DLR-Fizik Konu Anlatımı
DLR-Fizik Konu Anlatımı
Newton’s First Law: Inertia The more mass an object has, the more inertia it has.
Newton’s Second Law: Fnet = ma A larger mass is more difficult to accelerate than a smaller one!
Also, a larger force accelerates a mass more than a smaller one!
Newton’s Third Law For every force, there is an equal and opposite force.
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Friction Static friction keeps him from sliding off the chair. Kinetic friction slows him as he slides.
Work Energy Theorem: Work = ΔE total energy before = total energy after
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it may be transformed from one form into another, but the total amount of
energy never changes.
MOMENTUM ( P = MV )
Only moving objects possess momentum. In a way, momentum is the motion equivalent of inertia.
A large moving object is more difficult to stop than a small moving object.
No Bounce Interaction
A ball is falling towards the ground. It would take some change in momentum,
or impulse, to stop a moving object.
Bouncing Interaction
However, it would take even more impulse to stop the object, and then make
it ricochet in the opposite direction.
Conservation of Momentum Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
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Summary of Collisions
Explosion: one object breaking into more objects. 0 = mv+mv+ ...
Hit and stick: one object striking and joining to the other. mv1+mv2 = (m1+m2 )v3
Hit and rebound: one object striking and bouncing off of the other. m1v1+m2v2 = m1v3+m2v4
Elastic Collision
– Momentum is conserved.
– The objects colliding aren’t deformed or smashed
– Thus no kinetic energy is lost; kinetic energy is conserved also.
– Ex: billiard ball collisions
Inelastic Collision
– Momentum is still conserved.
– Kinetic energy is lost.
– The energy may be transformed into sound, deformation of materials, flying debris, etc.
– Often objects interlock or stick together.
– Objects are also often deformed or crunched.
– Ex: car crash
Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal Force Centripetal force is a “center seeking” force. It always points towards the center for an object
moving in a circular path. This isn’t some new force. Centripetal force can be provided by tension
from a string, gravitational pull, friction on the road, etc...
Simulated Gravity
When objects are moving in a circle, the centripetal force applied may mimic the usual gravitational force.
Importance of Mass
This means that any mass satellite will have the same orbital speed for any particular radius.
A giant orbiting satellite will have the same speed as a tiny satellite in the same orbit.
However, it can be much more difficult to get that large satellite into orbit in the first place…
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ROTATIONAL MOTION AND EQUILIBRIUM
Moment of Inertia
Linear Inertia Review Linear inertia says that an object moving in a straight line wants to continue moving in a straight
line until acted upon by a force. Also, an object at rest wants to stay at rest. Linear inertia is
dependent upon mass.
Angular Momentum Angular momentum is a measure of the “strength” of an object’s rotation about a particular axis.
L = I ω kg m2/s
Stability Often, objects are rotated so that they are more stable. Because they have angular momentum, it is
more difficult to change their motion. This is why a football is thrown with a spiral motion.
The Gyroscope A gyroscope is simply a rotating object that has significant angular momentum. Like a rotating football,
that momentum is difficult to change, so the gyroscope is very stable.
Helicopters and Momentum The main rotating blade has angular momentum. To keep momentum conserved, the
body of the helicopter should rotate the opposite way! The tail rotor counteracts this
tendency and keeps the helicopter steady.
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SOLIDS AND FLUIDS
Deformation of Solids
– Stress: Force causing deformation
– Strain: Degree of deformation
– Elastic behavior
– Proportional limit
– Elastic limit
– Plastic behavior
– Breaking point
Shear modulus
G = shear stress / shear strain
G = (F/A) / (Δx/h)
Bulk modulus
B = volume stress / volume strain
B = (F/A) / (ΔV/V)
Static Fluids
Pressure in Fluids
Equilibrium equation for arbitrary portion in fluids: PA – Mg – P0A = 0 M= ρAh
Pressure in fluids: P = P0 + ρgh
Pascal’s Principle
– The pressure at a depth of h below the surface of a fluid open to the atmosphere is greater than atmospheric
pressure by the amount ρgh
– Same depth will have the same pressure
Buoyancy
The lifting force for objects in fluids
What causes buoyancy? Pressure difference on objects B = ρgVim
(1) Upper pressure (2) Lower pressure (3) Resultant force
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Archimedes’ Principle Any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force whose
magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body
B = ρgVim ρ: density of material Vim: Volume immersed
Surface Tension
– Why can insects walk on water?
– Why can razor blades float on water?
– Why can water raise in thin tubes?
Fluids in Motion
Temperature Proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. As temperature increases Molecular
motion increases
Kelvin : 0 273 373 K = C + 273.15
Celsius : -273 0 100
Fahrenheit : 32 212 F = (9/5) * C + 32
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Atmospheric Pressure Pressure due to the layers of air in the atmosphere.
As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases.
Pressure In Versus Out A bag of chips is bagged at sea level. The internal pressure is higher than the external
pressure. The bag will expand in order to reduce the internal pressure.
An aerosol can is left in a car trunk in the summer. The internal pressure is higher than
the external pressure. The can is rigid; it cannot expand, it explodes!
Gas Laws
Standard Temperature and Pressure 1 atm (or the equivalent in another unit) and 0°C (273 K).
Gas Laws P1/n1 = P2/n2 Avogadro’s Law V1/n1 = V2/n2 (T, P constant)
Boyles’ Law P1V1 = P2V2 (T, n constant)
Charles’ Law V1/T1 = V2/T2 (P, n constant)
Combined Gas Law P1V1/n1T1 = P2V2/n2T2
Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT
Molar mass (MM) Mass (m) per moles (n) of a substance. m/n
Real Gases
Wrong Assumption 1: Gas particles are not attracted nor repelled from one another
Reality: Gas particles do have attractions and repulsions towards one another.
Wrong Assumption 2: The volume of gas particles is so small compared to the space between the particles, that the
volume of the particle itself is insignificant
Reality: Gas particles do take up space; thereby reducing the space available for other particles to be.
Mean Free Path (λ) The mean free path is the average distance traveled by an atom or molecule before it collides
with another atom or molecule.
A heavier object with the same kinetic energy as a lighter object moves slower than the lighter object
Heavy molecules move slower than smaller molecules
Diffusion: If molecules move slower, it will take them longer to reach the other side of the room.
Effusion: If molecules move slower, it will take them longer to find the hole to escape through.
Graham’s Law r1
=
MM2
r2 MM1
Thermal Expansion The ticking noises heard after a hot car is shut down are due the shape changes of engine parts
as they cool.
Thermostats – A thermostat uses two fused strips of metal, each with a different linear expansion coefficient.
– As the strip heats up one strip lengthens faster so the strips bend away from the longer strip.
– Typically the bent strips will make contact with a circuit
Thermometers – As the temperature rises, both the glass and liquid expand
– The liquid has a higher volume expansion coefficient than the glass tube so it rises within the
tube to tell you the temperature.
Energy Units Calorie (cal) - n. Heat is measured in calories. A calorie is the amount of heat required to heat 1 gram of
water 1°C.
Joule (J): Energy is measured in Joules. One calorie (cal) is equal to 4.18J. 4.18 J=1 cal
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Specific Heat (CP) Specific heat is a material property that defines the number calories of heat, q, required to raise
1g of a specific material 1°C. Q = Cpm
Heat Capacity (C) The amount of heat Q required to raise the temperature of an object by ΔT is given by:
Q = C * ΔT
Enthalpy The enthalpy of a reaction is the heat energy (J) gained or lost during a reaction. Enthalpy is a state
function.
Exothermic If the system looses net heat during a reaction, the reaction is exothermic.
Endothermic If the system gains net heat energy during a reaction, the reaction is endothermic.
Calorimetry Calorimetry is a laboratory technique used to determine the amount of heat Q taken up or given off by a
reaction.
Pressure-Volume Work ΔW = -P * ΔV
If the system expands, work is done by the system on the surroundings. The internal energy of the system decreases.
If the system contracts, work is done by the surroundings on the system. The internal energy of the system increases.
Adiabatic Work
An example of adiabatic work is a closed system with a piston. If pressure is applied rapidly to depress the piston, the
volume of the system will decrease. Work W is done on the system by the surroundings, but there is no change in heat Q
so the change in internal energy ΔU is equal to –W. ΔV ≥ 0 Q = 0, ΔU = -W = -P*ΔV
Constant-Volume Work
An example of constant-volume work is heating a sealed cylinder. There is no volume change so the change in internal
energy is equal to the change in heat energy. ΔV = 0 so W = 0 ΔT ≥ 0 so Q ≥ 0 ΔU = Q
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Free Expansion Work
Connecting a pressurized system to a vacuum is an example of free-expansion work. The gas from the pressurized system
will immediately and irreversibly expand to fill the vacuum. The process occurs rapidly, but unlike adiabatic work the
process is irreversible. ΔU = Q = W = 0
When one item has “extra” electrons, this means that something else must have “lost” electrons. Just as mass, energy,
and momentum are conserved, so is electric charge. 1 Coulomb, C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
Coulomb’s Law
q1q2
The electric force can be attractive or repulsive. The gravitational force is only attractive. FE = k
r2
Lightning Strike Safety
The electrons repel themselves to the extreme outside of the car. Two electrons wouldn’t want to be near each other
on the inside by you. The electricity flows around the outside of the car, not through you. This would happen even if
there were no rubber tires at all on the car!
Electric Potential
How much work is done, depends on the amount of charge. Electric Electric Potential= Electric Potential Energy
potential describes how much work is done, per amount of charge. Charge
Mechanical and Electrical Energy Gravitational potential energy is derived from the earth’s gravitational field.
Electrical potential energy, is derived from an electric field.
VanDeGraff Generator Charge accumulates on the metal dome, when enough electrons build up, and a high enough
voltage is reached they repel so much that they jump through the air creating a spark!
Super Conductors A material where electrons flow without any resistance. Generally, superconductivity only occurs
at very low temperatures. Magnetically levitated fast trains are one application of
superconductivity.
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Resistors The resistance of a wire can depend on thickness (area) of wire, temperature of wire, length of wire.
ρL A higher temperature means a higher resistance. Imagine the atoms of a hotter wire moving very rapidly.
R=
A The could interfere with the conduction of electrons, thus increasing resistance.
Increasing Area
To have a more “powerful” capacitor, you would want a larger area. However, that may be impractical, so
some capacitors are rolled to maximize space. This give the typical round or cylindrical shape of
capacitors.
Discharging
A capacitor “fills up” while electrons are being deposited onto one of the plates. The
capacitor can be discharged if the two plates are connected. (A switch is usually used)
This causes all the accumulated electrons to suddenly flow back. This movement of
charge can be used.
In the flash of a camera, charge is stored by a capacitor until needed (flash).
Dielectrics A dielectric is a material that enhances the capacity of a capacitor. Often an insulating
material is inserted between the plates of a capacitor. This substance is called a dielectric.
Dielectrics resist charge flow more than air. Thus higher voltages can be applied before the
charge jumps or discharges, thus more capacitance.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Electric Power Just as power was used to discuss mechanical work per unit of time, electrical power
P=IV P=I2R works the same way. 1 Watt = 1 Joule / 1 second
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Junction Rule: The current going into a junction (intersection) is equal to the current leaving
the junction.
Loop Rule: The sum of the voltage changes for all elements in a loop must equal zero.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Iron, cobalt, and nickel are commonly magnetized materials. These materials are called ferromagnetic. All materials are
magnetic, but most are only VERY slightly magnetic.
The poles of a magnet cannot be separated. There are no magnetic monopoles, unlike electric charges.
A North pole will always be accompanied by a South pole. If you break a magnet, you don’t get an isolated N and S pole.
Each segment becomes its own complete mini magnet.
The Earth is a large magnet. Magnetic north and geographic north are not in the same location. The difference between
these is called magnetic declination. Note that what we call the North pole is actually the magnetic south pole of our
Earth!
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An wire carrying an electric current produces magnetism. In fact, any moving charge creates magnetism. This is why the
Earth has a magnetic field. The molten metal (charge) in its center is continually rotating. Thus, a magnetic field is
formed around the Earth. This is called the dynamo effect. Every few million years, the earth’s magnetic field reverses
itself!
Jupiter spins very fast, this may explain why it has a very large magnetic field. Most moons in the solar system have no
molten core. Thus they have no magnetic field.
Two Current Carrying Wires Notice that if the current is in the same direction, the forces are attractive.
Also see how they are repulsive if the currents oppose each other.
Time Period (T) The time taken by a body to complete one vibration or oscillation i.e. start from O displacement
to X reach back to O displacement then to -X reach back to O.
Frequency (f): The number of oscillations completed in a unit time. Frequency is the
reciprocal of Time period. 1 vibration per second = 1 Hertz, Hz. f = 1/T
Angular Frequency ω = 2π / T
Phase The state of vibration at any given instant is determined by the phase. X = A sin (ωt + φ)
Frequency → Hertz
Period → Seconds
Angular frequency → Radians/sec
Amplitude → Meters
Simple Pendulum A simple pendulum is an idealized system consisting of a bob of point mass. It is suspended from
l a rigid support through a light cord. It may surprise you to know that the period of a pendulum
T=2Π has nothing to do with its mass. It depends only on the length of the pendulum, and the
g acceleration from gravity at that particular location.
Spring Oscillations A mass attached to a free end of a spring vibrates or oscillates in a similar
m
manner to a pendulum. T=2Π
k
Resonance When two bodies are in Resonance:
Natural frequency = Input frequency
rapid transfer of energy during resonance
body vibrates with max. amplitude
Six simple pendulums of the same material are suspended. The lengths of the colored pairs are equal. One
green is set into oscillation. All pairs vibrate a bit and stop except the green pair. The two green ones continue
to vibrate in resonance since they have the same natural frequency.
Two tuning forks A and B of equal natural frequencies can vibrate in resonance If a small piece of wax (RED) is attached
to the fork A, its frequency slightly decreases. Then fork B will not vibrate since its frequency is now slightly different.
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Wave Motion
Electromagnetic Wave Electric and magnetic waves perpendicular to each other propagating in a
direction perpendicular to their plane
Mechanical Waves
– A mechanical wave is just a disturbance that propagates through a medium.
– The medium could be air, water, a spring, the Earth, or even people.
– A medium is any material through which a wave travels.
Longitudinal Wave Parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave. (sound waves)
Transverse Wave Perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. (waves on a string or rope)
Wavelength-Transverse Waves The wavelength of a wave is simply the length of one complete wave cycle.
Distance from crest to crest or from trough to trough.
Compressions & Rarefactions A compression - region which has the maximum density.
A rarefaction - region which has the minimum density.
Reflection of a Wave at a Fixed End Reflection of waves at a boundary: when a wave is progressing towards a fixed
end it gets inverted. If a crest is incident towards a fixed end boundary, it
will reflect and return as a trough. The wave is reflected inverted!
This occurs when the wave reflects off a more dense medium.
Reflection of a Pulse at a Free End The pulse reflects off the free end and returns. Direction of displacement will be
same. Direction of displacement will be same whenever a pulse reflects off a
free end or from a less dense medium.
Interference The topic of wave interference deals with the superposition of two or more waves along the
same medium. This is also called the principle of superposition.
Standing/Stationary Waves Stationary wave: When two waves of the same amplitude and wavelength are moving in
opposite directions, they superpose upon each other and a stationary wave is formed.
Nodes and Antinodes Node (N): Points of minimum displacement in the medium.
Antinodes (AN): Points of maximum displacement in the medium.
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SOUND
Sound is a form of energy. When matter vibrates very quickly, it transports energy in the form of waves.
Sound waves are pressure waves (energy per unit area). Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
20Hz – 20,000Hz Sounds of such frequencies are called sonics. Audible to the human ear.
Below 20Hz Sounds of such frequencies are called Infrasonics. Inaudible to the human ear.
Above 20,000Hz Sounds of such frequencies are called Ultrasonics. Inaudible to the human ear
Sound Speed The normal value of the velocity of infrasonic, sonic or ultrasonic sound in air at 00C is 331m/s
Speed of sounds increases with temperature.
Wave Propagation “Continuous waves” that go on forever in each direction are progressive waves.
Progressive waves can be longitudinal waves or transverse waves Stationary waves are formed
due to superposition of two identical progressive waves moving in opposite directions.
Progressive Waves All the particles of the medium execute S.H.M with same amplitude and frequency. There is a
flow of energy in the direction of wave propagation.
Standing Waves The particles of the medium execute S.H.M with same frequency but with different amplitudes.
There is no net flow of energy in the medium.
PHYSICAL OPTICS
Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave is an oscillating combination of a magnetic and an electric field.
It can be visualized as two perpendicular waves (electric and magnetic).
This view shows the light wave coming right at you.
Speed of Light
In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves have a velocity of 300,000,000 m/s! Speed can vary depending on the medium.
The approximate speed of light was first calculated by Danish astronomer Olaus Roemer. He used careful telescopic
observations of the motions of Jupiter’s moons. American physicist Albert Michelson used a rotating mirror with fixed
mirror on a distant mountain.
Waves often superimpose, or interfere with each other when they overlap.
Principle of Superposition When two or more waves occupy the same region of space
simultaneously, the resulting wave disturbance is the sum of
separate waves.
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Constructive Interference When waves overlap or superimpose, they may create a larger amplitude wave as a
result.
Destructive Interference When waves overlap or superimpose, they may create a smaller amplitude wave as a
result.
Thin Film Interference Soap bubbles and thin films of gasoline or oil often produce pretty
colored patterns.
This results from some light penetrating the film, then reflecting backwards. This light interferes with
light reflecting off the surface and creates certain colors depending on the thickness of the film.
Coherent Light Light waves that are all in phase, or in step with each other, are called coherent.
This basically means that the waves don’t shift with respect to each other as
time passes.
Monochromatic Light Light waves that have all the same frequency/wavelength/color are called
monochromatic. Laser light is both monochromatic and coherent.
Polarization of Light Because light is a transverse wave, it can vibrate in a variety of directions compared to its
direction of motion.
Unpolarized Light In unpolarized light, the fluctuations in the electric field occur in all
directions. It’s random. Most of the light we see is unpolarized.
Polarizers Unpolarized, random light can be made to be polarized with the aid of a
type of filter. The polarizing filter acts like a grate or strain that allows only
one direction of motion.
Pairs of Polarizers A pair of polarizers can be used to precisely adjust the intensity
of a light source. The end result is polarized light of a particular
reduced intensity.
Intensity Adjusting Polarizers With the pair of polarizing filters at a 0 degree angle with each other, a maximum
amount of light emerges. With the pair of polarizing filters at a 90 degree angle with
each other, a minimum amount of light emerges, virtually 0 intensity. By adjusting the
angle between the direction of the two filters, the intensity of the light can be
controlled.
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GEOMETRIC OPTICS
No Frequency Change The image would seem to be as far from the mirror, as the object is from the
mirror. Since you see identical colors in the image, reflection apparently has no
effect on the frequency of the light.
Importance of Wavelength For visible light (λ= 400-700 nm), a reflective surface must be very smooth and
uniform. However, if a much larger wavelength were being reflected, the surface
could be much rougher. It could even have holes in the surface!
Radio Wave Reflection As far as radio waves are concerned, this dish is one solid reflective surface since
large radio waves can’t fit through the holes. However, it wouldn’t work well for
visible light since that wavelength is much smaller and they would pass right
through.
Microwave Ovens Your microwave oven door is composed of a fine mesh with many small
openings. Visible light can pass through so you can view your food, but 12
cm long microwaves can’t fit through these small spaces.
Curved Mirrors
Real or Virtual Image As with a plane mirror, a virtual image can’t be projected onto a screen. The rays
only seem to be coming from the image position. In a real image, the rays
actually do converge at the image location. A real image can be projected onto a
screen. The previous ray diagram formed a real image.
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Characteristics of Concave Mirror Images
Object past the focal point: Real, inverted image in front of mirror
Object at focal point: No image formed
Object inside focal point: Virtual, upright image behind mirror.
The image distance is negative.
Large concave mirrors can collect and concentrate large amounts of sunlight. This can
produce intense heat which could be utilized.
Telescopic Use Various types of reflecting telescopes use similar concave mirrors. In this example there
are two to reflect the light twice. Larger mirrors are better since they collect more light
Magnification As you may have seen, mirrors can create images that are either larger or smaller than
the original object. A quantitative description of this effect is magnification.
Signs Notice the – sign in the second form of the magnification equation. If the magnification is – that
means the image is inverted. If the magnification is + that means it is upright.
Application of Convex Mirrors Security mirrors in department stores allow people to get a
wide field view of shoplifters. Additional mirrors on car side
view mirrors also provide a wider field of view.
Refraction Light doesn’t always travel in a straight line. Sometimes it is bent, or refracted. The index of
refraction, n, is a way of describing how optically dense a material is.
Air = 1.00
Water = 1.33
Glass = 1.52
Diamond = 2.42
n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
Sunsets When we see a sunset, we actually see the sun for a few minutes after it has set! The sun is
actually below the horizon, but its light refracts in the atmosphere to bend and reach us.
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Viewing a Fish Underwater
Dispersion
The frequency of light has a slight effect on the speed of light in a medium. (not in a vacuum) This corresponds
to certain colors of light being bent or refracted more than others. (violet bent most, red the least) This gives
us the prism/rainbow phenomena.
Rainbows
This dispersion effect often takes place in water droplets in the
atmosphere. This gives us separate colors that we know as a
rainbow. Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet
Critical Angle
As you can tell from the previous diagram, there is a certain angle where the light no longer refracts through
the surface. Instead, it refracts over 90o, which is a reflection. This is called total internal reflection. The
“critical” angle at which this happens depends on the two indexes of refraction.
Binoculars
Because clear glass prisms can reflect light as previously discussed, they are commonly used in
binoculars to shorten the length of them. Instead of having long tubes or barrels for the binoculars, the prisms
fold the light path and make them more compact.
Fiber Optics
A fiber optic tube works like a tunnel for light. It is actually composed of two materials with different indexes
of refraction. If a light beam is incident at greater than the critical angle, the beam will reflect along the fiber. It
will not go through the clear tube.
Fiber is made of two materials with different indexes of
refraction.
Lenses
Clear materials like glass, plastic, or even water take advantage of refraction to bend light in useful ways.
A lens bends light through refraction. Due to the curvature of the surface of the lens, light refracts in
predictable patterns.
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Object Between 2f and f
Rays meet to give an inverted, real, larger image.
Review Questions
Where must an object be placed with a convex lens so that it acts as a magnifying glass?
-> Inside the focal point
Where must an object be placed with a convex lens so that it projects a larger image onto a screen (slide
projector)?
-> Between 2f and f
Concave Lens
With a concave lens, the rays appear to diverge.
However, if the rays are traced backwards to their apparent origin, a
smaller, upright, virtual image is formed.
Sign Conventions
If the image appears on the same side of the lens as the object (virtual image), the image distance is negative.
If the image is on the opposite side of the lens (real image), the image distance is positive.
Concave lens = negative focal length
Convex lens = positive focal length
Lenses/Mirrors Similarities
Here are some simple observations that will help with problem solving:
– Virtual images are – di
– Real images are + di
– Converging optics are + focal length
– Diverging optics are – focal length
– All do are +
– Diverging optics have only one universal ray diagram for any situation
– Use 1/f=1/do+1/di for both mirrors and lenses
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Spherical Aberration
Spherical aberration: The light isn’t exactly focused to one point. Some rays
are slightly off.
Chromatic Aberration
Chromatic aberration: When light of different colors refracts differently and
makes different colors
misaligned at the focal point.
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