with fixed
proportion held through natural forces. E.g. copper sulphate, urea, water, sodium chloride etc.
Q.2: What is a mixture? Explain its types?
Ans: An impure substance that contains two or more pure substances that retain their individual
chemical characteristics is called a mixture.
 A mixture can be converted into two or more pure substances by a physical method.
 A mixture has no uniform composition throughout.
 Examples of mixtures are air, salt + sand brine (Table Salt + water), syrup (sugar + water)
Heterogeneous:-
A mixture that consists of two or more visibly different components is called Heterogeneous
mixture. e.g. oil floating on water, sand + salt.
Homogeneous mixture:-
A mixture that consists of only one phase is called Homogeneous mixture. e.g.
Brine (salt+ water) and syrup (sugar +water).
Q.3: Define the given terms: relative atomic mass & atomic mass unit?
Ans: The mass of an atom of element relative to the mass of carbon 12 is called relative atomic mass.
The mass exactly equal to one twelfth of mass of carbon 12 is called a.m.u.
Q.4: What is atomic number & mass number?
Ans: The total number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number. It is
represented by symbol Z. For example atomic number of hydrogen is 1 while that of oxygen is 8.
The total number of protons & neutrons in the nucleus of atom is called mass number. It is
represented by symbol A. For example mass number of hydrogen is 1 while oxygen is 16
Q.5: Differentiate between emperical formula and molecular formula?
Ans:
Emperical formula Molecular formula
i. A formula that gives the simplest whole i. A formula that gives the actual whole
number ratio of atoms of each element is number ratio of atoms of each element
called emperical formula. present in a compound is called molecular
ii. Many compounds may have same formula.
emperical formula as it shows simplest ii. All compounds have their own molecular
ratio of atoms. formula.
iii. It is for all compounds. iii. It is for Ionic compounds only.
Example:- iv. Example:-
Emperical formula for Benzene (C6H6) & Molecular formula for Benzene is (C6H6)
Acetylene (C2H2) is CH &Acetylence is C2H2.
Q.6: What is corpuscular nature of matter?
Ans: According to Greek philosopher. Empedocles all materials are made up of four elements: i.e.
1. Earth 2. Air 3. Water 4. Fire

Q.7: What was ideal of Aristotle about corpuscular nature of matter?
Ans: Aristotle also believed the concept of four elements. He said that elements can be differentiated
on the basis of properties such as hot versus cold and wet versus dry.
Example:
Water (cold & wet) falls from the sky as rain, when air (Hot & wet) cools down.
Q.8: Which technique Archimedes discovered to cheek the purity of a metal?
Ans: According to Archimedes the loss in weight of an object is equal to the weight of water
overflowed. According to him when equal weight of Testing substance and pure materials are
dipped in water in separate containers than weight of water displaced by substance tells us about
purity or impurity. As every material object has specific mass to volume relationship, so a pure
thing displaces equal weight of water to the weight of pure material & impure material displaces
different masses of water.
Q.9: Write down postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory?
Ans: Main postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are as follows:
i. All elements are composed of tiny idivisible particles called atoms.

ii. All atoms of an element are identical with same mass & same volume.
iii. During chemical reactions atoms combine or separate or re-arrange. They combine in simple
rations.
iv. Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
Q.10: what is the importance of Dalton’s theory?
Ans: Dalton’s atomic theory is important in many ways.
i. It explain quantitative results that scientists of his time had obtained in their experiments.
ii. It explained laws of combinations.
iii. It stimulated the rapid progress of chemistry during nineteenth century.
Q.11: Explain why An oxide ion has −2 charge?
Ans: The nucleus of oxygen has 8 protons and 8 Neutrons. So, Nucleus of oxygen has total charge +8 .
Around the nucleus, in the ion are 10 electrons, with a total charge of −10. The charge on ion is
−2.
Charge on nucleus ¿+ 8
Total Charge on Ion ¿−10
Net Charge on ion ¿−2

Q.12: Explain why magnesium ion mg +2 has +2 charge?
Ans: The nucleus of mg has 12 protons and 12 neutrons. So, total charge on nucleus is +12 while in
ion 10 electrons are present around nucleus. So, total negative charge is −10.
So, charge on ion is +2.
Total charge on ion ¿−10
Net Charge on ion ¿+2
Q.13: Explain why sulphide ion, S−2 has −2 charge?
Ans: The nucleus of S has 16 protons and 16 neutrons is +16. Outside the nucleus, ion has 18
electrons. So, total negative charge is −18.
The charge on ion is −2.
Total charge on nucleus ¿+16 .
Total charge on ion ¿−18.
Net charge on ion ¿−2.
Q.14: What are molecular ions. Write their properties?
Ans: When a molecule loses or gains electrons, the resulting species is called a molecular ion.
Example:-
+¿¿ −¿ ¿
When O2 loses one electron it forms O 2 while it forms O 2 when it gains one electron.
Properties:-
i. Molecular ion is short lived species and only exists at high temperature.
ii. Molecular ions don’t form ionic compounds.
iii. Molecular ions provide a lot of information about nuclei of molecules.
Q.15: Differentiate between free radical and Ion?
Ans:
Free Radical Ion

i. A atom which has an unpaired electron and i. A species that carries either negative or
bears no electrical charge is called free positive charge is called ion.
radical.
ii. It has upaired electrons. ii. It has paired electrons
iii. It has odd number of electrons. iii. It has even number of electrons. −¿ ¿
iv. Do represents a radical Cl ∙ , H ∙ ,CN ∙ are iv. + ve or – ve sign represents ion Cl−¿, H
+ ¿,CN ¿
¿
examples of Free Radical are examples of ions.

Q.16: Differentiate between the terms Gram atomic mass, Gram molecular mass and Gram
formula mass?
Ans:
Gram Atomic Mass Gram Molecular Mass Gram Formula Mass

i. It represents one mole of i. It represents one i. It represents one mole of an ionic
atom of an element. mole of molecules of compound.
a compound or an
element that exists in
molecular state.
ii. It contains 6.022 ×1023 ii. It contains ii. It contains 6.022 ×1023 formula
23
atoms. 6.022 ×10 units.
iii. Atomic mass of an iii. molecules. iii. Formula mass of a substance
element expressed in Molecular mass of when expressed in grams is called
grams is called gram substance when gram formula mass.
atomic mass. expressed in grams is
called gram
iv. Example:- iv. molecular mass. iv. Example:-
Gram atomic mass of ‘C’ Example:- Gram formula mass of NaCl is
is 12g, Gram atomic Gram molecular 58.5g while KCl is 74.5g.
mass of ‘Na’ is 23g. mass of H2O is
18.016 g Gram
molecular mass of
C 16 H 12 O6 is 180.096
g.
Q.17: Who were Alchemists & what was their contribution?
Ans: The followers of psendo. Science (Alchemy) were named Alchemists. The believed that cheaper
metals can be converted to precious ones i.e. Lead into gold. The wasted their time & money but
don’t succeeded. But they discovered processed like distillation, sublimation & extraction etc.
Q.18: What is the importance of Garlic?
Ans: Garlic contains 200 compounds. In humans its use lowers chances of getting stomach cancer,
decreases chances of heart attack and stroke.
Q.19: What is a mole?
Ans: Atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass when expressed in grams is called a mole. The
quantity of a substance that contains 6.022 ×1023 particles is called mole.
Example:-
23 g atoms of Na=1 mole
18 g molecules of H 2 O=1 mole
58.5 g formula units of NaCl=1 mole

Q.20: Differentiate between analytical and environmental chemistry?
Ans:
Analytical Chemistry Environmental Chemistry

The branch of chemistry that deals with the The branch of chemistry that deals with the
methods and instruments for determining chemicals & toxic substances that pollute the
composition of matter is called analytical environment & their adverse effects on humans is
chemistry called environmental chemistry
Q.21: Calculate mass of one mole of

a) Copper b) Iodine c) Potassium d) oxygen?
Ans: a) Mass of 1 mole of Cu=63.5 g
b) Iodine occurs as diatomic molecules, so molecular mass of I 2=127 ×2
¿ 254 amu
Mass of 1 mole of I 2=254 g
c) Mass of 1 mole of K=39 g .
d) Oxygen exists as diatomic molecules, so molecular mass of O2=16 × 2=32 amu
Mass of 1 mole of O2=32 g
Q.22: The molecular formula of a compound is H2O2. Calculate
a) Mass of H2O2 that would contain 2.5 moles.
b) No of moles of H2O2 that would exactly weigh 30g.
Ans: a) Molar mass of H 2 O 2=( 1.008× 2 ) + ( 16 ×2 )
¿ 2.016+32 ¿ 34.016 g
1 mole of H 2 O 2=34.016 g of H 2 O 2
2.5 moles of H 2 O 2=34.016 ×2.5
85.04 g of H 2 O 2
b) 1 mole of H 2 O 2=( 1.008× 2 ) + ( 16 ×2 )
¿ 34.016 g
34.016g of H 2 O 2=1 mole

1
1g of H 2 O 2= moles
34.016
¿ 0.88 moles of H 2 O 2
Q.23: A spoon of NaCl contains 12.5g of this salt. Calculate No of moles it contains?
Ans: Gram formula mass of NaCl ¿ 23+35.5
¿ 58.5 g
58.5g of NaCl = 1 mole of NaCl
1
1g of NaCl ¿ moles
58.5
1
12.5g of NaCl ¿ ×12.5 moles
58.5
Q.24: Calculate mass of one mole of BaSO4?

Ans: Gram formula mass of BaSO 4=137+ 32+ 64
¿ 233 g
1 mole of BaSO 4=233 g of BaSO 4

Q.25: An Aspirin tablet contains 1.25 ×1030 molecules. How many moles of this compound are
present in the tablet?
Ans: 6.022 ×1023 molecules of Aspirin ¿ 1 mole
1
1 molecule of Aspirin ¿ 23 moles
6.022× 10
30
1.25 ×10 molecules of Aspirin =
1 30
¿ 23
×1.25 ×10 moles
6.022× 10
6
¿ 2.07 ×10 moles
Q.26: How many moles of ‘mg’ are present in 1 billion ( 1 ×1 09 ) atoms of magnesium?
Ans: 6.022 ×1023 atoms of mg=1 mole of mg
1
1 atom of mg= moles
6.022 ×1023
1 9
1 ×1 0 atoms of mg= ×1 ×1 0
9
23
6.022 ×10
¿ 1.66 ×10 moles of Mg .
−15
Q.27: What is a mole?

Ans: Atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass when expressed in grams is called a mole. The
quantity of a substance that contains 6.022 ×1023 particles is called mole.
Example:-
23 g atoms of Na=1 mole
18 g molecules of H 2 O=1 mole
58.5 g formula units of NaCl=1 mol
Q.28: what is the No of molecules in 9.0g of steam?

Ans: Molar mass of Steam ( H 2 O )=18 g
18g of steam ¿ 1 mole
1
1g of steam ¿ moles
18
1
9g of steam ¿ × 9 moles
18
¿ 0.5 moles
1 mole of steam contains
No of molecules ¿ 6.022 ×1023
0.5 moles of steam contains
No of molecules ¿ 0.5 ×6.022 ×1023
22
¿ 3.011× 10 Molecules.
Q.29: What are molar masses of uranium−238 & uranium −235?
Ans: Molar mass of uranium−238=238 g
Molar mass of uranium−235=235 g .
Q.30: Why one mole of Hydrogen molecules and hydrogen atoms has different masses?
Ans: 1 mole of Hydrogen molecule represents the gram molecular mass while 1 mole of Hydrogen
atom represents the gram atomic mass.
Gram atomic mass of Hydrogen ¿ 1.008 g
Gram molecular mass of Hydrogen ¿ 2.016 g
So, it is clear that gram atomic mass & gram molecular masses are different.
Q.31: How Avogadro’s number is related to a mole of any substance?

Ans: Avogadro’s number is a huge number 6.022 ×1023 that is used to represent the No. of particles in
one mole of a substance. Mole is a counting unit for atoms, molecules & formula units in any
substance. One mole of any substance (atoms, ions, molecules, formula units) always contains
NA particles.
Q.32: Calculate No of moles of each of given samples?
a) 2.4g of He
b) 250mg of C
c) 15g of NaCl
d) 40g of S
e) 1.5kg of MgO
Ans: a) Mass of He=m=2.4 g
Molar mass of He=m=4 g mo l−1
No. of moles of He=n=?
m
n=
M
2.4 g
¿
4 gmo l −1
¿ 0.6 moles
b) Mass of c=m=250 mg
250
¿ =0.25 g
1000
Molar mass of c=m=12 g mo l−1
No. of moles of c=n=?
m
n=
M
0.25 g
¿ −1
=0.0625 moles
4 g mo l
c) Mass of NaCl=m=15 g
Molar mass of NaCl=M =58.5 g mo l−1
No. of moles of NaCl=n=?
m
n=
M
15 g
¿ −1
=0.25 moles
58.5 g mo l
d) Mass of sulphur ¿ 40 g
Molar mass of sulphur ¿ 32 g mo l−1
No. of moles of sulphur ¿ n=?
m
n=
M
40 g
n= −1 ¿ 1.25 moles
32 g mo l
e) Mass of MgO=1.5 kg
¿ 1.5 ×1000 g
¿ 1500 g
Molar mass of MgO=40 g mo l −1
No. of moles of MgO=n=?
m
n=
M
1500 g
¿ −1
=37.5 moles
40 g mol
Q.33: Calculate the mass in grams of each of the following samples:
a) 1.2 moles of K
b) 75 moles of H2
c) 0.25 moles of steam
d) 1.05 moles of CuSO4.5H2O
e) 0.15 moles of H2SO4
Ans: a) No. of moles of K=1.2 moles
Molar mass of K=39 g mo l−1
Mass of K=?
Mass of K=¿ No. of moles × molar mass
¿ 1.2 ×39 g
¿ 46.8 g
b) No. of moles of H 2=n=75 moles
Molar mass of H 2=M =2.016 g mo l−1
Mass of H 2=m=?
m=n× M
¿ 75 ×2.016 g
¿ 151.2 g
c) No. of moles of steam ¿ n=0.25 moles
Molar mass of steam ¿ M =18 g mol −1
Mass of steam ¿ m=?

m=n× M
¿ 0.25 ×18 g
¿ 4.5 g
d) No. of moles of CuS O 4 .5 H 2 O=1.05 moles
Molar mass of CuS O 4 .5 H 2 O=249.5 g mol −1
Mass of CuS O 4 .5 H 2 O=m=?

m=¿ No. of moles × molar mass
¿ 1.05 ×249.5 g
¿ 261.97 g
e) No. of moles of H 2 S O 4 =n=0.15 moles
Molar mass of H 2 S O4 =M =98 g mo l−1
Mass of H 2 S O4 =m=?
m=n× M
¿ 0.15 ×98 g
¿ 14.7 g
Q.34: Calculate the number of molecules present in each of the following samples:
a) 2.5 moles of carbon dioxide
b) 3.4 moles of ammonia, NH3
c) 1.09 moles of benzene, C6H6
d) 0.01 moles of acetic acid, CH3COOH
Ans: a) No. of moles of C O2=n=2.5 moles
No. of molecules of C O2=?
No. of molecules ¿ n × N A
23
¿ 2.5 ×6.022 ×10
23
¿ 15.05 ×10
¿ 1.505 ×1022 molecules
b) No. of moles of N H 3=n=3.4 moles
No. of molecules of N H 3=?
23
¿ 3.4 × 6.022×10
23
¿ 20.47 ×10
¿ 2.047 ×1022 molecules
c) No. of moles of Benzene ( C 6 H 6 )=n=1.09 moles
No. of molecules of Benzene ¿ ?
23
¿ 1.09 ×6.022 ×10
23
¿ 6.56 ×10 molecules
d) No. of moles of Aceticacid ( C H 3 COOH )=n=0.01 moles
No. of molecules of C H 3 COOH =?
¿ 0.01 ×6.022 ×1023
23
¿ 0.06022 ×10
21
Q.35: Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following samples:
a) 3.4 moles of nitrogen atoms
b) 23g of Na
c) 5g of H atoms
Ans: No. of moles of Nitrogen atom ¿ n=3.4 moles
No. of atoms of N=?
No. of atoms ¿ n × N A
23
¿ 3.4 × 6.022×10
23
¿ 20.47 ×10
22
¿ 2.047 ×10 atoms
b) Mass of Na=m=23 g
Molar mass of Na=M =23 g mo l−1
No. of atoms of Na=?

m
No. of atoms ¿ ×NA
M
23 23
¿ ×6.022 ×10 23
¿ 6.022 ×10 atoms
23
c) Mass of H atom ¿ m=5 g
Molar mass of H – atom ¿ M=1.008 g mo l −1
No. of atoms of ¿ H ?
m
No. of atoms ¿ =N A
M
5 23
¿ ×6.022 ×10
1.008
¿ 2.987 ×1022 atoms

Q.36: Calculate the mass of following:
a) 3.24 ×10 18 atoms of iron
b) 2 ×1010 molecules of nitrogen gas
c) 1 ×1025 molecules of water
d) 3 ×106 atoms of A1
Ans: a) No of atoms of Fe=3.24 ×1018 atoms
Mass of Fe=m=?
Molar mass of Fe=M =56 g mol−1
of atoms × molar
Mass of Fe=¿ No. mass
NA
3.24 ×1018 ×56
¿ g
6.022 ×1023
−5
¿ 30.12× 1 0 g
−6
¿ 3.012× 10 g
b) No. of molecules of N 2=2 ×10 10 molecules
Mass of N 2=m=?
−1
Molar mass of N 2=M =28 g mo l
molecules ×molar
Mass of N 2=¿ No. of mass
NA
2× 1010 ×28
¿ g
6.022× 1023
−13
¿ 9.29 ×10 g
c) No. of molecules of H 2 O=1× 1025 molecules
mass of H 2 O=m=?
Molar mass of H 2 O=M =18 g mol −1
molecules ×molar
Mass of H 2 O=¿ No of mass
NA
25 −1
1×1 0 ×18 g mol
¿ 23
6.022 ×10
2
¿ 2.98 ×1 0 g
d) No. of atoms of Al=3 ×1 06 atoms
mass of Al=m=?
Molar mass of Al=m=27 g mol −1
atoms × molar
Mass of Al=¿ No. of mass
NA
3 ×1 06 × 27
¿
6.022× 1023
¿ 13.45 ×10−17
−18
¿ 1.345 ×10 g
Q.37: What mass of sodium metal contains the same number of atoms as 12g of carbon?
Ans: Mass of e=12 g
Molar mass of c=12 g mol −1
12
No of moles of c=
12
¿ 1 mole
No of atoms in 1 mole of c=6.022×10 23
6.022 ×1023 atoms of sodium ¿ 1 mole
1 mole of sodium ¿ 1 gram atom of Na
¿ 23g
Q.38: Calculate mass of one hydrogen atom in grams?

Ans: 6.022 ×1023 atoms of H=1.008 g of H
1.008
1 atom of H=
6.022 ×1023
−24
¿ 1.67 ×10 g
Q.39: Calculate the number of H – atoms present in 18g of H2O?
Ans: 18g of H2O = 1 mole of H2O
1 mole of H2O contains moles of H2 = 2 moles
No of H – atoms = n × N A
¿ 2 ×6.022 ×1 023
24
¿ 1.2044 ×10
Q.40: Calculate total number of atoms present in 18g of H2O?
Ans: 18g of H2O = 1mole of H2O
1 mole of H2O contains total
Moles of atoms = 3 moles
Total No of atoms = n × N A
23
¿ 3 ×6.022 ×1 0
¿ 1.8066 ×1024 atoms
Q.41: What mass of oxygen contains the same number of molecules as 42g of Nitrogen.
Ans: Mass of Nitrogen = 42g
Molar mass of Nitrogen = 28g mol-1
42
No of moles of Nitrogen =
28
¿ 1.5 moles
No of molecules ¿ n × N A
¿ 1.5 ×6.022 ×1 023
23
¿ 9.03 ×10 molecules of O2=1.5 moles
23
Mass of 1.5 moles of O2=n × M

¿ 1.5 ×32
¿ 48 g
CHAPTER: 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
Q.1: Describe the contribution that Rutherford made to the development of atomic theory?
Ans: RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL:-
In 1911 Rutherford performed an experiment in order to know the arrangement of electrons and
protons in atoms.
RUTHERFORD’S EXPERIMENT:-
Rutherford bombarded a very thin gold foil about 0.00004cm thickness with α – particles.
He used α – particles obtained from the disintegration of polonium. α – Particles are helium
nuclei that are doubly positively charged (He++).
OBSERVATIONS:
Most of these particles passed straight through the foil. Only few particles were slightly
deflected. But one in 1 million was deflected through an angle greater than 90 ° from their
straight paths.
CONCLUSIONS:-
Rutherford drew following conclusions:
1. Since majority of the α – particles passed through the foil undeflected, most of the space
occupied by an atom must be empty.
2. The deflection of a few α – particles through angles greater than 90 ° shows that these
particles are deflected by electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged α – particles
and the positively charged part of atoms.
3. Massive α – particles are not deflected by electrons.
ATOMIC MODEL:-
On the basis of conclusions drawn from these experiments, Rutherford proposed a planetary
model for an atom.
1. An atom is neutral particle.
2. The mass of an atom is concentrated in a very small dense positively charged region. He
named this region as nucleus.
3. A positively charged region is present at the centre of an atom and the electrons are
revolving around the nucleus in circles. These circles are called orbits.
4. The centripetal force due to the revolution of electrons balances the electrostatic force of
attraction between the nucleus and electron.
DEFECTS IN RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL:-
Rutherford’s model of an atom resembles our solar system. It has following defects:
1. Classical physics suggests that electron being charged particle will emit energy continuously
while revolving around the nucleus. Thus the orbit of the revolving electron becomes
smaller and smaller until it would fall into the nucleus. This would collapse the atomic
structure.
2. If revolving electron emits energy continuously it should form a continuous spectrum for an
atom but a line spectrum is obtained.
3. Presence of electrons round the atom cannot be predicted.
4. Laws of motion and gravitation are only applied on heavenly bodies.
Q.2: Explain how Bohr’s atomic theory differed from Rutherford’s atomic theory?
Ans: In 1913 Neil Bohr, proposed a model for an atom that was consistent with
Rutherford’s model. But it also explains the observed line spectrum of the hydrogen atom.
Bohr formulated new explanation and a new theory to remove defects from the Rutherford’s
atomic model.
Main postulates of Bohr’s atomic theory are as follows:
1. The electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus in one of the circular orbits. Each orbit
has a fixed energy. So each orbit is also called energy level.
2. The energy of the electron in an orbit is proportional to its distance from the nucleus. The
farther the electron is from the nucleus, the more energy it has.
3. The electron revolves only in those orbits for which the angular momentum of the electron
h
is an integral multiple of where h is Plank’s constant (its value is 6.626 ×10−34 J . s ).
2π
4. Light is absorbed when an electron jumps to a higher energy orbit and emitted when an
electron falls into a lower energy orbit. Electron present in a particular orbit does not radiate
energy.
5. The energy of the light emitted is exactly equal to the difference between the energies of the
orbits.
∆ E=E2−E 1
Where ∆ E is the energy difference between any two orbits with energies E1 and E2 Figure
2.2 shows Bohr model of the atom.
Q.3: State the importance & uses of Isotopes in science and medicine?
Ans: IMPORTANCE & USES OF ISOTOPES:-
Stable and radioactive isotopes have many applications in science and medicines. Some of these
are as follows:
1. Radioactive iodine – 131 is used as a tracer in diagnosing thyroid problem.

2. Na – 24 is used to trace the flow of blood and detect possible constrictions or obstructions in
the circulatory system.
3. Iodine – 123 is used to image the brain.
4. Cobalt – 60 is commonly used to irradiate cancer cells in the hope of killing or shrinking the
tumors.
5. Carbon – 14 is used to trace the path of carbon in photosynthesis.
6. Radioactive isotopes are used to determine the molecular structure e.g. sulphur – 35 has
−2
been used in the structure determination of thiosulphate, S2 O 3 ion.
7. Radioactive isotopes are also used to study the mechanism of chemical reactions.
8. Radioactive isotopes are used to date rocks, soils, archaeological objects, and mummies.
9. Carbon – 14 is used to estimate the age of carbon – containing substances.
10. Carbon atoms circulate between the oceans and living organism at a rate very much faster
than they decay. As a result the concentration of C – 14 in all living things keep on
increasing. After death organisms no longer pick up C – 14. By comparing the activity of a
sample of skull or jaw bones, with the activity of living tissues. We can estimate how long it
has been since the organism died. This process is called dating.
Q.4: How testing prevailing theories bring about changes in them?
Ans: Dalton’s atomic theory explained data from many experiments. So it was widely accepted.
Discovery of sub-atomic particles and isotopes proved that some of the Dalton’s ideas about
atoms are not correct. Scientists did not discard his theory. Instead, they revised the theory to
take into account new discoveries. This shows how testing prevailing theories bring about
changes in them.
Q.5: How experimental results of some scientists help chemists to formulate new theories &
new explanation?
Ans: Rutherford was the first scientists who proposed first atomic model of an atom. He suggested
that all of the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
The remaining volume of the atom is occupied by electrons that revolve around the nucleus in
circles called orbits. These suggestions remained unchallenged. But his model could not explain
the stability of an atom and line spectrum for an atom. Bohr leaped over difficulty by using
Quantum Theory of Radiation that was proposed by Max Plank. Bohr proposed that an electron
moves around the nucleus in well defined circular paths called orbits. An orbit has fixed energy.
Electron present in an orbit does not emit energy. Bohr atomic theory explains nicely the
stability of an atom and also explains why an atom gives line spectrum. Development of Bohr’s
atomic model explains how interpretations of experimental results of other scientists help
chemists to formulate new explanations and new theories.
Q.6: Describe the presence of sub shells in a shell?

Ans: SUB – SHELLS:-
A shell or energy level is sub divided into sub-shells or sub-energy levels. N value of a shell is
placed before the symbol for a sub-shell. For instance
n=1 , for K shell. It has only one sub-shell which as represented by 1s. For L shell
n=2 , L shell has two sub-shells, these are designated as 2s and 2p. For M shell
n=3 So M shell has 3 sub-shells called 3s, 3p and 3d. while N shell has 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f sub-
shells.
s sub-shell can accommodate maximum 2 electrons.
p sub-shell can accommodate maximum 6 electrons.
f sub-shell can accommodate maximum 14 electrons.
The increasing order of energy of the sub-shells belonging to different shells is given below.
1 s <2 s< 2 p , 3 s< 3 p< 4 s<3 d … …
The arrangement of electrons in sub-shells is called as the electronic configuration. We can

fill the electrons present in various elements by using Auf Bau Principle. According to this
principle, electrons fill the lowest energy sub-shell that is available first. This means
electron will fill first 1s, then 2s, then 2p and so on.
Q.7: The atomic number of an element is 23 and its mass number is 56.
a) How many protons and electrons does an atom of this element have?
b) How many neutrons does this atom have?
Ans: a) As atom number (Z) is 23, so it shows No. of protoms and No. of protons and electrons is same
in neutral element so,
No. of protons = 23
No. of electrons = 23
b) No. of neutrons is calculated by the formula
No. of neutrons = mass number-Atomic number
N= A−Z
Atomic mass = A = 56
Atomic number = Z = 23
No. of neutrons = N = A – Z
¿ 56−23
¿ 33
Q.8: The atomic symbol of aluminum is written as 27

13 Al . What information do you get from it?
27
Ans: From the given symbol 13 Al
Atomic mass = A = 27
Atomic number = Z = 13
No. of protons = P = 13
No. of Electrons = E = 13
No. of neutrons = A – Z
¿ 27−13
¿ 14
Q.9: Write electronic configuration for the following elements:

28
a) 14 Si
24
b) 12 Mg
27
c) 13 Al
40
d) 18 Ar
28 2 2 6 2 2
Ans: a) 14 Si =1 s , 2 s , 2 p , 3 s ,3 p
24 2 2 6 2
b) 12 Mg =1 s , 2 s , 2 p ,3 s
27 2 2 6 2 1
c) 13 Al =1 s , 2 s , 2 p , 3 s 3 p
40 2 2 6 2 6
d) 18 Ar =1 s , 2 s , 2 p , 3 s ,3 p
Q.10: Draw Bohr’s Model for the following atoms indicating the location for electron, protons
and neutrons:
a) Potassium (Atomic No. 19, Mass No. 39)

b) Silicon (Atomic No. 14 Mass No. 28)
c) Argon (Atomic No. 18 Mass No. 39)
Ans:
a) 39
19 K b) 28
14 Si
c) 40
18 Ar
Q.11: Which orbital in each of the following pairs is lower in energy?
a) 2 s ,2 p
b) 3 p ,2 p
c) 3 s , 4 s
Ans: ∴ Increasing order of energy of orbitals is as follows:
s< p<d < d
∴ For same orbitals, the orbital with lower value of ‘n’ has low energy
a) 2 s has lower value of energy than 2 p

b) 2 p has lower energy than 3 p , as ‘n’ value of 2 p is less.
c) 3 s have lower energy than 4 s , as ‘n’ value of 3 s is less.
Q.12: The electronic configurations listed are incorrect. Explain what mistake has been made in
each and rite correct electronic configurations.
x=1 s 2 2 s2 2 p4 3 p2
y=1 s2 2 s1 2 p1
z=1 s 2 2 s2 2 p5 3 s 1
Ans: Electrons are filled in the orbitals according to Aufbau principle which states that electrons
enter in the low energy orbit first. The increasing order of energy of orbits is
1 s <2 s< 2 p<3 s<3 p< 4 s <3 d … … … …. .
2 2 4 2
x=1 s 2 s 2 p 3 p
Order as well as filling of electrons is not according Aufbau principle. Correct electronic
configuration is
2 2 6
x=1 s ,2 s ,2 p
2 1 1
y=1 s 2 s 2 p
Orders correct but filling of electrons not obeys aufbau principle correct electronic
configuration is
2 2
y=1 s 2 s
2 2 5 1
z=1 s 2 s 2 p 3 s
Order is correct but filling of electrons is not according to aufbau principle.
Correct electronic configuration is

2 2 6
z=1 s 2 s 2 p
Q.13: Give short answers:
i. Distinguish between shell and sub-shell
ii. An atom is electrically neutral, why?
iii. How many sub-shells are there in N shell.
iv. Give notation for sub-shells of M shell.
v. List the sub-shells of M Shell in order of increasing energy
vi. Can you identify an atom without knowing number of neutrons in it.
Ans.i:
Shell Sub-shell
i. The circular paths around the nucleus i. The sub-energy level in a shell is called sub
where electrons revolve are called shells shell.
or orbits.
ii. Each shell is described by an ‘n’ value. ii. It is described by ‘l’ value
iii. When iii. When
n = 1, it is K-shell l = 0, it is ‘s’ sub shell
n = 2, it is L-shell l = 1, it is ‘p’ sub shell
n = 3, it is m-shell l = 2, it is ‘d’ sub shell
n = 4, it is N-shell l = 3, it is ‘f’ sub shell
iv. Shell represents a circular pathway for the iv. a sub shell represents three dimensional
movement of electrons pathway for electrons.
Ans.ii: Positively charged protons are present in the nucleus while negatively charged electrons are
present round the nucleus. Total No. of protons in the nucleus is always equals to No. of
electrons round the nucleus, so they cancel their effects. The centripetal force due to revolution
of electrons balances the electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus and electrons. So,
atom is electrically neutral.
Ans.iii:The number of sub-shells in a shell depends upon its principal Quantum number value. The ‘n’
value for N-shell is ‘4’ so it has four sub shells i.e. 4 s , 4 p , 4 d ∧4 f
Ans.iv:The ‘n’ value for m-shell is ‘3’ so it has three sub shells i.e. 3 s ,3 p∧3 d .
Ans.v: 3 s <3 p<3 d
Ans.vi:An atom is identified on the basis of its No. of neutrons because in Isotopes different atoms
have same atomic number but neutron number is different for different atoms so, without
knowing No. of neutrons an atom can’t be identified.
Q.14: Write the electronic configuration of following Isotopes
a) 146C b) 35
17 Cl c) 37
17 Cl
14 2 2 2
Ans: a) 6C =1 s , 2 s , 2 p
35 2 2 6 2 5
b) 17Cl =1 s , 2 s , 2 p , 3 s ,3 p
37 2 2 6 2 5
c) 17Cl =1 s , 2 s , 2 p , 3 s ,3 p
Q.15: What is dating?
Ans: Carbon atom circulates between oceans and living organisms at a rate much faster then they
decay. As a result C – 14 in all living things keeps on increasing. After death organisms no
longer pick up C – 14. By comparing the activity of sample skull and Jaw bones with the
activity of living tissues, we can estimate how long it has been since the organism died. This
process is called.
Q.16: How do light / ordinary water differs from heavy water?
Ans:
Light water Heavy water

i. Water formed by the combination of light i. Water formed by the combination of
Isotope of Hydrogen protium & oxygen is Heavy Isotope of Hydrogen deuterium and
called light water. oxygen is called heavy water.
ii. Its formula is H2O. ii. Its formula is D2O.
iii. Its m.p is 0 ℃ while b.p is100 ℃ iii. Its m.p is 3.81 ℃ while b.p is 101.2℃ .
iv. Its density at 25 ℃ is 0.99701 g cm−3 iv. Its density at 25 ℃ is 1.1044 g cm−3.
Q.17: M-24 is a radioactive isotope used to diagnose restricted blood circulation, for example in
legs. How many electrons, protons and neutrons are there in this isotope. Valence shell
electronic configuration of M is 3 s 1.
Ans: As valence shell electronic configuration of elements is 3 s 1 so, atomic number of M-24 is ‘11’.
No. of electrons of M-24 = 11
No. of protons of M-24 = 11
No. of neutrons of M-24 = 13

35 37
Q.18: Two isotopes of chlorine are 17Cl and 17Cl. How do these isotopes differ? How are they
alike?
Ans: Similarities differences between 35 37

17 Cl & 17 Cl
a) Both isotopes have same number of protons.

b) Both isotopes have same atomic number.
c) Both isotopes have same number of electrons.
d) Both have different number of neutrons.
e) Both have different No. of nucleons / Atomic mass.
Q.19: How many electrons can be placed in all of the sub-Shells in the n = 2 shell?
Ans: When value of principle Quantum number (n = 2) then it is L-shell & it has two values for
Azimuthal Quantum number (l = 0, 1) so it has two sub-shells, s & p. when l = 0, it is s-subshell
& has two electrons when l = 1, it is p-subshell & has six electrons.
Q.20: Mass number of an atom indicates total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Can you identify an atom without any neutron?
Ans: An atom which contains No. neutron is Hydrogen – 1(protium). It is an abundant Isotopes of
Hydrogen. It is colourless & tasteless gas. It is insoluble in water & highly inflammable gas. Its
symbol is 11 H .
Q.21: Naturally occurring nitrogen has two isotopes N-14 and N-15 which isotope has greater
number of electrons.
Ans: Both N-14 & N-15 are the Isotopes of Nitrogen. Isotopes have same atomic number, so will
have same number of electrons & protons. Both N-14 & N-15 will have 7 electrons each.
Q.22: How do 238

92U decays.
238
Ans: U decays into Thorium -234 & an ∝−¿ particle is also released.
92
238 234
U
92 90 U + 42He
CHAPTER: 3
PERIODIC TABLE & PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES
Q.1: Explain periods in the periodic table?
Ans: PERIODS :-
1. The horizontal rows of the periodic table are called periods.
2. There is varying number of elements in periods.
3. There are seven periods in the periodic table.
4. The number of elements per period range from 2 in First period to 32 in sixth periods.
5. First three period in periodic table are called short periods and the remaining periods are
called long periods.
6. The properties of the elements within a period change gradually as you move from left to
right in it.
7. When you move from one period to the next, the pattern of properties within a period
repeats which is accordance to the periodic law.
Q.2: Explain groups in the periodic table?
GROUPS :-
1. Elements that have similar properties lie in the same column in the periodic table.
2. Each vertical column of elements in the periodic table is called a group or family.
3. Elements with similar valance shell electronic configuration are placed are placed in the
same group.
4. Each group is identified by a number and the letter A or B. GroupA elements are called
normal or representative elements. They are also called main group elements Group B
elements are called transition elements.
5. Some groups of elements in the periodic table have been given group names. For example
metallic elements in Group 1A are called alkali metals. Group IIA elements are called the
alkaline earth metals. The elements in Group VIIA are the halogens. The Group VIIIA
elements are called noble gases because they do not readily undergo chemical reactions.
Q.3: Explain s & p-block elements in the periodic table?
Ans: s and p BLOCKS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE:-
On the basis of valence sub shell, elements in the periodic table can also be classified into four
blocks. Elements of Group IA and Group IIA contain their valence electrons in s sub-shell.
Therefore, these elements are called s-block elements. The elements of Group IIIA to VIIIA
(except He) are known as p-block elements, because their valence electrons lie in p sub-shell.
Q.4: What is shielding effect? Write down its trend in the periodic table?
Ans: Definition:
The reduction in force of attraction between nucleus and the valence electrons by the electrons
present in the inner sub-shells is called shielding effect.
Trend in Group:
As you move from top to bottom in a group the number of electronic shells increases. So the
number of electrons in the inner shells also increases. As a result shielding effect increase.
Trend in Period:
As you move from left to right in a period the number of electrons in the inner shells remains
constant. Therefore, shielding effect remains constant.
Q.5: What is atomic size? Write down its trend in periodic table?
Ans: ATOMIC SIZE:-
The size of an atom is the average distance between the nucleus of an atom and the outer
electronic shell.
Trend in Period:
The atomic radius decreases in any given period as you move across the period. This is because
as you move from one element to the next on its right in a period another electron is added to
the same valence shell. At the same time positive charge on the nucleus also increases by 1. The
attractive force of the nucleus for the valence shell electron increases. Therefore, the shell size
and atomic radius decreases.
Trend in Group:
The atomic radius increases in any given main group as you move down the group of elements.
This is because the size of an atom is determined by the size of its valence shell. As you move
to the next lower element in the group, the atom has an additional hell of electrons. This
increases atomic radius.
Q.6: What is Ionization Energy? Which trend it shows in the periodic table?
Ans: Ionization Energy:
“Ionization energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove the
outermost electron from an isolated gaseous atom”.
Ionization energy is a measure of the extent to which the nucleus attracts the outermost electron.
A high value of ionization energy means stronger attraction between the nucleus and the
outermost electron. Whereas a low ionization energy indicates a weaker force of attraction
between the nucleus and the outermost electron.
Trend in Group:
The ionization energy value decreases from top to bottom in a group. This is because the
shielding effect in atoms increases as you descend. Greater shielding effects results in a weaker
attraction of the nucleus for the valence electrons. So, they are easier to remove. This leads to
decrease in ionization energy from top to bottom in a group.
Trend in Period:
As you move from left to right in a period, the shielding effect remains constant. But
progressively nuclear charge increases. A stronger force of attraction between nucleus and the
valence electron increases. This leads to increase ionization energy from left to right in a period.
Q.7: What is Electron Affinity? Which trend it shows in the periodic table?
Ans: ELECTRON AFFINITY:-
Electron affinity is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron adds up in the
valence shell of an isolated atom to form a uninegative gaseous ion.
Trend in Period:
As you move from left to right across a period, the electron affinity generally increases. This is
due increase in nuclear charge and decrease in atomic radius, which binds the extra electron
more tightly to the nucleus. But shielding effect remains constant in each period. Therefore,
alkali metals have lowest and halogens have the highest electron affinities in each period.
Trend in Group:
The electron affinity decreases from top to bottom in a group. This is due to increase in
shielding effect. Due to increase in shielding effect added electron binds less tightly to the
nucleus. As a result less energy is released.
Q.8: What is Electronegativity?
Ans: ELECTRONEGATIVITY:
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the electrons towards itself in a chemical
bond. The American chemist Linus Pauling devised a method for calculating relative
electronegativities of elements. On this scale Fluorine has maximum E.N 4.00while Cs &Fr has
minimum E.N. 0.7
Q.9: Give short answer:
i. Write the valence shell electronic configuration of an element present in the 3rd period and
Group IIIA.
ii. Write two ways in which isotopes of an element differ.
iii. Which atom has higher shielding effect, Li or Na?
iv. Explain why, Na has higher ionization energy than K?
v. Alkali metals belong to S-block in the periodic table, why?
Ans:
i. ns2 np1
ii. a) Isotopes have different No. of neutrons.
b) Isotopes have different atomic masses.
c) Isotopes have different physical properties.
iii. Shielding effect increasing down the group. Li & Na belong to group IA. Na is below to Li in
the group so, it has higher shielding effect.
iv. Ionization energy decreases down the group. Na is above K in group IA. Na has less shielding
effect, more charge density & more nuclear pull, so it has more ionization energy than K.
v. Alkali metals have valence sub-shell‘s’ so Alkali metals belong to s-block of periodic table.
Q.10: Arrange the elements in each of the following groups in order of increasing ionization
energy:
a) Li, Na, K b) Cl, Br, I
Ans: a) K <Na<Li b) I < Br <Cl
Q.11: Arrange the elements in each of the following in order of decreasing shielding effect.
a) Li, Na, K b) Cl, Br, I c) Cl, Br
Ans: a) K >Na>Li b) I > Br >Cl c) Br>Cl
Q.12: Specify which of the following elements you would expect to have the greatest electron
affinity.
S, P, Cl
Ans: Out of S, P, Cl, the element ‘Cl’ has highest electron affinity because it is towards right in
period No. 3. As left to shielding effect remains same, charge density & nuclear pull increases
so electron Affinity increases.
Q.14: Write the valence shell electronic configuration for the following groups:
a) Alkali metals b) alkaline earth metals
c) Halogens c) Noble gases
Ans: a) n s1 b) n s2 c) n s2 , n p5 d) n s2 , n p6
Q.15: Write electron dot symbols for an atom of the following elements:
a) Be b) K c) N d) I
Ans: a) 49Be
b) 39
19 K
c) 147 N
d) I 53
Q.17: Imagine you are standing on the top of Neon-20 nucleus. How many kinds of sub-atomic
particles you would see looking down into the nucleus and those you would see looking out
from the nucleus.
Ans: Inside the nucleus there would be nucleons (proton & neutrons) while outside the nucleus there
would be electrons revolving in orbits.
Q.18: Chlorine is a reactive element used to disinfect swimming pools. It is made up of two
isotopes Cl-35 and Cl-37. Because Cl-35 is more than Cl-37, the atomic mass of chlorine is
35.5amu. is closer to 35 than 37. Write electronic configuration of each isotope of chlorine.
Also write symbol for these isotopes (atomic number for chlorine is 17).
Ans: Since atomic number for Cl-35 & Cl-37 is same, so both have same electronic configuration i.e.
1 s 2 , 2 s 2 , 2 p 6 ,3 s2 , 3 p5
Symbols for Isotopes
35 37
17 Cl , 17 Cl
Q.20: What types of elements have the highest ionization energies and what types of elements
have the lowest ionization energies.
Ans: Elements with poor shielding effect, highest charge density and nuclear pull possess highest
Ionization energy.
Element with maximum shielding effect, least charge density & nuclear pull possess lowest
Ionization energy values.
Q.21: Two atoms have electronic configuration 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6and 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 1. The ionization

energy of one is 20801KJ/mole and that of the other is 496KJ/mole. Match each ionization
energy with one of the given electronic configuration. Give reason for your choice.
Ans: Element with electronic configuration 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 , 2 p 6 has valence shell complete and belongs to
noble gases. It is present to extreme right in the second period. It show maximum charge density
and maximum nuclear pull, so it is difficult to remove electron for valence shell. It has
maximum ionization energy 20801KJ mol-1. Element with electronic configuration
1 s 2 , 2 s 2 , 2 p 6 ,3 s1 has one electron in its valence sub shell. It has maximum shielding effect,
least nuclear pull, so, least energy is required to remove valence electron. This element shows
least Ionization energy 496KJ mol-1.
Q.23: In what region of the periodic table you will find elements with relatively
a) High ionization energies
b) Low ionization energies
Ans: As Ionization energy increase left to right in a period, so, elements in p-block will possess high
Ionization energies. Halogens & noble gases are electronegative elements with Ionization
energies. As Ionization energy decreases top to bottom in a group, so elements in s-block will
possess low Ionization energies. Alkali &Aakaline earth metals have low values of Ionization
energies.
CHAPTER: 4
Chapter: 4:
STRUCTURE OF MOLECULES
i. Explain formation of covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms.
ii. How does Al form cation?
iii. How does O from anion?
iv. Draw electron cross and dot structure for H2O molecule.
Ans:i. Nitrogen belongs to group VA, so it has five valence electrons. It needs three more electrons to
attain electronic configuration of noble gas. Each nitrogen atom contributes three electrons to
form triple covalent bond.
ii. Aluminium belongs to Group IIIA, so it has three valence electrons. It looses three electrons to
attain electronic configuration of noble gas. By loosing three electrons it forms A l +3 ion.
iii. Oxygen belongs to Group VIA, so it contains six valence electrons. It gains two electrons to
attain electronic configuration of noble gas. By gaining two electrons it form O−2 ion.
iv. H2O
‘O’ have six valence electrons while each hydrogen has one valence electron . Oxygen
atom needs two electrons to complete while each hydrogen needs one electron to complete
duplet. Oxygen is central atom & will form two single covalent bonds with H – atoms.
Q.2: Explain how elements attain stability?

Ans: Elements attain stability by loosing or gaining electrons. By loosing or gaining electrons
elements attain electronic configuration of noble gases. In this way elements gain stability.
Elements also get stability by sharing electrons.
Q.3: Describe the ways in which bonds may be formed?
Ans: When atoms of elements come close to each other & attractive forces dominate on repulsive
forces then bond will be formed. There are four ways of bond formation.
i. When metal atom looses electron to form cation & non-metal atom gains electron to form
anion, then electrostatic forces held ions & ionic bond will form.
ii. When atoms mutually share electrons then covalent bond will form.
iii. When atom share electrons but shared pair is provided by one atom then coordinate covalent
bond will form.
iv. When metal atoms loose electron & these electrons are held by metal ion, then metallic bond
will form.
Q.4: Describe the formation of covalent bond between two non-metallic elements.
Ans: Non-metals have high ionization energies; therefore, they do not lose electrons. Non-metal atoms
tend to share electrons among themselves or with other non-metal atoms to form a chemical
bond called covalent bond. A covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of electrons between
two atoms.
Consider the formation of covalent bond in hydrogen molecule. A hydrogen atom has a single
valence electron. Two hydrogen atoms share their valence electrons to form a diatomic molecule.
In the formation of this molecule, each hydrogen atom achieves the electron configuration of the
noble gas, helium which has two valence electrons. An electron pair in the region between the
two atoms is attracted to both hydrogen nuclei. This means it is a more stable situation than that
exists in separate atoms. Because of this stability two atoms form a covalent bond.
We can represent the formation of a covalent bond between two atoms using electron-dot and
electron-cross symbols for the atoms and the resulting molecule. As already discussed that
valence electrons are represented by dots. Just to understand sharing, we represent valence
electrons in one atom by dots and in the other atom by crosses. However, remember that all the
electrons are identical and cannot be differentiated. A shared pair of electrons is also represented
by a dash ( – ) in a molecule.
Q.5: Explain with examples single, double and triple covalent bond.
Ans: SINGLE COVALENT BOND:
A bond formed by mutual sharing of one electron pair is called single covalent bond.
Consider the formation of a bond between two fluorine atoms. Fluorine belongs to Group VIIA,
so it has seven electrons in the valence shell. It needs one more electron to attain the electron
configuration of a noble gas. Thus two F-atoms share an electron pair and achieve electron
configuration of Ne. for sharing each F-atom contributes one electron to complete the octet.
Pairs of valence electrons which are not shared between atoms are called unshared pairs or
lone pairs. Covalent bond that is formed by the sharing of one electron pair is called single
covalent bond. So H2 and F2 molecules contain a single covalent bond.
DOUBLE COVALENT BOND:
Double covalent bonds are the bonds that are formed by sharing of two electron pairs. Triple
covalent bonds are the bonds that involve three shared pairs of electrons.
Consider the formation of O2 molecule. Oxygen is in Group VIA, so it has 6 electrons in
the valence shell. It needs two electrons to complete its octet. So for sharing each O-atom
contributes two electrons.
TRIPLE COVALENT BOND:

A bond formed by mutual sharing of three electron pairs is called triple covalent bond.
Consider formation of N2 molecule. Nitrogen belongs to Group VA, so it has 5 electrons
in valence shell. It needs three electrons to complete its octet. So for sharing each N-atom
contributes three electrons.
Q.6: Represent the formation of cations for the following metal atoms using electron dot
structures.
a) Al b) Sr c) Ba
27
Ans: a) 13 Al
87
b) 38 Sr
c) 137
56 Ba
Q.7: Describe the formation of anions for the following non-metal atoms:
a) P b) Br c) H
Ans: a) P15
b) Br35
C) H=1
Q.8: Represent the formation of cations for the following metal atoms using electron dot
structures.
a) Mg b) Li c) Be
Ans: a) 24
12 Mg
b) 73 Li
c) 49Be
Q.9: For each of the following pairs of atoms, use electron dot and electron cross structures to
write the equation for the formation of ionic compound.
a) K and Cl b) Ca and S c) Al and N
19 17
Ans: a) K and C l
b) Ca∧S
c) 27 14
13 Al & 7 N
Q.10: Recognize the given compounds as having ionic bonds?
a) MgCl2 b) KBr c) NaI
Ans: a) MgCl2
Magnesium is a metal & looses two electrons to form Mg+2 ion. Chlorine is a non-metal & has
seven valence electrons, so need one electron to complete valence shell. One Mg atom looses
two electrons & two Cl. Atoms gain one electron each to form Cl-1 & complete their octets. As
bond is formed by loss & gain of electrons. So, MgCl2 has ionic bond.
b) KBr
K – is a metal & has one valance electron. K – looses one electron to form K+1 – ion. Bromine is
non-metal & has seven valence electrons needs one electron to complete octet. Br-atoms gains
one electron to form Br-1 – ion. As bond between K & Br is due to transfer of electrons so, KBr
his bond
c) Na I
Na-is a metal & has one valence electron. Na looses one electron to form Na+1-ion. Iodine is non-
metal & has seven valence electrons. ‘I’ gains one electron to form I-1-ion. Both Na & I have
electrostatic forces so bond is ionic.
Q.11: An atom of an element has atomic number 9 and mass number 19.
a) State the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of this atom.
b) State the number of electrons in this atom.
c) Show with electron cross-dot diagrams, the formation of ions in the reaction of this atom
with sodium atom.
Ans: a) 199 M
The No. of protons in atom ‘M’ is ‘9’ while No. of neutrons is ‘10’.
b) The number of electrons in that atom will be 9.
23 19
c) 11 Na ∧ 9M
Q.12: Recognize the following compounds as having ionic bonds.
a) MgCl2 b) KBr c) NaI
Ans: Synthetic adhesives such as glues and epoxy resins are used in large scale industrial applications
glues are less costly than synthetic adhesives. Glues are extensively used as an adhesive for
veneer, plywood, corrugated cartons and laminated boards. Glues for glass and metal are also
available. Epoxy resins are used where water resistance is required. They form strong and tough
coating. They also give flexibility and chemical resistance. For these reasons, dams, bridges,
thermal power stations are coated with epoxy resins. Modern air craft and automobile use epoxy
resin adhesives for assembling, saving money and reducing weight. Hence there is a need for
more adhesives.
Q.13: Magnesium oxide is a compound made up of magnesium ions and oxide ions.
a) What is the charge on these ions?

b) How these ions get these charges.
c) Show with electron cross-dot diagrams the formation of these ions.
Ans: a) Magnesium ion Mg+2 has +2 charge while oxide ion ( O−2 ) has -2 charge.
b) Mg is a metal & contains two valence electrons. It loses two electrons to attain electronic
configuration of noble gases. so losing two electrons it forms Mg+2 ion. Oxygen is non-metal &
contains six valence electrons. It gain two electrons to form O-2 – ion.
c)
Q.14: The diagrams below show the electronic structures of an atom of calcium and an atom of
oxygen.
Draw structures of the ions that are formed when these atoms react.
Ans:
Q.15: Draw electron cross and dot structure for the following molecules:
a) COCl2 a poisonous gas called phosgene that has been used in World War-II.
b) HOCl, hyphochlorous acid is unstable, decomposes to liberate atomic oxygen that makes
HOCl a strong oxidizing agent.
Ans: a)
b)
Q.16: The following figure shows the electron dot and cross diagram of molecule AB2. Which of
the elements could be A and B?
Ans: ‘A’ contains six valence electrons, so it may be the member of Group VIA. B contains seven
valence electrons, so it may be the member of Group VIA.
Q.17: What is the total number of shared electrons in a molecule of CO2?

Ans: Carbon contains four valence electrons, so it use four electrons for binding. Oxygen contains six
valence electrons so it uses two binding electrons. In CO2, carbon forms two double covalent
bonds with two oxygen atom so total shared electrons are 8.
Q.18: Describe the formation of cations for the following metal atoms:
a) Li (atomic no 3)
b) Al (atomic no. 13)
Solution:-
a) Formation of Li +¿¿ ion:
b) Formation of Al+3 ion:
Q.19. Represent the formation of cations for the following metal atoms using electron dot
structures.
a) K b) Ca
Solution: a) Formation of K+ ion:
Since K atom has one electron in the outer most shell. It losses one electron to form K+ ion.
b) Formation of Ca+2 ion:

Since Ca atom has two electrons in the outer most shell. It losses two electrons to form Ca+2 ion.
Q.20: Describe the formation of anions by the following non-metals.

a) Sulphur (atomic No. 16)
b) Chlorine (atomic No. 17)
Solution:-
a) Formation of S−2 anion:
Since S atom has six electrons in outermost shell, it needs two electrons to complete octet. So
it gains two electrons to form S−2 ion.
b) Formation of Cl-1 anion:
Q.21. Represent the formation of anions by the following non-metals using electron dot
structures.
a) N b) P c) Br d) H
Solution: a) Formation of N-3 anion:
Since N atom has five electrons in the outer most shell, it needs three electrons to complete octet.
So it gains three electrons to form N-3 ion.
b) Formation of P-3 anion:

Since P atom has five electrons in outermost shell, it needs three electrons to complete octet. So
it gains three electrons to form P-3 ion.
c) Formation of Br-1 anion:

Since Br atom has seven electrons in outermost shell, it needs one electron to complete octet. So
it gains three electrons to form Br-1 ion.
d) Formation of H-1 anion:
Since H atom has one electron in outermost shell, it needs one electron to complete duplet. So it
gains one electron to form H-1 ion.
Q:22 Explain intermolecular forces?

Ans:
A covalent bond can occur between two similar atoms such as in H2, N2, O2, Cl2 etc. It can
also occur between two unlike atoms, such as in HCI, H2O, NH3, HCN, CO2 etc.
Non Polar covalent bond:
When two identical atoms share electron pairs, both the atoms exert same force on the
shared electron pairs. Such a covalent bond is called non-polar covalent bond. For example,
bond in H-H, O = O, N=N etc are non-polar covalent bonds.
Polar covalent bond:
when two different atoms share electron pair, both the atoms exert different forces on
the shared electron pair. More electronegative atom pulls shared electrons pairs with greater
force towards itself then the other. So more electronegative atom partially draws electron
density towards itself. This makes it partially negatively charged and other atom partially
positively charged. Such a covalent bond is called polar covalent bond.
Inter molecular forces:
The forces of attraction created between the molecules are called intermolecular forces.
For example, These intermolecular forces are weaker than an ionic or a covalent bond. There
are five types of intermolecular forces. We will discuss two of these.
ii.Dipole-dipole interactions
ii. hydrogen bonding
Dipole-dipole interactions:
The forces of attraction present between polar molecules due to difference in electro
negativity are called dipole dipole forces.
we know that paints and dyes are used to protect solid surfaces from the atmospheric
effects. They also give visual appeal. Resins are used to coat materials that give toughness,
flexibility, adhesion and chemical resistance. For example dams, bridges, floors, trains, buses,
cars etc are painted with resins. The synthetic resins are used where water resistance is
required. Chemically, resins are either adhesive or they form bond linkages with the material
being bonded together. The nature of these linkages is dipole dipole forces. In such forces
slightly negative end of polar molecule is weakly attracted to the slightly positive end of another
molecule. Such attracting forces are called dipole-dipole interactions.
Hydrogen bonding:
Molecules in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom such
as oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine is also weakly bonded to a lone pair of electron of another
electronegative atom. This other atom may occur in the same molecule or in a nearby
molecule. This intermolecular interaction is called hydrogen bonding. Oxygen, nitrogen or
fluorine makes hydrogen very electron-deficient. Thus interaction of such a highly electron
deficient hydrogen and lone pair on a nearby electronegative atom compensates for the
deficiency.
The interaction of a highly electron deficient hydrogen and lone pair on a nearby highly
electronegative atom such as N, O or F is called hydrogen bond. This phenomenon is
called hydrogen bonding.
These intermolecular forces are extremely important in determining properties of water,
biological molecules, such as proteins, DNA etc and synthetic materials such as glue, paints,
resins etc. The adhesive action of paints and dyes is developed due to hydrogen bonding.
Synthetic resins bind two surfaces together by hydrogen bonding or dipole dipole interactions.
CHAPTER: 5
PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER
i. How does temperature effect vapour pressure of a liquid?
ii. Water boils at 120 ℃ in a pressure cooker, why?
iii. Is evaporation a cooling process?
iv. Can you make water boil at70 ℃ ?
Ans.
i: Vapour pressure is directly related with increase in temperature. Increase in temperature
increases the kinetic energy of molecules. As a result more & more molecules will have
maximum kinetic energy needed to escape the surface of liquid. So, increase in temperature
increases the evaporation and condensation and in turn increases the vapour pressure.
ii. Pressure cooker is equipped with a value that controls the pressure inside the pot. This valve
generally exerts a pressure of 2atm. Therefore, the valve does not allow water vapours to
escape until the pressure inside the pot reaches to 2atm. Because vapour pressure of water
becomes 2atm when the temperature reaches 120 ℃ , so water boils at 120 ℃ in a pressure
cooker.
iii. During evaporation process molecules with high kinetic energy break away from the surface
and leave the surface of liquid. The molecules left in the liquid have a lower kinetic energy
than the molecules that have escaped. Therefore the temperature decreases& causes cooling
effect.
v. At Mount Everest at about 8850m above sea level atmospheric pressure is only 34 kPa. So,
water boils at 70 ℃ at that low pressure.
Q.2 Define Boyle’s law & give its mathematical expression?
Ans: Boyle’s law states that the volume of fixed amount of gas varies inversely with the pressure at
constant temperature.
Mathematical expression:
V∞1/p
V=constant x 1/p
V=k x1/p
PV=k
Q.3 Define Charles’s law & give its mathematical expression?
Ans: Charles’s law states that volume of fixed amount of gas varies directly with the temperature at
constant pressure.
Mathematical expression:
V∞T
V=constant X T
V= K X T
V/T= K
Q.4: Explain the terms evaporation? How evaporation occurs?
Ans: EVAPORATION:-
Conversion of a liquid to a gas or vapours at all temperatures is called vaporization or
evaporation
When we place some liquid such as ether or acetone in an open container, the volume of the
liquid gradually decreases and finally no more of the liquid is left. This is because liquids
constantly change into gas or vapours even when the temperature is less than the boiling point
of a liquid.
Q.5: Explain how Evaporation causes cooling?
Ans: Evaporation causes cooling:
In evaporation, some molecules in the liquid break away and enter the gas or vapor state. Only
those molecules which have greater kinetic energy than average can break away from the
surface. This means the molecules with the highest kinetic energy escape first. The molecules
left in the liquid have a lower average kinetic energy than the molecules that have escaped.
Therefore liquids temperature will decrease. Evaporation is a cooling process.
Q.6: Explain Effect of heat on evaporation?
Ans:
Liquids evaporate faster when heated. This is because when we heat a liquid it increases the
kinetic energy of the molecules. This enables more molecules to overcome attractive forces
keeping them in the liquid state and escape as vapours.
Q.7: Explain vapour pressure?
Ans:
VAPOUR PRESSURE:-
The pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid in equilibrium with its liquid is called
vapour pressure
The evaporation of a liquid in a closed container is somewhat different then in open vessel. In a
closed container no molecules can escape into the outside air, when a partially filled container
is sealed. Some of the liquid molecules vaporize. As the time passes, the number of molecules
changing into vapours increases. Some of these molecules because of their random motions
will collide with the liquid surface. Such molecules are recaptured by the molecules at the
surface of the liquid. This process is called condensation. These two opposing processes will
continue. After some time, the number of molecules evaporating will become equal to the
number of molecules condensing. At this stage equilibrium is established between the liquid
and its vapours.
At equilibrium liquid continues to evaporate and condense but at equal rates. At equilibrium
the space above the liquid is saturated with vapours. The vapour pressure of liquids changes
with temperature. This is because an increase in temperature of a liquid increases the kinetic
energy of the molecules. As a result more of the molecules will have minimum kinetic energy
needed to escape the surface of the liquid.
Q.8: Explain boiling point?
Ans:
BOILING POINT:-
The temperature at which vapor pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the
external or atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.
In an open container atmosphere exerts pressure on the liquid surface. When a liquid is heated
in an open container, average kinetic energy of the molecules increases. Therefore, the
temperature of the liquid also increases. Heating allows large number of molecules at the
liquid’s surface to overcome the attractive forces responsible keeping them in the liquid. This
increases the vapour pressure of the liquid. Vapors pressure of the liquid keeps on increasing
with the increase in temperature. At a certain temperature, the vapour pressure of the liquid
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure or external pressure. At this stage liquid starts
boiling.
A liquid boils when its vapour pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure i.e.,
760mmHg or 101.325 kPa at sea level.
Q.9: Explain the effect of external pressure on boiling point?
Ans: EFFECT OF EXTERNAL PRESSURE ON BOILING POINT:-
Liquids boil when their vapour pressure is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by its
surroundings. The normal boiling point of water is100 ℃ . In the mountains the atmospheric
pressure is less than 1 atm. so water boils below100 ℃ . In a pressure cooker at 2atm, water
does not boil until the temperature reaches120 ℃ .
When the pressure of atmosphere is 1 atm or 101.325 kPa water boils at 100 ℃ at sea level.
This is because at this temperature vapour pressure of water is 1atm or 101.325 kPa. At Mount
Everest at about 8850m above sea level atmospheric pressure in only 34kPa. So water boils at
this height above sea level, when its vapuor pressure is 34kPa . So water boils at 70 ℃ .
Pressure cooker is equipped with a valve that controls the pressure inside the pot. This
valve generally exerts a pressure of 2 atm. Therefore, the valve does not allow water vapours to
escape until the pressure inside the pot reaches 2 atm. Because vapour pressure of water
becomes 2atm when the temperature reaches120 ℃ . Water boils at 120 ℃ in a pressure cooker.
Q10: Differentiate between amorphous and crystalline solids.
Ans: A crystalline solid is a solid that is composed of orderly, repeating three-dimensional
arrangement of particles. This means a crystalline solid has well defined shape because of the
orderly arrangement of its particles. Crystalline solids have sharp melting points. E.g. sodium
chloride, diamond.
Whereas an amorphous solid is one that lacks ordered arrangement of its particles. This
means it does not have a well defined arrangement of its particles. Amorphous solid do not
melt at a definite temperature but gradually soften when heated. For example, glass, plastic etc
are amorphous solids.
Q11: Why does evaporation lowers the temperature of a liquid?
Ans: In evaporation, some molecules in the liquid break away and enter the gas or vapor state. Only
those molecules which have greater kinetic energy than average can break away from the
surface. This means the molecules with the highest kinetic energy escape first. The molecules
left in the liquid have a lower average kinetic energy than the molecules that have escaped.
Therefore liquids temperature will decrease. Evaporation a cooling process Liquids evaporate
faster when heated. This is because heat increases the kinetic energy of the molecules. This
enables more molecules to overcome attractive forces keeping them in the liquid state and
escape as vapours.
Q.12: The water level in an aquarium decreases slowly even though the tank does not leak.
What change of state is occurring?
Ans: The water level in an aquarium decreases slowly even though the tank does not leak because of
process of evaporation. Evaporation is the process that continues at all temperatures and in all
conditions. As liquid molecules have different kinetic energies. High K.E molecules tend to
escape from surface of liquid so its level goes on decreasing.
Q.13: What types of attractive forces do you expect between the molecules of HF and HCl?
Ans: In HF the Electro negativity difference between bond atoms is maximum, so molecules of HF
are held together by strong dipole forces called hydrogen bonding, while in HCl Electro
negativity difference is less therefore they posses weak dipole forces between molecules
Q.14: Name two substances that are solids at 25 ℃ . Name two substances that are liquid at
25 ℃ .
Ans: i. Sodium chloride (NaCl) ii. Salver nitrate (AgNO3) iii. Caustic soda (NaOH)
Q.15: Identify the process occurring in each of the following:
a) Mothballs slowly disappear.
b) A cold windshield becomes covered with ice when struck by raindrops.
Ans: a) Sublimation b) Condensation
Q.16: Give reason:
a) When you put nail polish remover on your palm, you feel a sensation of coldness.
Ans: The chemical nail polish remover (usually acetone) is very volatile, it evaporates very quickly.
To change from a liquid state, to a gaseous state takes energy. The warmth of your palm
supplies the energy. The flow of heat is from your palm and into the liquid. This removes heat
from your palm and has the sensation of being cool.
b) Wet clothes dry quickly in summer than in winter.
Ans: At higher temperature, more molecules of a liquid are moving with high velocities. Thus more
molecules escape from its surface. Thus evaporation is faster than at low temperature. That is
why wet cloth dry quickly in the winter.
Q.17: The boiling point of water on the top of Mount Everest is 70 ℃ , while at Murree 98 ℃ .
Explain this difference.
Ans: When the pressure of atmosphere is 1atm or 101.325 kPa, water boils at 100 ℃ at sea level.
This is because at this temperature vapour pressure of water is 1atm or 101.325 kPa. At Mount
Everest at about 8850 m above sea level atmospheric pressure is only 34 kPa. So water boils at
this height above sea level, when its vapour pressure is 34 kPa at 70 ℃ . So water boils at 70 ℃ .
Q.18: If you try to cook an egg in boiling water while camping at an elevation of 0.5 km in the
mountain, you will find that it takes longer than it does at home, explain why?
Ans: When the pressure of atmosphere is 1atm or 101.325 kPa water boils at 100 ℃ at sea level.
This is because at this temperature vapour pressure of water is 1atm or 101.325 kPa. At
elevation of 0.5 km on the mountain above sea level atmospheric pressure becomes low. So
water boils at this height above sea level, when its vapour pressure is low at low temperature.
That is why egg takes longer time to cook then it does at home.
Q.19: Sodium chloride, an ionic compound, has a high melting point of 801 ℃ . Whereas
molecular solid such as ice has relatively low melting point of 0 ℃ . Explain this
difference.
Ans: Sodium chloride (NaCl), an ionic solid, has very strong electrostatic forces between sodium
and chloride ions and thus has got a very high melting point( 801 ℃ ). To break these
electrostatic forces it needs more heat energy that in turn increases boiling point.
Contrary to this the ice whose molecules are attracting each other by weak van der Waal’s
forces, melts at a very low temperature0 ℃ . Because to break intermolecular forces it needs
less energy.
Q. 20: What is quartz glass?
Ans: Quartz is the crystalline form of silicon dioxide( SiO2 ). It is a hard, brittle and colourless solid.
When quartz is heated above its melting point (about1600 ℃ ) and cooled rapidly, an
amorphous solid called quartz glass results.
Q.21: The air in a perfectly elastic balloon occupies 885 cm3, during the fall when the
temperature is 20 ℃ . During the winter, the temperature on a particular day is −10 ℃ ,
the balloon occupies 794.39 cm3. If the pressure remains constant. Show that the given
data proves the volume temperature relation according to the Charles’s Law.
Ans:
Temperature Volume V (cm3) Temperature V
T (℃ ) T(K) T
20 ℃ 885 cm3 293 K 885
=3.02
293
−10 ℃ 7947.39 cm3 263 K 794.39
=3.02
263
Above data proves Charles law.
Q.22: In the past, gas volume was used as a way to measure temperature using devices called
gas thermometers. An experimenter obtains following data from gas thermometer.
Volume V(dm3) Temperature T ( ℃ )
2.7 0℃
3.7 100 ℃
5.7 300 ℃
Show that gas thermometer obtained results according to Charles’s law.
Ans:
V
TemperatureT ( ℃ ) VolumeV (dm3) Temperature T(K)
T
2.7
0℃ 2.7 273 K =0.0098
273
3.7
100 ℃ 3.7 373 K =0.0099
373
5.7
300 ℃ 5.7 573 K =0.0099
573
Above data proves Charles law.
Q.23: In automobile engine the gaseous fuel-air mixture enters the cylinder and is compressed
by a moving piston before it is ignited. If the initial cylinder volume is 990cm3. After the
piston moves up, the volume is 90cm3. The fuel-air mixture initially has a pressure of
1.0atm. and final pressure 11.0atm. Do you think this change occurs according to the
Boyles’ law.
Ans: P1 = 1atm
v1 = 990cm3 = 0.99dm3
P2 = 11atm
v2 = 90cm3 = 0.09dm3
P1v1 = P2 v2 = constant
(1) (0.99) = (11) (0.09) = constant
0.99 = 0.99 = constant
Above data proves Boyle’s law.
Q.24: A sample of neon that is used in a neon sign has a volume of 1500cm3 at a pressure of 636
torr. The volume of the gas after it is pumped into the glass tube of the sign is 1213.74cm3,
when it shows a pressure of 786 torr. Show that this data obeys Boyle’s law.
1500
Ans: v1 = 1500cm3 = = 1.5dm3
1000
636
P1 = 636 torr = = 0.836atm
760
1213.74
v2 = 1213.74cm3 = = 1.21dm3
1000
786
P2 = 786 torr = = 1.034atm
760
P1v1 = P2 v2 = constant
(0.836) (1.5) = (1.034) (1.21)
1.254=1.251 = constant Above data proves Boyle’s law.
Q.25: Following table shows data collected from an experiment by a student
Volume (dm3) Pressure (mm Hg)
400 353.5
320 442
240 589
200 707
Do you think that the student collected data carefully or carelessly? Explain
Ans:
Volum Pressure (mm Pressure
PV=K
e (dm3) Hg) (atm)
353.5
400dm3 353.5 =0.46 ( 0.46 )( 400 )=186.05
760
442
320dm3 442 =0.58 ( 0.58 ) ( 320 )=186.10
760
589
240dm3 589 =0.77 ( 0.77 )( 240 ) =186.0
760
707
200 dm3 707 =0.93 ( 0.93 ) ( 200 )=186.05
760
Above data proves Boyle’s law. So data was collected carefully.
Q.26: Ammonia gas is used as refrigerant 0.474 atm. pressure is required to change 200 cm3 at
constant temperature. Show that this data satisfies Boyle’s law.
Solution:-
1. According to the Boyle’s law, product of pressure and volume is constant at any two sets of
conditions.
2. Calculate P ×V for the two sets of condition and compare.
P1 × V 1 before change ¿ 0.474 × atm ×200 cm3
¿ 2.625 atm. dm3
P2 × V 2 after change ¿ 2.1 atm ×1.25 dm3
¿ 2.625 atm. dm3
P1 V 1=P2 V 2
Thus the calculated result agrees with the pressure-volume relationship according to the
Boyle’s Law.
Q.27: A bacterial culture isolated from sewage produces 36.4 cm3 of methane (CH4) gas at 27 ℃
and 760mm Hg. This gas occupies 33.124 cm3 at 0 ℃ and same pressure. Explain volume-
temperature relationship from this data.
Solution:-
Temperature Volume V Temperature T V
T (℃ ) (K) T
27 36.4 300 36.4
=0.1
300
0 33.124 273 33.124
=0.1
273
V
The ratio =0.1 is fairly constant. Thus volume of the gas varies directly with the absolute
T
temperature as stated by the Charles’s law.
Q.28: A perfect elastic balloon filled with helium gas has a volume of 1.25 ×103 dm 3 at 1.00 atm
and 25 ℃ on ascending to a certain altitude where temperature is 15 ℃ the volume of
balloon becomes1.208 ×103 dm 3. Show that this data satisfies the Charles’s law.
Solution:
Temperature Volume ( c 3 ) Temperature V
(℃ ) (K) T
3
25 1.25 ×10 298 1.25× 103
=4.19
298
3
15 1.208 ×10 288 1.208× 103
=4.19
273
V
The ratio =4.19 is fairly constant. Thus volume of the gas varies directly with the absolute
T
temperature as stated by the Charles’s law.
CHAPTER: 6
SOLUTIONS
i. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated solution?
ii. Can you call collide a solution?
Ans.i:
Saturated Solution Unsaturated Solution
A solution which cannot dissolve more A solution that can dissolve more solute at
solute at a particular temperature is called a given temperature is called unsaturated
saturated solution solution
ii. Many naturally occurring gem stones are solid solutions. For example Ruby, opal. In these
solutions a solid solute dissolves in a solid solvent. We call these solutions as solids in solids.
Q.2: A tiny crystal of a solid substance is added to an aqueous solution of the same substance.
What would happen if the original solution was?
a) Supersaturated b) Unsaturated c) Saturated
Ans: If we add a crystal of solid to saturated solution, it will drop to the bottom without dissolving.
If we add a crystal of solid to supersaturated solution crystallization will start.
If we add a crystal of solid to unsaturated solution, it will dissolve extra solid without
crystallization or settling to bottom.
Q.4: How can you prepare 250cm3 of 0.5M MgSO4 from a stock solution of 2.5M MgSO4?
Ans: Molarity of stock solution = M1 = 2.5m
Volume of stock solution = v1 =?
Molarity of Required solution = M2 = 0.5m
Volume of Required solution = v2 = 250cm3
m1v1 = m2v2
M2 V 2
v1 =
M1
0.5× 250
¿
2.5
3
¿ 50 c m
Transfer 50cm3 of 2.5m MgSO4 to 250cm3 volumetric flask & dilute it by adding water upto
the mark and mix it, resulting solution is 0.5m MgSO4.
Q.6: Copy and complete the following table for aqueous solution of NaOH.
Mass of solute Moles of solute Volume of solution Molarity
3
20g 500cm
0.25 0.25
200cm3 0.1
Ans:
Mass of solute Moles of solute Volume of solution Molarity
3
1. 20g 0.5 500cm 1m
2. 10g 0.25 1000cm3 0.25m
3. 0.8g 0.02 200cm3 0.1m
Solution:-
500
Volume of solution = 500cm3 = =0.5dm3
1000
i. Mass of solute = 20g
Molar mass of solute (NaOH) = 40g
mass
No. of moles of lute =
molar mass
20
¿
40
¿ 0.5 moles
No . of moles
Molarity = 3
Volume of solution ( d m )
0.5
¿
0.5
¿1 M
ii. Mass of solute =?
Molar mass of
Solute (NaOH) = 40gmol-1
Moles of solute = 0.25
Volume of solution =?
Molarity of solution = 0.25M
Mass of solute = No. of moles × molar mass
¿ 0.25 × 40
¿ 10 g
mass of solute 1000
Molarity = molar mass of solute ×
volume of solution ( c m3 )
10 1000
0.25= ×
40 volume of solution ( c m3 )
10 ×1000 3
volum e of solution= =1000 c m
40 ×0.25
iii. Mass of solute = ?
Molar mass of = 40g mol-1
Solute (NaOH)
Volume of solution = 200cm3
Molarity of solution = 0.1
mass of solute 1000
Molarity = molar mass of solute × 3
volume of solution ( c m )
mass of solute 1000
01= ×
40 200
0.1× 40 ×200
Mass of solute ¿
1000
¿ 0.8 g
mass
Moles of solute ¿
molar mass
0.8
¿
40
¿ 0.02 moles
Q.7: What is the Molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 1.25g of HCl gas into enough
water to make 30cm3 of solution.
Ans: Molarity =?
Mass of solute = 1.25g
Molar Mass of solute (HCl) = 36.5g mol-1
mass of solute 1000
1.25 1000
¿ ×
36.5 30
1250
¿
1095
¿ 1.14 M
Q.8: Formalin is an aqueous solution of formaldehyde (HCHO), used as a preservative for
biological specimens. A biologist wants to prepare 1dm3 of 11.5M formalin. What mass of
formaldehyde he requires?
Ans: Volume of solution = 1dm3
Mass of solute =?
Molar mass
Of solute (HCHO) = 30g mol-1
mass of solute 1
volume of solution ( d m3 )
mass of solute 1
11.5= ×
30 1
mass of soute=11.5 ×30 ¿ 345 g
Q.9: A solution of Ca(OH)2 is prepared by dissolving 5.2 mg of Ca(OH)2 to a total volume of
1000cm3. Calculate the molarity of this solution.
Ans: Mass of solute = 5.2mg
5.2
¿ =0.0052 g
1000
Molar mass of = 74g mol-1
Solute ( Ca ( OH )2 )
Molarity of solution = ?
mass of solute 1000
0.0052 1000
¿ ×
74 1000
−5
¿ 7.02× 10 M
Q.10: Calculate the number of moles of solute present in 1.25cm3 of 0.5M H3PO4 solution.
Ans: No. of moles of solute = ?
Volume of solution = 1.25cm3
Molar mass of solute (H3PO4) = 98g mol-1
mass of solute 1000
mass of solute 1000
0.5= ×
98 1.25
0.5 × 98 ×1.25
mass of solute=
1000
¿ 0.06125 g
mass of solute
No. of moles of solute =
molar mass of solute
0.06125
¿
98
¿ 0.000625 moles
Q.11: Calculate the new molarity when 100cm3 of water is added to 100cm3 of 0.5M HCl.
Ans: M1 = 0.5m
v1 = 100cm3
M2 =?
v2 = (100+100)=200cm3
m1v1 = m2v2
m1 v 1
M2 =
v2
0.5× 100
¿
200
¿ 0.25 M
Q.12: Compare properties of solutions, suspension and colloids?
Ans:
S.No. Solutions Suspensions Colloids
1. Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
2. Particles size vary from Particles size is greater Particles size vary from 1
0.1 to 1nm than 103nm to 103nm
3. Particles are invisible by Particles are visible by Particles are invisible by
naked eye, ordinary naked eye naked eye and in ordinary
microscope as well as microscope but visible
electron microscope under electron
microscope
4. Particles can pass Particles can not pass Particles can pas through
through ordinary as well through ordinary as well ordinary filter paper but
as ultra filter paper as ultra filter paper cannot pass through ultra
filter paper
5. Cannot scatter light Scatter light Scatter light
Q.13: In Aquarium fish shows signs of stress on a hot day. Why?

Ans: Solubility of air in water decreases at a hot day. As less oxygen dissolves from air in hot water,
so oxygen content of water will be less & fish shows signs of stress.
Q.17: A stock solution of hydrochloric acid is 12.1 M. how many cm3 of this solution should you
use to prepare 500cm3 of 0.1 M HCl.
Ans: Molarity of stock solution = M1 = 12.1 M
Volume of stock solution = v1 =?
Molarity of required solution = M2 = 0.1 M
Volume of required solution = v2 = 500cm3
M1v1 = M2v2
M 2 v 2 0.5 ×100
v1 = =
M1 12.1
3
v1 =4.13 c m
Q.18: Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is a red-orange compound. It is a strong oxidizing agent
and is used in the estimation of iron content in ores. A stock solution is 2.5M K2Cr2O7.
How many cm3 of this solution you need to dilute to make 50 cm3 of 0.05 M K2Cr2O7.
Ans: Molarity of stock solution = M1 = 2.5
Volume of stock solution = v1 = ?
Molarity of required solution = M2 = 0.05
Volume of required solution = v2 = 50cm3
M1v1 = M2v2
M 2 v 2 0.05 ×50 3
v1 = = =1 c m
M1 2.5
Q.19: Commercial acetic acid is 17.8 molar. How can you convert this into 0.1 M acetic acid?
Ans: Molarity (M) = 0.1 M
Number of moles = 17.8
Volume of solution in dm3 = ?
Number of moles
Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution ∈d m3
17.8
0.1= 3
Volume of solution∈d m
3 17.8
Volume of Solution∈d m =
0.1
Volume of solution in d m =178 d m3
3
We can convert 17.8 molar of commercial acetic acid into 0.1 M acetic acid by adding water
up to 178d m 3.
Q.20: How can you prepare 500c m3 of 0.2M KMnO4 solution?
Ans: Volume of solution = 500 c m 3
Molarity of solution = 0.2 M
Molar mass of solute (KMnO4) = 158g mol-1
Mass of solute = ?
mass of solute 1000
mass of solute 1000
0.2= ×
158 500
0.2 ×158 ×500
mass of solute=
1000
¿ 158 g
a) Weigh 15.8g of KMnO4 (0.2 moles)
b) Add this solid into a beaker & add some water to dissolve it.
c) Transfer above solution to 500cm3 flask and more water to required mark & mix it.
Q.21: How can you prepare 25c m3 of 0.25M solution of CuSO4. 5H4O (Blue vitriol).
Ans: Volume of solution = 25 c m3
Molarity of solution = 0.25 M
Molar mass of solute (CuSO4. 5H2O) = 249.5g mol-1
Mass of solute = ?
mass of solute 1000
mass of solute 1000
0.25= ×
249.5 25
0.25 × 249.5× 25
mass of solute=
1000
¿ 1.55 g
a) Weigh 1.55g of CuSO4. 5H2O (0.25 moles)
b) Add this solid to beaker & add water to dissolve it.
c) Transfer above solution to 25cm3 volumetric flask and add more water to required mark &
mix it.
Q.22: Sodium hydroxide solutions are used to neutralize acids and in the preparation of soaps
and rayon. If you dissolve 25g of NaOH to make 1 dm3 of solution, what is the molarity of
this solution?
Ans: Molarity = ?
Mass of solute = 25g
Molar mass of solute (NaOH) = 40g mol-1
Volume of solution = 1dm3
mass of solute 1
25 1
¿ ×
40 1
¿ 0.625 M
Q.23: A solution of NaOH has concentration 1.2M. Calculate the mass of NaOH in g/dm3 in this
solution.
Ans: Molarity of solution = 1.2M
Mass of solute = ?
Molar mass of solute (NaOH) = 40g mol-1
mass of solute 1
mass of solute 1
1.2= ×
40 1
mass of solute=1.2× 40
¿ 48 g
Q.24: A solution is prepared by dissolving 10g of hemoglobin in enough water to make up 1dm 3
in volume. Calculate molarity of this solution. Molar mass of hemoglobin is 6.51 ×104
g/mole.
Ans: Mass of solute = 10g
Molar mass of solute = 6.51 ×1 04 g mol −1
Molarity = ?
mass of solute 1
volume of solution ( d m )
10 1
¿ ×
6.51× 10 1
4
¿ 1.53 ×1 0−4 M
Q.25: A 10.0 g of solid solute is placed in 100 g of water 20 ℃ and all of it dissolves. Then
another 4.0 g of the solute is added at 20 ℃ and all of it dissolves.
a) Is the first solution saturated, unsaturated or supersaturated?
b) Is it possible to tell from this information that the final solution is unsaturated or
saturated?
Ans: a) Unsaturated.
b) Unsaturated because a solution which can dissolve more of the solute at a given
Temperature is called an unsaturated solution.
Q.26: What should you do to change?
a) A saturated solution to an unsaturated solution.
b) An unsaturated solution to a saturated solution.
Ans: a) i. Add more solvent.
ii. Increase temperature.
b) Keep adding solute until the solvent cannot dissolve any more at that given
temperature.
Q.27: Knowing the molarity of a solution is more meaningful than knowing whether a solution
is dilute or concentrated. Explain.
Ans: Knowing the molarity is more meaningful because by knowing it, you can not only know if it
is diluted or concentrated, but also the actual concentration.
Q.28: Design an experiment to determine the solubility of table sugar in water at room
temperature.
Ans: Experiment:-
Prepare saturated solution of sugar in 100g of water. Take this solution in a pre-
weighed china dish. Place china dish on the burner and heat is slowly till water evaporates
completely. Cool china dish and weigh it. Calculate the mass of sugar present in it. Solubility
of sugar in 100g of water at room temperature is 204 g.
Solubility of sodium chloride and sucrose in water form 0 – 100℃ :
Temperature ( ℃ ) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 35.5 36 36.5 37.5 38 39
Sucrose (Sugar C12H22O11) 179 204 241 288 363 487
Q.29: Design an experiment to prepare 10% mass by volume solution of CuSO4.5H2O

(Nelathota)
Ans: 10% m/v concentration:
If we dissolve 10g CuSO4.5H2O (Nelathota) in sufficient water to make 100 cm3 solution, the
resulting solution will be 10% m/v.
Q.30: Which solution is more dilute 50 cm3 of 0.2M NaOH or 100 cm3 of 0.1M NaOH.
Ans: Case 1:
50 cm3 = 0.2 M
0.2
1 cm3 = =0.004 M
50
Case 2:
100 cm3 = 0.1 M
0.1
1 cm3 = =0.001 M
100
Molarity shows that 100 cm3 of 0.1 M NaOH is more dilute:
Q.31: Which solution is more concentrated 100 cm3 of 0.1 M HCl or 100 cm3 of 0.1M NaOH.
Ans: Case 1:
100 cm3 of 0.1 M HCl:
Mass of solute 100
Molarity (M) = ×
Molar mass of solute Volume of solution∈cm3
Mass of HCl 1000
0.1= ×
36.5 100
Mass of HCl
0.1= ×10
36.5
0.1× 36.5
Mass of HCl ¿ =0.365 g
10
Case 2:
100 cm3 of 0.1 M NaOH:
Mass of solute 100
Molarity (M) = ×
Mass of NaOH 1000
0.1= ×
40 100
Mass of NaOH
0.1= ×10
40
0.1× 40
Mass of NaOH ¿ =0.4 g
10
Since mass of NaOH is greater than the mass of HCl in 100 cm3 of solution therefore 0.1M
NaOH solution is more concentrated.
Q.32: Benzene is a common organic solvent. Its use is now restricted because this can cause
cancer. The recommended limit of exposure to benzene is 0.32 mg per dm3 of air.
Calculate the molarity of this solution.
0.32
Ans: Mass of solute C2H6 = 0.32 mg = =0.00032 g
1000
Molar mass of solute C 2 H 6=6 ×12+1× 6=72+ 6=78 g
Volume of solution ¿ 1 dm3 =1000 cm3
Molarity (M) ¿ ?
Mass of solute 100
Molarity (M) = ×
0.00032
Molarity (M) ¿
78
Molarity (M) ¿ 0.000004 M
Molarity (M) ¿ 4 ×10−6 M
Q.33: A patient in a hospital is often administered an intravenous (IV) drip containing an
aqueous solution. This aqueous solution contains 0.85% (mass by volume) of sodium
chloride or 5% (mass by volume) of glucose. Calculate the molarity of both these
solutions.
Ans: Combined Mass of solutes NaCl+C 6 H 12 O6 =0.85+5=5.85 g
Combined molar masses of NaCl+C 6 H 12 O6
¿ [ 23+35.5 ] + [ 6 ×12+1 ×12+6 ×16 ]
¿ [ 58.5 ] + [ 72+12+96 ] =58.5+180=238.5 g
Volume of solution ¿ 100 cm 3
Molarity (M) ¿ ?
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity (M) = ×
5.85 1000
Molarity (M) ¿ ×
238.5 100
5.85
Molarity (M) ¿
238.5
Q.34: 100 cm3 of NaOH solution was heated to complete dryness, 1.5 g residue left behind.
What was the molarity of the solution?
Ans: Mass of solute NaOH = 1.5 g
Molar mass of solute NaOH=23+16+1=40 g
Volume of solution ¿ 100 cm 3
Molarity (M) ¿ ?
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity (M) = ×
1.5 1000
Molarity (M) ¿ ×
40 100
15
Molarity (M) ¿
40
Q.36: How will you know whether a solution is saturated or supersaturated?
Ans: A supersaturated solution is not stable in the presence of crystals of solute. If you add a crystal
of sodium thiosulphate to its saturated solution, it will simply drop to the bottom, without
dissolving, But if you add a crystal of sodium thiosulphate to a supersaturated solution of
sodium thiosulphate , crystallization will start.
Q.37: The maximum amount of sodium acetate that dissolves in 100g of water at 0 ℃ is 119g
and 170g at 100 ℃ .
a) If you add 170g of sodium acetate in 100g of water at 0 ℃ , how much will dissolve?
b) Is the solution saturated unsaturated or supersaturated?
c) If the solution in heated to 100 ℃ , is the solution now saturated, unsaturated or
supersaturated.
d) If the solution is cooled back to 0 ℃ and no crystals appear. Is the solution saturated,
unsaturated or supersaturated?
Solution:-
a) 119 g.
b) Saturated.
c) Supersaturated.
d) Saturated.
Q.39: Write four ways to express percentage of solutions.

Ans: Solution:-
1. Write four ways to express percentage of solutions.
Ans: Four ways to express percentage of solution:
i. Mass by mass percent ii. Mass by volume percent
iii. Volume by mass percent iv. Volume by volume percent
i. Mass by percent:
It is the mass of the solute dissolved per 100 parts by mass of solution.
M Mass of solute
% by mass ( )M
=
Mass of solution
×100
ii. Mass by volume percent:
It is the mass of the solute dissolved per 100 parts by volume of solution.
M Mass of solute
% of solution ( )V
=
Volume of solution
× 100
iii. Volume by mass percent:
It is the volume of a solute dissolved per 100 parts by mass of solution.
V Volume of solution
( )
% of solution
M
=
Mass of solute
× 100
iv. Volume by volume percent:
It is the volume of the solute dissolved per 100 parts by volume of solution.
V Volume of solute
( )
% of solution by
V
=
Volume of solution
× 100
Q.40: A saline solution is administered intravenously to a person suffering from severe
dehydration. This is labeled as 0.85% m/v of NaCl. What does it mean?
Ans: 0.85% m/v concentration:
If you dissolve 0.85 g NaCl in sufficient water to make 100 cm3 solutions, the resulting
solution will be 0.85% m/v.
Q.41: Potassium chlorate (KClO3) is a white solid. It is used in making matches and dyes.
Calculate the molarity of solution that contains.
a) 1.5 moles of this compound dissolved in 250 cm3 of solution.
b) 75 g of this compound dissolved to produce 1.25 dm3 of solution.
c) What is the molarity of a 50 cm3 sample of potassium chlorate solution that yields 0.25
g residue after evaporation of the water.
Solution:-
a) 1.5 moles of this compound dissolved in 250 cm3 of solution.
250 3 3
Ans: Volume of solution in dm3 ¿ d m =0.25 d m
1000
Number of moles ¿ 1.5 moles
Molarity ( M )=?
Number of moles
Molarity ( M )=
Volume of solution∈dm 3
1.5
Molarity ( M )=
0.25
Molarity ( M )=6 M
b) 75 g of this compound dissolved to produce 1.25 dm3 of solution.
Ans: Mass of solute KClO3 ¿ 75 g
Molar mass of solute KClO3 ¿ 39+35.5+ 48=122.5 g
Volume of solution ¿ 1.25 d m3 =30× 1000=30000 c m3
Molarity ( M )=?
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity ( M )= ×
Molar mass of solute Volume of solutino ∈cm3
75 1000
Molarity ( M )= ×
122.5 30000
75000
Molarity ( M )=
3675000
Molarity ( M )=0.020 M
c) What is the molarity of a 50 cm3 sample of potassium chlorate solution that yields 0.25
g residue after evaporation of the water.
Ans: Mass of solute KClO3 ¿ 0.25 g
Molar mass of solute KClO3 ¿ 39+35.5+ 48=122.5 g
Volume of solution ¿ 50 c m3
Molarity ( M )=?
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity ( M )= ×
Molar mass of solute Volume of solutino ∈cm3
0.25 1000
Molarity ( M )= ×
122.5 50
250
Molarity ( M )=
6125
Molarity ( M )=0.04 M
Q.45: How can you prepare 500cm3 of 0.2M KMnO4 solution.
Solution:-
3 500 3
Required volume of solution ¿ 500 cm = =0.5 dm
1000
0.2 M KMnO4 means:
1dm3 solution contains 0.2 moles of KMnO4
So, 0.1 dm3 solution contains ¿ 0.2 ×0.5 moles of KMnO4
¿ 0.1 moles of KMnO4
Now convert moles of KMnO4 into mass using molar mass of KMnO4
Molar mass of KMnO4 ¿ 39+55+16 × 4
¿ 39+55+64
¿ 158 g/mole
mass of KM nO 4
Moles of KMnO4 ¿
molar mass of KM nO 4
mass of KM nO 4
0.1 mole ¿
158
Mass of KMnO4 ¿ 0.1 ×158=15.8 g
To prepare 0.2 M KMnO4 in 500 cm3 volumetric flask, follow the following steps.
a) Weigh out 15.8 g of KMnO4 (0.1 moles)
b) Add this solid into a beaker, add some water to dissolve it.
c) Transfer this solution to the 500 cm3 volumetric flask and add more water.
d) Keep adding water until the volume of solution rises to the etched line and mix the
solution. This is desired solution.
Q.46: How can you prepare 25cm3 of 0.25M solution of CuSO4. 5H2O.
(Blue vitriol).
3 25
Solution:- Required volume of solution ¿ 25 cm = =0.025 dm3
1000
0.25 M CuSO4. 5H2O. means:
1 dm3 solution contains 0.25 moles of CuSO4. 5H2O.
So, 0.025 dm3 solution contains ¿ 0.25 ×0.025 moles of CuSO4. 5H2O.
¿ 0.00625 moles of CuSO4. 5H2O.
Now convert moles of CuSO4. 5H2O. into mass using molar mass of CuSO4. 5H2O.
Molar mass of CuSO4. 5H2O. ¿ 63.5+32+16 × 4+5 ( 2+16 )
¿ 63.5+32+64 +90
¿ 249.5 g/mole
Mass of CuSO 4 . 5 H 2O .
Moles of CuSO4.5H2O. ¿
Molar mass of CuSO 4 .5 H 2 O.
MassofCuSO 4 .5 H 2 O.
0.00625 mole ¿
249.5
Mass of Cu SO4 . 5 H 2 O .=0.00625 ×249.5=1.56 g
To prepare 0.25 M Cu SO 4 . 5 H 2 O . in 25 cm3 volumetric flask, follow the following steps.
a) Weigh out 1.56 g of Cu SO 4 . 5 H 2 O . (0.00625 moles)
b) Add this solid into a beaker, add some water to dissolve it.
c) Transfer this solution to the 25 cm3 volumetric flask and add more water.
d) Keep adding water until the volume of solution rises to the etched line and mix the
solution. This is desired solution.
CHAPTER: 7
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
i. What is oxidation state?
Ans: Oxidation state or oxidation number is defined as the number of charges an atom will have in a
molecule or a compound.
ii. What is the oxidation number of Cr in chromic acid (H2CrO4)?
Ans: Oxidation number of Cr in Chromic acid (H2CrO4):
The sum of oxidation numbers must be zero.
2 [ O . N of H ] + [ O . N of Cr ] + 4 [ O . N of O ] =0
2 [ +1 ] + [ O . N of Cr ] + 4 [ −2 ] =0
+2+ [ O . N of Cr ] −8=0
[ O. N of Cr ] −6=0
[ O. N of Cr ] =+6
Thus oxidation state for Cr in H2CrO4 is +6 .
iii. Identify reducing agent in the following reaction.
Ans: First assign oxidation number to each atom.
Because the oxidation number of Cu decreases ( +2¿0 ) , so CuO is an oxidizing agent. Similarly
the oxidation number of H increases (0 to + 2), therefore H2 is reducing agent.
Q.2: Define oxidation and reduction?
Ans: Oxidation and reduction processes:
Oxidation Reduction
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen
EXAMPLES: (Loss / Gain of Oxygen / Hydrogen)
Example 1:
H2 gains oxygen to become H2O. Hence, hydrogen undergoes oxidation. CuO loses oxygen to
form Cu. Hence, copper oxide is reduced.
Q.3: Define oxidation and reduction in terms of loss or gain of electrons.
Ans: Oxidation:
A process that involves the loss of electrons by an element is called oxidation.
Examples:
For example, group IA and group IIA elements lose one and two electrons respectively
to form cations. In doing so, there metals undergo oxidation.
−¿¿
Na ⟶ Na
+¿+e ¿
Ca⟶ Ca +2 e−¿¿
+2
Other examples of oxidation are,

Fe ⟶ Fe + 2e
+2 −¿ ¿
Fe ⟶ Fe + e
+2 +3 −¿¿
+2 −¿¿
Cu⟶ Cu +2 e
Reduction:
A process that involves the gain of electrons by a substance is called reduction.
Examples:
Elements of group VIA and VIIA gain one and two electrons respectively to form
anions. They undergo reduction. −¿¿
Cl+ e−¿⟶ Cl ¿
−2
O+2 e−¿⟶ O ¿
−2
−¿⟶ S ¿
S+2 e
Q.4: List the possible uses of electrolytic cell.
Ans: Uses of electrolytic cells:
Possible uses of electrolytic cells are as follows:
a) Down’s cell is used for the commercial preparation of sodium metal. It produces chlorine
gas as by product.
b) Nelson’s cell is used for the commercial preparation of sodium hydroxide. It also produces
chlorine and hydrogen gas as by product.
c) Electrolytic cells are used for the commercial preparation of calcium and magnesium
metals.
d) It is used to produce aluminum metal commercially.
e) It is used for the purification of copper.
f) Electrolytic cells are used to electroplate metals such as tin, silver, nickel etc.
g) Electrolytic cells are used to prepare anodized aluminum. Anodized aluminum can absorb
dyes. Dyeing of anodized aluminum can produce metallic red, metallic blue or other
metallic colors on the metal surface.
Q.7: Difference between electrolytic and electrochemical cells.
Electrolytic cell Galvanic cell

1. In this cell, the electrical energy is 1. In this cell, chemical energy is converted
converted into chemical energy. into electrical energy.
2. In this cell, current is used to drive a 2. In this cell, current is produced as a result
chemical reaction. of chemical reaction.
3. Non-spontaneous oxidation-reduction take 3. Spontaneous oxidation-reduction
place. reactions take place.
4. Electrolysis takes place in this cell. 4. Electric conduction takes place in this
cell.
5. Examples: 5. Examples:
Down’s cell, Nelson’s cell. Daniel’s cell, fuel cell.
Q.8: State the substances which are oxidized or reduced. Give reason for your answer.
a) N 2 +3 H 2 ⟶ NH 3
b) CO 2+2 Mg ⟶ 2 MgO+C
c) Mg+ H 2 O ⟶ MgO+ H 2
d) H 2 S+ C l 2 ⟶ 2 HCl+ S
e) 2 N H 3 +3 CuO ⟶ 3 Cu+ N 2+ 3 H 2 O
a)
N-atoms undergo reduction, because there is a decrease in oxidation state of N (0 to -3).

H-atoms undergo oxidation, because there is a increase in oxidation state of H (0. to +3).
b)
O-atoms undergo reduction, because there is a decrease in oxidation state of O (0 to -2).

Mg-atoms undergo oxidation, because there is a increase in oxidation state of Mg (0 to +2).
c)
H-atoms undergo reduction, because there is a decrease in oxidation state of H (+2 to 0).
Mg-atoms undergo oxidation, because there is a increase in oxidation state of Mg (0 to +2).
d)
Cl-atoms undergo reduction, because there is a decrease in oxidation state of Cl (0 to -2).

S-atoms undergo oxidation, because there is a increase in oxidation state of S (-2 to 0).
e)
Cu-atoms undergo reduction, because there is a decrease in oxidation state of Cu (+2 to 0).
N-atoms undergo oxidation, because there is a increase in oxidation state of N (-3 to 0).
Q.9: a) Define oxidation number or oxidation state.
b) Find the oxidation state of nitrogen in the following compounds.
Ans: a) Oxidation States or oxidation number:
Oxidation state or oxidation number is defined as the number of charges an atom will have in a
molecule or a compound.
b) i. NO2 ii. N2O iii. N2O3 iv. HNO3
i. Oxidation number of N in NO2:
[ O. N of N ] +2 [ O . N of O ] =0
[ O. N of N ] +2 [−2 ]=0
[ O. N of N ] −4=0
[ O. N of N ] =+ 4
Thus oxidation state for N in NO2 is +4.
ii. Oxidation number of N in N2O:
2 [ O . N of N ] + [ O . N of O ] =0
2 [ O . N of N ] + [−2 ]=0
2 [ O . N of N ] −2=0
2 [ O . N of N ] =+2
2 [ O . N of N ] + 2
=
2 2
[ O. N of N ] =+1
Thus oxidation state for N in N2O is +1.
iii. Oxidation number of N in N2O3:
2 [ O . N of N ] +3 [ O . N of O ] =0
2 [ O . N of N ] +3 [ −2 ] =0
2 [ O . N of N ] −6=0
2 [ O . N of N ] =+6
2 [ O . N of N ] + 6
=
2 2
[ O. N of N ] =+3
Thus oxidation state for N in N2O3 is +3.
iv. Oxidation number of N in HNO3:
[ O. N of H ] + [ O . N of N ] +3 [ O . N of O ] =0
[ +1 ] + [ O . N of N ] +3 [ −2 ] =0
[ +1 ] + [ O . N of N ] −6=0
[ O. N of N ] −5=0
[ O. N of N ] =+5 Thus oxidation state for N in HNO3 is +5.
Q.10: Find the Oxidation state of S in the following compounds.
a) H2S b) H2SO3 c) Na2S2O3
a) Oxidation number of S in H2S:
[ O. N of S ] +2 [ O . N of H ]=0
[ O. N of S ] +2 [ +1 ] =0
[ O. N of S ] +2=0
[ O. N of S ] =−2
Thus oxidation state for S in H2S is -2.
b) Oxidation number of S in H2SO3:
2 [ O . N of H ] + [ O . N of S ] +3 [ O. N of O ] =0
2 [ +1 ] + [ O . N of S ] +3 [ −2 ] =0
+2+ [ O . N of S ] −6=0
[ O. N of S ] −4=0
[ O. N of S ] =+ 4
Thus oxidation state for S in H2SO3 is +4.
c) Oxidation number of S in Na2S2O3:
2 [ O . N of Na ] +2 [ O . N of S ] +3 [ O . N of O ] =0
2 [ +1 ] +2 [ O. N of S ] + 3 [−2 ] =0
+2+2 [ O. N of S ] −6=0
2 [ O . N of S ] −4=0
2 [ O . N of S ] =+4
2 [ O . N of S ] + 4
=
2 2
[ O. N of S ] =+2
Thus oxidation state for N in Na2S2O3 is +2.
Q.11.a) Define oxidizing & reducing agents.
b) Identify the oxidizing agents and reducing agents in the following reactions:
i. H 2 S+ C l 2 ⟶ 2 HCl+ S
ii. 2 FeCl 2 +C l 2 ⟶ 2 FeC l3
iii. 2 Kl+Cl 2 ⟶ 2 KCl+ I 2
iv. Mg+ 2 HCl ⟶ MgC l 2 + H 2
Ans:a) Oxidizing Agent:
A substance that involves gain of electrons & whose oxidation state is reduced is called
oxidizing agents.
Reducing Agent:
A substance that involves loss of electrons & whose oxidation state is increased is called
oxidizing agents.
Example: In the reaction between sodium and chlorine to form sodium chloride.
2 Na+C l 2 ⟶ 2 NaCl
Na is reducing agent hence being oxidized whereas Cl2 is oxidizing agent hence being reduced.
b)
i.
Since oxidation number of Cl is decreased from 0 to -1 therefore reduction takes place. In
above reaction Cl is reduced. Thus Cl2 is oxidizing agent. Since oxidation number of S is
increased from -2 to 0 therefore oxidation takes place. In above reaction S is oxidized. Thus
H2S is reducing agent.
ii.
above reaction Cl is reduced. Thus Cl2 is oxidizing agent. Since oxidation number of Fe is
increased from +2 to +3 therefore oxidation takes place. In above reaction Fe is oxidized. Thus
FeCl2 is reducing agent.
iii.
above reaction Cl is reduced. Thus Cl2 is oxidizing agent. Since oxidation number of I is
increased from -1 to 0 therefore oxidation take place. In above reaction I is oxidized. Thus KI
is reducing agent.
iv.
Since oxidation number of Cl is decreased from -1 to -2 therefore reduction takes place. In
above reaction Cl is reduced. Thus Cl2 is oxidizing agent. Since oxidation number of Mg is
increased from 0 to +2 therefore oxidation takes place. In above reaction Mg is oxidized. Thus
Mg is reducing agent.
Q.12: Hydrogen peroxide reacts with silver oxide and lead (II) sulphide according to the
following equations.
i. H 2 O 2+ Ag2 O ⟶ 2 Ag+ H 2 O+O 2
ii. 4 H 2 O2 + Pbs ⟶ PbSO 2 +4 H 2 O
In hydrogen peroxide an oxidizing or reducing agent in these reactions.

Give your reason.
Ans: i. Reduction of silver oxide:
Hydrogen peroxide is a reducing agent in this reaction.

Reason:
Hydrogen peroxide converts silver oxide into silver. Silver goes under reduction.
Oxidation number of reducing atom Ag changes from +2 zero.
(Decrease in oxidation number is called reduction).
ii.
Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent in this reaction.
Reason:
Hydrogen peroxide converts PbS into PbSO4. Sulphur goes under oxidation. Oxidation
number of oxidizing atom S changes from +2 to +6.
(Increase in oxidation number is called oxidation).
Q.13: What materials do you need to electro plate copper onto an iron nail. Make a diagram
showing how these materials should be arranged.
Ans:i. In copper plating, the anode is made of copper metal and the electrolyte is CuSO4 to which a
few drops of sulphuric acid are added to prevent its hydrolysis.
ii. The article (Iron nail) to be electroplated is made the cathode.
iii. The following electrolytic reactions take place, at the electrodes.
2+¿+2 e ¿
At anode: Cu ( s) ⟶ Cu (aq )
At cathode: Cu (aq )+ 2 e ⟶Cu( s)
+2
Q.14: Describe the process that is occurring in the following illustration. Shoe has steel strips.
Ans: In the above figure copper plating is used because electrolyte is CuSO4.
i. In copper plating, the anode is made of copper metal and the electrolyte is CuSO4 to which
a few drops of sulphuric acid are added to prevent its hydrolysis.
ii. The article (Shoe) to be electroplated is made the cathode.
iii. The following electrolytic reactions take place, at the electrodes.
At anode: Cu ( s) ⟶ Cu 2+¿+2
( aq )
e¿
At cathode: ( aq ) + 2 e ⟶Cu ( s)
Cu +2
Q.15: Following redox reaction occurs in the voltaic cell illustrated below:
Identify the anode, cathode and indicate the direction of flow of electrons.
Ans: Anode: Anode is Fe electrode oxidation takes place at iron electrode.
Cathode: Cathode is Ni electrode oxidation takes place at iron electrode.
At anode (oxidation half reaction) −¿¿
2+¿+2 e ¿
Fe ⟶ Fe
At cathode (reduction half reaction)
−¿⟶ N i (s ) ¿
2 +¿+2 e ¿
¿( aq)
Direction of flow of electron:
Anode (Fe electrode) to cathode (Ni electrode).
Q.16: Design an experiment to demonstrate cathodic protection from corrosion.
Ans: Cathodic Protection:
Cathodic protection is the process in which the metal that is to be protected from
corrosion is made cathode and is connected to metals such as magnesium or aluminum. These
metals are more active than iron, so they act as anode and iron as cathode. The more active
metals themselves oxidize and save iron from corrosion. Cathodic protection is employed to
prevent iron and steel structures such as pipes, tanks, oil rigs etc in the moist underground and
marine environment.
Q.20: Identify elements undergoing oxidation and reduction in the following reactions:
Solution:-
N-atoms undergo reduction, because there is a decrease in oxidation state of N (0 to -3).
H-atoms undergo oxidation, because there is a increase in oxidation state of H (0 to

+3).
H-atoms undergo oxidation, because there is a increase in oxidation state of H (0 to

+2).
i. Carbon is being oxidized because there is an increase in its oxidation state.

ii. Fe is being reduced because there is a decrease in its oxidation state.
iii. The reactant CO contains the C that is being oxidized, so CO is reducing agent.
iv. The reactant Fe2O3 contains the Fe that is being reduced. So Fe2O3 is oxidizing agent.
Oxidizing or reducing agent is the whole molecule or formula unit and not the atom that has
undergone change in oxidation number.
Al-atoms undergo oxidation, because there is a increase in oxidation state of Al (0 t+6).

Q.21: In the following reaction identify which element is oxidized and which element is being
reduced
Ans: We have learned that Group IIA metals form M+2 cations, and that Group VIA no-metals form
X-2 anions. This means in this reaction each Ca atom loses two electrons to form Ca+2, so it
oxidized. Each oxygen atom gains two electrons to form O-2, so it is reduced.
Q.22: In the following reactions, identify which element is oxidized and which element is
reduced.
Solution:-
Mg atom loses two electrons to form Mg+2 so it is oxidized.
S atom has gain two electrons to form S-2, so it is reduced.

ii.
Na atom loses one electron to form Na+1, so it is oxidized.
O atom has gain two electrons to form O-2, so it is reduced.
Al atom loses three electrons to form Al+3, so it is oxidized.
Cl atom has gain three electrons to form 3Cl-1, so it is reduced.
Mg atom loses two electrons to form Mg+2, so it is oxidized.
Q.23: Do you think H in HCl is oxidized and Cl is reduced?
Ans: Oxidation state of H in HCl is +1 (loss of one electron) Hence H is oxidized.

Oxidation state of Cl in HCl is -1 (gain of one electron) Hence Cl is reduced.
Q.24: Describe the rules for assigning oxidation states or numbers?
Ans: Rules for assigning oxidation states or numbers:
1. The oxidation state of any uncombined or free elements is always zero e.g. oxidation state
of Zn, Na, H in H2, S in S8 etc is zero.
2. In simple ions, oxidation state is same as their charge e.g., oxidation state of Na in Na+1 and
Ca in Ca+2 are +1 and +2 respectively.
3. In a complex ion the total sum of oxidation states of atoms is equal to the charge on their
−2
ion. e.g., in CO 3 , the difference of oxidation states of C and 3‘O’ atoms is -2. Similarly, in
NH 4 , the sum of oxidation states of N and 4H atoms is +1.
+1
4. The oxidation number of each of the atoms in a molecule or compound counts separately
and their algebraic sum is zero e.g., in HCl, the sum of oxidation states of H and Cl atoms
is zero. Similarly in CO2, the sum of oxidation states of one C and 2 oxygen atoms is zero.
Elements Oxidation State

Group-IA +1
Group-IIA +2
Group-IIIA +3
H +1 (except in metal hydrides where it is -1)
Group-VIIA -1
O -2 (except peroxides and in OF2)
Q.25: A device called Breath Alyzer is used by police to test a person’s breath for alcohol. It
contains an acidic solution of potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7. It is a stron oxidizing agent.
Determine oxidation state of Cr in it.
Ans: Solution:-
1. The oxidation number of K is +1 since it belongs to Group-1A. There are 2 K atoms therefore,
overall oxidation number for K is 2 ( +1 )=+2.
2. There are 7 oxygen atoms therefore overall oxidation state for O is 7 (−2 )=−14.
3. Suppose oxidation for Cr is x, since there are two Cr atoms, therefore overall oxidation state
for Cr is 2x.
4. The sum of oxidation numbers must be zero.
+2+2 x+ (−14 ) =0
2 x−12=0
2 x=12
x=+6
Thus oxidation state for Cr in K2Cr2O7 is +6.
Q.26: Boric acid H3BO3 is used in eye wash. What is the oxidation state of B in this acid?
Ans: Problem solving strategy:-
Solution:-
1. There are 3 H-atoms, therefore, overall oxidation state for H is 3 ( +1 )=+3
2. There are 3 O-atoms, therefore, overall oxidation state for O is 3 (−2 )=−6
3. Suppose the oxidation state for B is x.
4. The total oxidation states for all the atoms must be zero.
+3+ x + (−6 )=0
+3+ x−6=0
x−3=0
x=3
Thus the oxidation state for B in H3BO3 is +3 .
Q.27: Determine the oxidation number of N in NO2 and HNO3, S in SO2 and H2SO4.
Solution:- Oxidation number of N in NO2:
[ O. N of N ] +2 [ O . N of O ] =0
[ O. N of N ] +2 [−2 ]=0
[ O. N of N ] −4=0
[ O. N of N ] =+ 4
Thus oxidation state for N in NO2 is +4.
Solution:- Oxidation number of N in HNO3:
[ O. N of H ] + [ O . N of N ] +3 [ O . N of O ] =0
[ +1 ] + [ O . N of N ] +3 [ −2 ] =0
[ O. N of N ] −5=0
[ O. N of N ] =+5
Thus oxidation state for N in HNO3 is +5.
Solution:- Oxidation number of S in SO2:
[ O. N of S ] + [ O. N of O ] =0
[ O. N of S ] +2 [−2 ]=0
[ O. N of S ] −4=0
[ O. N of S ] =+ 4
Thus oxidation state for S in SO2 is +4.
Solution:- Oxidation number of S in H2SO4:
2 [ O . N of H ] + [ O . N of S ] +4 [ O . N of O ] =0
2 [ +1 ] + [ O . N of S ] +4 [−2 ] =0
+2+ [ O . N of S ] −8=0
[ O. N of S ] −7=0
[ O. N of S ] =+7
Thus oxidation state for S in H2SO4 is +7.
Q.28: The torch cell discharges electricity because of an oxidation-reduction reaction that takes
place between zinc and manganese dioxide.
Identify the oxidizing and reducing agent in this reaction.

Solution:-
Since oxidation number of zn is decreased from +2 to -1 therefore reduction take place. In

above reaction Cl is reduce. Thus Cl2 is oxidizing agent.
Since oxidation number of S is increased from -2 to 0 therefore oxidation take place.
In above reaction S is oxidized. Thus H2S is reducing agent.
Q.29: Identify oxidizing and reducing agents in the following reactions:
Solution:-
a)

above reaction Cl is reduced. Thus Cl2 is oxidizing agent.
Since oxidation number of S is increased from 0 to +2 therefore oxidation takes place. In above
reaction S is oxidized. Thus S is reducing agent.
b)
Since oxidation number of Br is decreased from 0 to -2 therefore reduction takes place. In

above reaction Br is reduced. Thus Br2 is oxidizing agent.
Since oxidation number of N is increased from 0 to +2 therefore oxidation takes place. In
above reaction Na is oxidized. Thus Na is reducing agent.
c)
Since oxidation number of S is decreased from 0 to -2 therefore reduction takes place. In above
reaction S is reduced. Thus S is oxidizing agent.
Since oxidation number of H is increased from 0 to +2 therefore oxidation takes place. In
above reaction H is oxidized. Thus H is reducing agent.
Q.31: Distinguish between electrolytes and non electrolytes?
Ans: Electrolytes:-
A substance the conducts electricity when it is dissolved in water or in the molten state is
called electrolyte.
Examples:-
Examples of electrolytes are NaCl, KCl, HCl, NaOH etc.
Non electrolytes:-
A substance that cannot conduct electricity when dissolved in water or in the molten state is
called non-electrolyte.
Examples:-
Examples of non-electrolytes are urea, glucose, sucrose, benzene etc.
Q.32: List the condition of good electroplating?
Ans: Conditions for good electroplating are as follows:
i. High current density.
ii. Low temperature.
iii. High concentration of metal in its electrolyte.
Q.33: What do you mean by corrosion?
Ans: Corrosion:
Corrosion is the process in which a metal reacts with oxygen and moisture in the
atmosphere. It is a natural process that converts refined metals to the more stable metal oxides.
Q:34 Explain Galvanic Cell (Daniel Cell)?
Ans:
The cell which involves spontaneous redox reaction to generates electricity is called a
galvanic or voltaic cell. The name Voltaic is given to this cell because Alessandro Volta
discovered first such cell. The English chemist Fredrick Daniel constructed first voltaic cell
using zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) electrodes. Therefore this cell is named as Daniel Cell.
A galvanic cell consists of the following parts:
(1) A zinc bar dipped into a 1M Zn SO4 solution.
(2) A copper bar dipped into a 1M CU SO4 solution.
(3) A salt bridge which is inverted U tube containing an inert electrolyte such as KCl. Its ions
do not react with the electrodes or with the ions in solution. It makes the electrical contacts
between the solutions through which ions can move.
(4) A voltmeter to measure current.
Each compartment of cell is called a half cell. Thus a Daniel cell consists of two half-
cell joined in series. When circuit is complete, electrons begin to flow from Zn rod through the
external wires to Cu rod. Thus Zn half-cell acts as anode and Cu half-cell as cathode. Note
that a half cell consists of a metal rod dipped in the solution of its salt.
Reactions in a Daniel cell:
In Daniel cell, electrons flow from Zn rod, through the external wire to Cu rod. This is
because Zn has more tendency to undergo oxidation than Cu, Zn atoms from the rod go into
the solution as Zn+2 ions leaving electrons on the rod. These electrons flow in the external
circuit. Thus oxidation half reaction occurs at anode compartment. Cu2 ions in copper
sulphate solution capture electrons from Cu electrode and are reduced. Reduction half
reduction occurs at the cathode compartment. Such oxidation and reduction reactions are
called half cell reactions.
At Anode (Oxidation half reaction):
Zn (s) → Zn+2 (aq) + 2e
At Cathode (Reduction half reaction):
Cu+2-(aq) +2e —Cu (S)
Q:35 Explain Zinc plating?
Ans:
Zinc plating on steel is done by using zinc metal as anode. A solution of potassium
zinc cyanide K[Zn(CN)4] containing little sodium cyanide is used as electrolyte. The steel
object is made cathode. During the electrolysis zinc at the anode enters the solution as Zn +2
ions, which are deposited at the cathode. The electrolyte ionizes as follows.
K2[Zn(CN)4] (aq) 2K+(aq) + [Zn(CN4] (aq)
[Zn(CN4) (aq) Zn +(aq) + 4CN' (aq)
Following reactions occur at the electrodes:
At anode: Zn(s) → Zn +2 (aq) + 2e
At cathode: Zn +2 (aq) + 2e Zn(s)
Sodium cyanide prevents the hydrolysis of electrolyte.
(Awareness against pollution)
Cyanide ions are extremely toxic. Therefore, solution containing cyanide ions must not
be dropped into rivers and streams. This is responsible for killing fish and other animals.
Q:36 Explain Chromium Plating?
Ans:
Since chromium metal does not adhere strongly to the steel therefore steel is first plated with
copper or nickel and then with chromium. For electroplating chromium, chromium metal is
used as anode and chromium sulphate, Cr2(SO4)3 as an electrolyte. Few drops of dil
H2SO4 are added in the electrolyte to prevent its hydrolysis. The electrolyte ionizes as
follows:
Cr2(S04)3 (aq) — 2Cr+3(aq) + 3SO4 -2(aq)
Do you agree that the following reactions will occur at the electrodes?
At anode: Cr(s) — Cr+3 (aq) +3e
At cathode: Cr+3(aq) +3e Cr(s)
Chromium plated steel is used to make automobile parts.
Q:37 Explain Cathodic protection?
Ans:
Cathodic protection is the process in which the metal that is to be protected from corrosion is
made cathode and is connected to metals such as magnesium or aluminum. These metals
are more active than iron, so they act as anode and iron as cathode. The more active metals
themselves oxidize and save iron from corrosion. Cathodic protection is employed to prevent
iron and steel structures such as pipes, tanks, oil rigs etc in the moist underground and
marine environment .
Q:38 Explain Rusting of Iron?
Ans:
Most familiar example of corrosion is the formation of rust on iron. Oxygen and water
are necessary for iron to rust. A region of metal surface that has relatively less moisture, acts
as anode. Will Fe oxidize in this region?
Fe(s) —► Fe+2(aq) + 2e
Another region on the surface of metal that has relatively more moisture acts as cathode.
The electrons released in the oxidation process reduce atmospheric oxygen to hydroxyl ions.
02 + 2H2O +4e -  4OH-
The Fe+2 ions formed at the anodic regions flow to the cathodic regions through the
moisture on the surface. Here Fe+2 ions further react with oxygen to form rust,
Fe2O3.XH2O.
Q:39 Explain Corrosion of Aluminum ?
Ans:
Corrosion is not limited to iron. Aluminium is extensively used in the construction of
aircraft, ships, cars, cooking utensil, window frames, soda canes etc. Aluminium has much
higher tendency to oxidize than iron. Therefore, we might expect to see aircraft, ships, cars,
cooking utensils, soda canes transformed into piles of corroded aluminium. However, this
does not occur. This is because a tough layer of insoluble aluminium oxide (Al2O3) forms on
its surface when metal is exposed to air. This layer firmly adheres to the metal and serves to
protect the underlying aluminum layers from further corrosion. On the other hand, the
insoluble layer of rust, Fe2O3xH20 that forms on the surface of iron is too porous to protect
the underlying metal. This layer flakes away and exposes metal for further corrosion.
CHAPTER: 8
i. In a group the reactivity of metals with oxygen increases while in a period it decreases?
Give examples?
Ans: In a group the reactivity of metals with oxygen increases. For instance, alkali metals on exposure
to air show an increase in affinity for oxygen as we move down the group. Lithium forms normal
oxide.
Sodium forms per oxide.
K, Rb and Cs form super oxide.
In periods as we move from left to right, reactivity of metals with oxygen decreases.
Examples:-For instance, in the third period sodium readily reacts with oxygen to form sodium
peroxide, at room temperature. Mg reacts with oxygen only on ignition. Al reacts with oxygen on
heating. It is superficially oxidized at room temperature to form Al2O3 layer which serves as a
protective covering that prevents further reaction.
ii. Which element is more metallic Mg or Al? Explain.
Ans: Mg and Al are the members of period 3rd. Mg is more reactive than Al. Mg and Al both have
same valence shell. Ionization Energy of Mg is more than that of Al. Mg reacts with oxygen
readily on ignition but Al reacts with oxygen on heating. More over Al forms surface coating
oxide & stops the reaction.
iii. Arrange the following in order of increasing acidic strength. HF, HI, HBr, HCl.
Ans: The hydrogen halides dissolve in water to form hydrohalic acids e.g., hydrochloric acid HCl,
hydrofluoric acid HF etc. Except HF, other hydrohalic are strong acids. The acidic strength
increases in the following order because of decrease in polaity & hydrogen bonding.
HF < HCl < HBr < Hl
iv. Can F2 oxidize all the halides ions to free halogen?
Ans: Yes, F2 can oxidize all the halides ions to free halogen. Oxidizing power of F2 is the highest and
that of l2 is lowest. Due to the relative strength as oxidizing agent, it is possible for a free halogen
to oxidize the ion of halogen next to it in the group. This means F2 can oxidize all the halide ions
to free halogen.
For examples,
Similarly Cl2 can oxidize Br- and l- ions. But I2 cannot oxidize any halide ion.
Q.2: Arrange the following oxides in order of decreasing basic character.
BeO, CaO, MgO, SrO
Ans: Basic character of metal oxides of main group elements increases down the group. For example,
in group IIA, the basic character of oxides increases in the following order.
BeO < MgO < CaO < SrO
Q.3: Rank the each set of elements in order of increasing metallic character.
a) Al, Na, Mg
b) Na, Li, K
Ans:a) Al, Na and Mg lies in period 3rd. As in period from left to right electropositive character
decreases, therefore decreasing metallic character is given by.
Na < Mg < Al
c) Na, Li and K lies in group IA. As in group from top to bottom electropositive character
increases therefore decreasing metallic character is given by.Li < Na < K
Q.4: Which of the following displacement reaction will not occur? Give reason.
a)
b)
c)
Solution:-
a)
Displacement reaction will not occur because the reactivity of halogens decreases down
the group. Thus, the order of decreasing oxidizing power is:
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2.
Therefore Cl2 cannot oxidize F2.
b)
Displacement reaction will occur because the reactivity of halogens decreases down the
group. Thus, the order of decreasing oxidizing power is:
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2.
Therefore Br2 can oxidize I2.
d)
Displacement reaction will not occur because the reactivity of halogens decrease down
the group. Thus, the order of decreasing oxidizing power is:
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2. Therefore I2 cannot oxidize Br2.
Q.5: Identify the position of potassium and calcium in the periodic table.
Ans: Potassium is group IA element and known as alkali metal. Potassium has general electron
configuration ns1 in its valence shell.
Calcium is group IIA element and known as alkaline earth metal. Calcium has general electron
configuration ns2 in its valence shell.
Q.6: What is aqua regia?
Ans: Aqua regia:
Gold and platinum react only with aqua regia. Aqua regia is a mixture of three parts by volume
of conc. HCl and one part by volume of conc. HNO3. It is highly reactive due to release of
atomic chlorine.
Q.7: Why it is advisable, not to pick sodium metal with fingers.
Ans: Reaction of sodium with water:
Sodium reacts with water violently to form sodium hydroxide and liberates hydrogen gas.
This reaction is highly exothermic and proceeds with light explosion. For this reason, it should
not be picked with fingers.
Q.8: Arrange the following elements in order of increasing non-metallic character.
Si, Al, P.
Ans: Since Si, Al and P lies in period 3rd and in a period from left to right non metallic character
increases, therefore increasing metallic character is: P < Si < Al
Q.9: An iron bar is to be silver plated which metal would be the anode and which the cathode?
Ans: Anode is pure silver and cathode is Iron bar which is to be plated.
Q.10: When gold or platinum ornaments are placed in the moist air, they do not rust why?
Ans: The metals gold, silver and platinum are not affected by air. Therefore these are not rusted. More
over they are durable and show metallic luster. They are not oxidized by environment. These are
noble & pure metals.
Q.11: Can iodine displace Cl2 or Br2 from their salts?
Ans: Iodine (I2) cannot displace Cl2 or Br2 form their salts because in case of halogens oxidizing
power of F2 is the highest and that of I2 is lowest. The oxidizing power of Halogens is in the
order F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2.
Q.12: How is the reactivity of elements related to the outermost electrons in atoms?
Ans: Chemically the property of an element that makes it a metal is its ability to lose valence electrons
to form metal cation. The tendency of a metal to lose electrons is called electropositivity. In a
group going from top to bottom Ionization energy decreases and tendency to loose valence
electron increases. Hence reactivity increases down the group. Thus sodium is more
electropositive than lithium. Similarly, magnesium is more electropositive than beryllium.
The tendency to lose electron decreases as we move from left to right to right in a period. For
instance in the second period Li and Be are metals, B is metalloid, whereas C, N, O, F and Ne
are non-metals.
Be is less metallic than Li. These trends in electropositivity are reflected in chemical reactivity of
metals.
Q.13: List the important properties of metals?
Ans: Metals:
Metals like aluminum, iron and copper can be transformed into a variety of shapes by melting,
molding, casting, hammering and rolling. They are typically shiny solids, have moderate to high
melting points and are good conductor of heat and electricity. They tend to lose electrons in
chemical reactions.
Q.14: Explain the electropositive character of the metals?
Ans: Electropositive character (Electropositivity):
Chemically the property of an element that makes it a metal is its ability to lose valence electrons
to form metal cation. The tendency of a metal to lose electrons is called electropositivity.
Where M stands for any metal. Metals have large atomic size and low ionization energies.
Variation of electropositive character in groups:
As ionization energy decreases down the group, the electropositivity increases. Thus sodium is
more electropositive than lithium. Similarly, magnesium is more electropositive than beryllium.
Variation of electropositive character in periods:
The tendency to lose electron decreases as we move from left to right in a period. For instance in
the second period Li and Be are metals, B is metalloid, whereas C, N, O, F and Ne are non-
metals.
Be is less metallic than Li. These trends in electropositivity are reflected in chemical reactivity of
metals.
Q.15: Describe the trends in electropositivity from the nature of the oxides?
Ans: Metal oxides:-
Metal oxides are generally basic in character. This is because they produce bases in water.
Non-metallic oxides:-
Non-metallic oxides are generally acidic since they produce acids in water.
Basic character of oxides:-The basic character of oxides decreases as we move along a period.
This indicates decrease in metallic character.
Examples:-Elements of the third period form oxides such as Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10,
SO2, Cl2O7. These oxides turn from strongly basic through weakly basic, amphoteric, weakly
acidic to strongly acidic.
Group IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
3rd period Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 Cl2O7
Nature of Strongly Basic Amphoteric Weakly Acidic Strongly Very
oxide basic (both acidic acidic Acidic strongly
and basic) acidic
Nature of oxides of elements in the period No. 3
On the other hand basic character of metal oxides of main group elements increases down
the group. For example, in group IIA, the basic character of oxides increases in the following
order.
BeO < MgO < CaO < SrO < BaO=
Q.16: Why elements of group II are less electropositive than those of group I?
Ans: The reactivity of elements of group IA and IIA are related to the ionization energy. Lesser the
ionization energy, greater is the reactivity of an element. Their ionization energies decrease
down in the groups IA and IIA and their reactivity increase. Alkaline earth metals are less
reactive than alkali metals.
The reason is that ionization energies of alkali metals are less. Hence, elements of group IIA are
less electropositive than those of group IA.
Q.17: In each of the following pairs of elements, identify which element is more metallic.
a) Na, K b) Be, Na
Ans: Metallic character increases down the group and decreases left to right in a period.
a) K is more metallic because K lies below Na in group IA.
b) Na is more metallic because Na lies left in 3rd period to be in 2nd period.
Q.18: In each of the following pairs identify, which element is more metallic?
a) Be, B b) Si, Al c) K, Li
Ans:
a) Be and B lies in period 2nd. As in a period from left to right electropositive character
decreases therefore Be is more metallic element B.
b) Si and Al lies in period 3rd. As in period from left to right electropositive character decreases
therefore Al is more metallic element Si.
c) K and Li lies in group IA. As in group from top to bottom electropositive character increases
therefore K is more metallic element Li.
Q.19: Using the periodic table, rank each set of elements in order decreasing metallic character
a) Na, Li, K b) Al, Na, Mg
Ans:a) Na, Li, and K lies in group IA. As in group from top to bottom electropositive character
increases therefore decreasing metallic character is given by. Li < Na < K
c) Al, Na and Mg lies in period 3rd. As in period from left to right electropositive character
decreases therefore decreasing metallic character are given by.
Na < Mg < Al
Q.20: Which is more basic; Li2O or Na2O?
Ans: Li and Na lies in group IA. As in group from top to bottom basic character of metal oxide
increases therefore Na2O is more basic than Li2O.
Q.21: What do you mean by inertness of noble metals?
Ans: Inertness of noble metals:-
The chemistry of metals is characterized by their ability to lose electrons to form cations. Some
metals such as copper, silver, gold and platinum are relatively difficult to oxidize. Therefore,
these metals are often called noble metals. Gold and platinum exist mostly as free elements in
nature. Copper and silver exist in both free and combined states.
All active metals react with HCl but noble metals do not react with HCl. Copper and silver react
with strong oxidizing agents such as conc. HNO3 and HClO4.
Q.22: Write briefly the importance of silver, gold and platinum?
Ans: Importance of silver and gold:-
i. Silver and gold have been admired for thousands of years and are still used in jewelry and
fine flatware and ornaments.
ii. These metals have beautiful luster and high malleability, therefore can be transformed
easily into different shapes. However both are too soft to be used for these purposes. Both
are alloyed with copper to make them harder.
iii. In former times gold and silver were used in coins but now-a-days copper-nickel alloys
are universally used for making coins.
iv. Silver is an excellent conductor of both electricity and heat. It is used for making utensils.
v. The light sensitive silver halides are used in photographic processes. Gold alloys are
extensively used in dentistry.
vi. Some compounds of gold have useful therapeutic applications.
Platinum:-
1. Platinum is widely used as catalyst for many types of industrial processes. For example,
100% pure sulphuric acid is prepared by the contact process. In this process platinum is used
as catalyst.
2. Platinum is used as electrode as a part of hydrogen electrode and in fuel cells.
3. Automobile exhaust is a major source of air pollution. Therefore, most new cars are
equipped with catalytic converters. These converters contain platinum. These converters
catalyze the complete combustion of CO and hydrocarbons.
4. A platinum compound called cis-platin is useful as an anti cancer agent.
Q.23: In each of the following pairs of elements, identify which element is more non-metallic.
a) N or O b) F or Cl
Ans:
O is more non-metallic because it is right to N in 2nd period.
a) F is more non-metallic because it is top to Cl in group VII A.
Q.24: In each of the following pairs, identify which element is less non-metallic.
a) B or C b) C or Si c) Cl or Br
Ans:a) Since B and C lies in period 2nd and in period from left to right non-metallic character increases
therefore B is less non-metallic than C.
b) Since C and Si lies in group IVA and in group from top to bottom non-metallic character
decreases therefore Si is less non metallic than C.
c) Since Cl and Br lies in group VIIA and in group from top to bottom non metallic character
decreases therefore Br is less non metallic than Cl.
Q.25: Using periodic table rank each set of elements in order of increasing non-metallic
character.
a) N, F, O b) Cl, Br, I c) Si, S, P
Ans: a)Since N, F and O lies in period 2 and in period from left to right non metallic character increases
therefore: N<O<F
b) Since Cl, Br and I lie in group VIIA and in group from top to bottom non metallic character
decreases therefore: Cl < Br < I
c) Since Si, S and P lies in period 3 and in period from left to right non metallic character increases
therefore: Si < P < S
Q.26: what do you known about halogens?
Ans: Halogens:-
The elements in group VII-A are called halogens. The name halogen is derived from the Greek
words “halous” meaning salt and “gen” meaning former. Halogens include fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine and astatine (astatine is a radioactive element. Little is known about its
properties.) All halogens are reactive non-metals. They all exist as diatomic molecular
substances.
All the halogens react with metals to form salts called halides. In these reactions metals are
oxidized. So, halogens act as oxidizing agents. Fluorine is the most reactive element known.
Chlorine is less reactive, but combines vigorously with many metals. For instance sodium metal
burns in chlorine gas to form sodium chloride.
Bromine and iodine react with metals less vigorously.

Q.27: How do you compare the reactivity of halogens?
Ans: Comparison of reactivity of halogens:-
Electronegativity of Halogen decreases down the group, hence reactivity decreases down the
group. All the halogens are the most reactive elements as a family. Fluorine is the most reactive
due to its high electronegativity, small size, extremely high oxidizing power and low dissociation
energy of F-F bond.
The reactivity decreases with atomic number, e.g., in the displacement reactions we find
that fluorine displaces all the remaining three halogens from their salts. Chlorine displaces only
bromine and iodine, bromine displaces only iodine while iodine displaces none.
Bromine and iodine react with metals less vigorously. The reactivity of halogens decrease down
the group. Thus, the order of decreasing power oxidizing is
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
The halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides.
Where X = F, Cl, Br, I

Reaction of fluorine with hydrogen is explosive. The hydrogen halides dissolve in water to form
hydrohalic acid e.g., hydrochloric acid HCl, hydrofluoric acid HF etc. Except HF, other
hydrohalic are strong acids. The acidic strength increases in the following order:
HF < HCl < HBr < Hl
Oxidizing power of F2 is the highest and that of l2 is lowest. Due to the relative strength as
oxidizing agent, it is possible for a free halogen to oxidize the ion of halogen next to it in the
group. This means F2 can oxidize all the halide ions to free halogen.
For example,
Similarly Cl2 can oxidize Br- and l- ions. But I2 cannot oxidize any halide ion.
Q.28: Which of the following displacement reactions will occur?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Solution:-
1.
Displacement reaction will not occur because the reactivity of halogens decreases down the
group. Thus, the order of decreasing oxidizing power is?
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Therefore, Cl2 cannot oxidize F2.
2.
Displacement reaction will occur because the reactivity of halogens decreases down the group.
Thus, the order of decreasing power oxidizing is:
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Therefore Br2 can oxidize I2.
3.
Displacement reaction will not occur because the reactivity of halogens decreases down the
group. Thus, the order of decreasing oxidizing power is?
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Therefore I2 cannot oxidize Br2.
4.
Displacement reaction will occur because the reactivity of halogens decrease down the group.
Thus, the order of decreasing oxidizing power is?
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Therefore Cl2 can oxidize Br2.
5.
Displacement reaction will occur because the reactivity of halogens decreases down the group.
Thus, the order of decreasing oxidizing power is?
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Therefore Cl2 can oxidize I2.

Chemistry Notes Class 9

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry Notes Class 9

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PENNFOSTER’S NOTES BY MUHAMMAD TARIQ

CHEMISTRY NOTES SSC I

Q.6: What is corpuscular nature of matter?

1. Earth 2. Air 3. Water 4. Fire

Q.8: Which technique Archimedes discovered to cheek the purity of a metal?

Q.9: Write down postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory?

Ans: Main postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are as follows:

i. All elements are composed of tiny idivisible particles called atoms.

Q.10: what is the importance of Dalton’s theory?

Ans: Dalton’s atomic theory is important in many ways.

Q.11: Explain why An oxide ion has −2 charge?

Total Charge on Ion ¿−10

Net Charge on ion ¿−2

So, charge on ion is +2.

Total charge on ion ¿−10

Net Charge on ion ¿+2

Q.13: Explain why sulphide ion, S−2 has −2 charge?

The charge on ion is −2.

Total charge on nucleus ¿+16 .

Total charge on ion ¿−18.

Net charge on ion ¿−2.

Q.14: What are molecular ions. Write their properties?

Q.15: Differentiate between free radical and Ion?

Free Radical Ion

examples of Free Radical are examples of ions.

Gram Atomic Mass Gram Molecular Mass Gram Formula Mass

Q.17: Who were Alchemists & what was their contribution?

Q.18: What is the importance of Garlic?

Q.19: What is a mole?

23 g atoms of Na=1 mole

18 g molecules of H 2 O=1 mole

58.5 g formula units of NaCl=1 mole

Analytical Chemistry Environmental Chemistry

Q.21: Calculate mass of one mole of

Ans: a) Molar mass of H 2 O 2=( 1.008× 2 ) + ( 16 ×2 )

2.5 moles of H 2 O 2=34.016 ×2.5

b) 1 mole of H 2 O 2=( 1.008× 2 ) + ( 16 ×2 )

34.016g of H 2 O 2=1 mole

58.5g of NaCl = 1 mole of NaCl

Q.24: Calculate mass of one mole of BaSO4?

1 mole of BaSO 4=233 g of BaSO 4

Q.27: What is a mole?

18 g molecules of H 2 O=1 mole

58.5 g formula units of NaCl=1 mol

Q.28: what is the No of molecules in 9.0g of steam?

Q.31: How Avogadro’s number is related to a mole of any substance?

Molar mass of K=39 g mo l−1

b) No. of moles of H 2=n=75 moles

Molar mass of H 2=M =2.016 g mo l−1

c) No. of moles of steam ¿ n=0.25 moles

Molar mass of steam ¿ M =18 g mol −1

Mass of steam ¿ m=?

d) No. of moles of CuS O 4 .5 H 2 O=1.05 moles

Molar mass of CuS O 4 .5 H 2 O=249.5 g mol −1

Mass of CuS O 4 .5 H 2 O=m=?

e) No. of moles of H 2 S O 4 =n=0.15 moles

Molar mass of H 2 S O4 =M =98 g mo l−1

Molar mass of Na=M =23 g mo l−1

No. of atoms of Na=?

c) Mass of H atom ¿ m=5 g

Molar mass of H – atom ¿ M=1.008 g mo l −1

¿ 2.987 ×1022 atoms

Ans: Mass of e=12 g