MA English III Sem Notes From Adi Ramesh

M.A ENGLISH III Sem Notes, OU, PU, SU, TU, MGU Compiled by: Dr.
Adi Ramesh
M.A
ENGLISH LITERATURE
All Universities
(CBCS)
THIRD SEMESTER NOTES
Also useful for UGC NET/ SET in English,

M.Phil & PhD Entrance Examinations
Compiled by
Dr. Adi Ramesh
Asst. Professor of English
Government City College
Hyderabad
Dr. Adi Ramesh, Asst Prof. of English, Govt. City College, Hyd (99590 26160 WhatsApp) 1
M.A ENGLISH III Sem Notes, OU, PU, SU, TU, MGU Compiled by: Dr. Adi Ramesh
MA ENGLISH LITERATURE
Semester-III, Paper I, II, III, IV & V
1st edition -2021
Rs. 350 /-
Compiled by
Dr. Adi Ramesh Babu
Asst. Professor of English
Government City College
Hyderabad- 99590 26160
The author is available at [email protected]
In spite of many efforts taken to present the book without errors, some errors might
have crept in, so do not take any legal responsibility for such errors and omissions. If
they are brought to our notice, they will be corrected in the next editions.
MA (Final)
(For 2017-2018 Batch)
Semester III
Paper I ENG 301 English Language Teaching: Classroom Techniques and

Practical English (5 Credits)
Unit I
a) Error Analysis Theory; Identifying and dealing with Common Learner Errors;
Remedial Teaching
b) Techniques of Teaching Grammar and Vocabulary
c) Techniques of Teaching Prose, Poetry and Drama;
Unit II
a) Classroom Techniques: Lecture Method-Advantages and Disadvantages
b) Learner Centred Approach: Classroom Discussion, Pair Work, Group Work, Role
Play
c) Team Teaching and Teaching Large Classes
Unit III
a) Teaching Aids: Use of the Blackboard, Flip Charts, Realia
b) Audio-visual Aids: OHP, PPT
c) Using technology: Computer Aided Language Learning (CALL), Importance of
English Language Laboratory
Unit IV
a) Teaching of Literature: Teaching Language through Literature: Important Techniques
b) Stylistic Approach to the Teaching of Literature: Norm, Deviation and Foregrounding
c) Designing language tasks from literary texts.
Unit V
a) Practical English I: Essentials of Presentation Skills, Elocution, Debate,
Compeering, Interviews, Group Discussions
b) Practical English II: Corporate/business communication: Inter Office Memos
(IOMs), Notices, Agenda and Minutes of Meeting
c) Practical English III: Business Letters: Letter of enquiry, Letter of complaint, Letter
of reply.
MA (Final)
Semester III
Paper II ENG 302 American Literature—I (5 credits)
Unit I Background
Antebellum and Postbellum America; Puritanism; Transcendentalism; The American
Romantics; American Frontier
Unit II Poetry
William Cullen Bryant ―A Forest Hymn‖, ―The Yellow Violet‖,
―America‖
Edgar Allen Poe ―Raven‖, ―Dream Land‖
Emily Dickinson ―Because I could not stop for death‖, ―I taste a
liquor never brewed‖, ―‗Hope‘ is the thing with
feathers‖
Unit III Fiction
Nathaniel Hawthorne The Scarlet Letter
Herman Melville Billy Bud
Mark Twain The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
Unit IV Drama
Eugene O‘Neill Desire Under the Elms
Tennessee Williams The Glass Menagerie
Arthur Miller All My Sons
Unit V Prose and Short Fiction

Ralph Waldo Emerson ―The American Scholar‖
Henry David Thoreau ―Civil Disobedience‖
William Faulkner ―Wealthy Jew‖
MA (Final)
Semester III
Paper III ENG 303 Indian Writing in English—I

(5 credits)
Unit I Background
19 Century Reform Movements in India; The Indian National Movement; Rise of the
Indian Novel; Caste-Class; The New Indian Woman
Unit II Poetry
Henry Derozio ―The Harp of India‖, ―To My Native Land‖
Toru Dutt ―Sita‖, ―Our Casuarina Tree‖, ―My Vocation‖
Sri Aurobindo ―Silence is all‖, ―Is this the end?‖,
―The Dual Being‖
Sarojini Naidu ―The Pardah Nashin‖, ―Ghanashyam‖,
―The Gift of India‖
Unit III Fiction
Bankimchandra Chatterjee Rajmohan’s Wife
Krupabai Satthianadhan Kamala: a Story of Hindu Life
Zeenuth Futehally Zohra
Unit IV Fiction
Mulk Raj Anand Untouchable
Raja Rao Kanthapura
R K Narayan The Man-Eater of Malgudi
Unit V Prose
B R Ambedkar ―The Annihilation of Caste‖
Jawaharlal Nehru ―The Quest‖ (Chapter 3; The Discovery of India)
Arundhati Roy ―The Ladies Have Feelings, So...Shall We Leave
It To The Experts?‖
MA (Final)
Semester III
Paper IV ENG 304 A Postcolonial Literatures (4 Credits)
Unit I Background
Colonialism-Post-colonialism; Decolonization-Neocolonialism; Mimicry-Hybridity;
Universalism-Eurocentrism; Myth-History
Unit II Poetry
Judith Wright ―Eve to Her Daughters‖, ―Bullocky‖,
―Request to a Year‖
―Marvel‘s Garden‖, ―Breaking‖, ―Ah Ghalib
Phyllis Webb …‖
Kamau Brathwaite ―Calypso‖, ―Bread‖, ―Limbo‖
Christopher Okigbo ―Overture‖, ―Elegy For Alto‖, ―Banks of Reed‖
Unit III Fiction

Chinua Achebe Things Fall Apart
VS Naipaul The Mimic Men
Margaret Atwood The Handmaid‘s Tale
Unit IV Drama
Wole Soyinka Kongi’s Harvest
Derek Walcott Dream on Monkey Mountain
Drew Hayden Taylor alterNatives
MA (Final)
Semester III
Paper V ENG 305 Literature and Film (Inter-disciplinary) (4 Credits)
Unit I Background
Narrative Elements (Plot, Character, Point of View, Setting); Mise-en-scene;
Cinematography; Montage, Film Genres
Unit II Essays
Chidananda Das Gupta ―Indian Cinema Today‖
Francesco Casetti ―Adaptation and Mis-adaptations: Film,
Literature, and Social Discourses‖ (from A
Companion to Literature and
Film)
Gaston Roberge ―Film Language‖ (from The Subject of Cinema)
Unit III Drama and Film

William Shakespeare Macbeth
Orson Welles Macbeth
Henrik Ibsen A Doll’s House
Patrick Garland A Doll’s House
Unit IV Fiction and Film

E M Forster A Passage to India
David Lean A Passage to India
Daphne du Maurier ―The Birds‖
Alfred Hitchcock The Birds
Units
Contents Page No
ENG 301: English Language Teaching: Classroom Techniques and Practical English
Unit-I: a) Error Analysis Theory; Identifying and dealing with
Common Learner Errors; Remedial Teaching 13
b) Techniques of Teaching Grammar and Vocabulary 18
c) Techniques of Teaching Prose, Poetry and Drama 22
Unit-II: a) Classroom Techniques: Lecture Method-Advantages and
Disadvantages 23
b) Learner Centred Approach: Classroom Discussion, Pair
Work, Group Work, 25
c) Team Teaching and Teaching Large Classes 27
a) Teaching Aids: Use of the Blackboard, Flip Charts,
Unit-III:
Realia 30
b) Audio-visual Aids: OHP, PPT 32
c) Using technology: Computer Aided Language Learning
(CALL), Importance of English Language Laboratory 35
Unit-IV: a) Teaching of Literature: Teaching Language through
Literature: Important Techniques 37
b) Stylistic Approach to the Teaching of Literature: Norm,
Deviation and Foregrounding 41
c) Designing language tasks from literary texts. 43
a) Practical English I: Essentials of Presentation Skills,
Unit-V: Elocution, Debate, Compeering, Interviews, Group
Discussions 46
b) Practical English II: Corporate/business communication:
Inter Office Memos (IOMs), Notices, Agenda and Minutes
of Meeting 53
c) Practical English III: Business Letters: Letter of enquiry,
Letter of complaint, Letter of reply. 55
Eng 302: American Literature—I

Unit-I: Background 63
Antebellum 63
Postbellum America 64
Puritanism 65
Transcendentalism 67
The American Romantics 68
American Frontier 70
Unit-II: Poetry
William Cullen Bryant's A Forest Hymn 72
The Yellow Violet 76
America 79
Edgar Allen Poe's Raven 80
Dream Land 85
Emily Dickinson's Because I could not stop for death 86
I taste a liquor never brewed 89
Hope‘ is the thing with feathers 90
Unit-III: Fiction
Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter 91
Herman Melville's Billy Bud 94
Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn 97
Unit-IV: Drama
Eugene O‘Neill's Desire Under the Elms 103
Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie 106
Arthur Miller's All My Sons 108
Unit-V: Prose and Short Fiction
Ralph Waldo Emerson's ―The American Scholar‖ 112
Henry David Thoreau's ―Civil Disobedience‖ 116
William Faulkner's ―Wealthy Jew‖ 117
Eng 303: Indian Writing in English—I

19 Century Reform Movements in India 121
The Indian National Movement 125
Rise of the Indian Novel 128
Caste-Class 138
The New Indian Woman 140
Unit-II: Poetry
Henry Derozio's 'The Harp of India' 145
To My Native Land 149
Toru Dutt's 'Sita' 149
―Our Casuarina Tree‖ 150
―My Vocation‖ 152
Sri Aurobindo's ―Silence is all‖ 154
―Is this the end?‖ 154
―The Dual Being‖ 155
Sarojini Naidu's 'The Pardah Nashin' 155
Ghanashyam 156
The Gift of India 157
Unit-III: Fiction
Bankimchandra Chatterjee's Rajmohan’s Wife 160

Krupabai Satthianadhan's Kamala:A Story of Hindu Life 161
Zeenuth Futehally's Zohra 164
Unit-IV: Fiction
Mulk Raj Anand's Untouchable 166
Raja Rao's Kanthapura 170
R K Narayan's The Man-Eater of Malgudi 172
Unit-V: Prose
B R Ambedkar's ―The Annihilation of Caste‖ 174
Jawaharlal Nehru's ―The Quest‖ 181
Arundhati Roy's ―The Ladies Have Feelings, So...Shall
We Leave It To The Experts?‖ 184
Eng 304: Postcolonial Literatures
Colonialism 187
Post-colonialism 187
Decolonization 188
Neocolonialism 189
Mimicry-Hybridity 189
Universalism-Eurocentrism 191
Myth-History 191
Unit-II: Poetry
Judith Wright's "Eve to Her Daughters" 192
Bullocky 194
Request to a Year 195
Phyllis Webb's "Marvel‘s Garden" 197
Breaking 197
Ah Ghalib 198
Kamau Brathwaite's "Calypso‖ 199
Bread 201
Limbo 203
Christopher Okigbo's ―Overture‖ 205
Elegy For Alto 206
Banks of Reed 206
Unit-III: Fiction
Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart 207
VS Naipaul's The Mimic Men 211
Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid’s Tale 213
Unit-IV: Drama
Wole Soyinka's Kongi’s Harvest 217
Derek Walcott's Dream on Monkey Mountain 220
Drew Hayden Taylor's alterNatives 221
Eng 305: Literature and Film

Narrative Elements 227
Mise-en-scene 228
Cinematography 228
Montage 229
Film Genres 229
Unit-II: Essays
Chidananda Das Gupta's ―Indian Cinema Today‖ 230
Francesco Casetti's ―Adaptation and Mis-adaptations: Film,
Literature, and Social Discourses‖ 233
Gaston Roberge's ―Film Language‖ 240
Unit-III: Drama and Film
William Shakespeare's Macbeth 242
Orson Welles' Macbeth 246
Henrik Ibsen's A Doll’s House 251
Patrick Garland's A Doll‘s House 255
Unit-IV: Fiction and Film
E M Forster's A Passage to India 257
David Lean's A Passage to India 261
Daphne du Maurier's The Birds 267
Alfred Hitchcock's 'The Birds' 269
Model Papers 272
Dr. Adi Ramesh, Asst Prof. of English, Govt. City College, Hyd (99590 26160 WhatsApp)
PAPER-I
Note
These notes are compiled by Dr. Adi Ramesh Babu for MA English Semester III (CBCS)
of all Telangana and Andhra Pradesh Universities. These notes are very much helpful to the
students for UGC NET / SET in English subject and M.Phil and Ph.D Entrance
examinations also.
Dr Adi Ramesh Babu is presently working as Assistant Professor, Department of English,

Government City College (A), Hyderabad, Telangana State. He obtained his M.Phil and
Ph.D degrees from Kakatiya University, Warangal. He also did PGCTE and PGDTE from
EFLU (Hyderabad). He has published several articles and presented scholarly papers in
national and international seminars. He is one of the editors of The Criterion: An Online
International Journal; International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation
Studies; Research Scholar: An International Refereed e-Journal of Literary Explorations;
International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature.
The author is available at [email protected] (99590 26160 WhatsApp only)
ENGLISH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING: CLASSROOM

301:
TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICAL ENGLISH
UNIT-I
A) ERRO ANALYSI THEORY; IDENTIFYING AND DEALING WITH

R S
COMMON LEARNER ERRORS;
L2 learning is a process that is clearly not unlike L1 learning in its trial-and-error nature.
Inevitably, learners will make mistakes in the process of acquisition, and that process will be
impeded if they do not commit errors and then benefit from various forms of feedback on
those errors.
Corder (1967) noted: ―a learner‘s errors are significant in that they provide to the
researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the
learner is employing in the discovery of the language.‖
In second language acquisition, error analysis studies the types and causes of language
errors. Errors are classified according to:
 modality (i.e., level of proficiency in speaking, writing, reading, listening)

 linguistic levels (i.e., pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, style)
 form (e.g., omission, insertion, substitution)
 type (systematic errors/errors in competence vs. occasional errors/errors in
performance)
 cause (e.g., interference, interlanguage)
 norm vs. system
According to linguist Corder, the following are the steps in any typical EA research:
1. collecting samples of learner language

2. identifying the errors
3. describing the errors
4. explaining the errors
5. evaluating/correcting the errors
Collection of errors: the nature and quantity of errors is likely to vary depending on whether
the data consist of natural, spontaneous language use or careful, elicited language use.
Corder (1973) distinguished two kinds of elicitation: clinical and experimental elicitation.
clinical elicitation involves getting the informant to produce data of any sort, for example by
means of general interview or writing a composition. experimental elicitation involves the
use of special instrument to elicit data containing the linguistic features such as a series of
pictures which had been designed to elicit specific features.
In order to analyze learner language in an appropriate perspective, it is crucial to make a

distinction between mistakes and errors, technically two very different phenomena. Mistake –
refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a ―slip‖, in that is a failure to
utilize a known system correctly. Native speakers make mistakes. When attention is called to
them, they can be self-corrected. Error –a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a
native speaker reflects the competence of the learner (Does John can sing?)
The fact that learners do make errors, and these errors can be analyzed, led to a surge of study
of learners‘ errors, called error analysis. Error analysis became distinguished from contrastive
analysis by its examination of errors attributable to all possible sources, not just those
resulting from negative transfer of the native language.
The study of learner errors has long been part of language pedagogy. Traditional analyses
lacked of rigorous methodology and theoretical framework. Identify linguistics differences
Contrastive analysis (CA) L1 and target language (1960‘s) Interference ―habits‖ Provided
a methodology Error analysis (EA) (1970‘s) Starting point for the study of learner
language and L2 acquisition.
Collection of a sample of learner language Specific sample Incidental sample Factors

Description A Language Medium Learner production can be oral or written Genre Learner
production may take the form of a conversation, a lecture, an essay, a letter, etc. Content The
topic the learner is communicating about B Learner Level Elementary, intermediate, or
advanced Mother tongue The learner‘s L1 Language learning experience This may be
classroom or naturalistic or a mixture of the two.
Identification of errors Error: a deviation from the norms of the target language. This
definition raises a number of questions: 1. Which variety of target language should serve as a
norm 2. Distinction between errors and mistakes
Error: takes place when the deviation arises as a result of lack of knowledge (lack of
competence)
Mistake: occurs when learners fail to perform their competence Feature of native speaker
speech: Competing plans Memory limitations Lack of automaticity
Corder (1974): EA should be restricted to the study of errors (mistakes should be eliminated
from the analysis). Competence is homogeneous rather than variable.3.- Concerns whether
errors is overt or covert
Overt error: a clear deviation in form Ex: I runned all the day.
Covert error: occurs in utterances that are superficially well-formed but which do not mean
what the learner intended them to mean. Ex: It was stopped.
Description of errors Comparison of: Learner‘s Reconstruction of idiosyncratic those

utterances in the utterances target language Types of descriptive taxonomies: Auxiliary
system, passive Linguistics categories sentences, temporal conjunctions, sentential
complements
Types of errors, Corder (1974):

1. Presystematic errors occur when the learner is unaware of the existence of a particular
rule in the target language. These are random. the learner cannot give any account of
why a particular form is chosen.
2. Systematic errors occur when the learner has discovered a rule but it is the wrong one.
the learner is unable to correct the errors but can explain the mistaken rule used and
type.
3. Postsystematic errors occurs when the learner knows the correct target language rule
but uses it inconsistently (makes a mistake) the learner can explain the target-
language rule that is normally used.
Learners must be interviewed to complete the reconstruction of the data and correction of the
error. Even if the learner is available for consultation, it may not be possible to choose
between these reconstructions. Ex. My name Alberto My name is Alberto I am worried in my
mind. Many EA studies have been done informally; therefore, these results could not be
quantified.
Psycholinguistics sources of errors: transfer competence intralingual (e.g. overgeneralization,

(‗errors‘) transitional competence) errors unique (e.g. induced) processing problems
performance (‗mistakes‘) communication strategies
Richards (1971b) Causes of competence errors

1. Interference errors occur as a result of the use of elements from one language while
speaking another.
2. Intralingual errors reflect the general characteristics of rule learning such as faulty
generalization, incomplete application of rules and failure to learn conditions under
which rules apply.
3. Developmental errors occur when the learner attempts to build up hypotheses about
the target language on the basis of limited experience. Celce-Murcia (1977) finds
―curious‖ the distinction between intralingua and developmental errors.
REMEDIAL TEACHING
Each student is different in terms of learning ability, academic standards, classroom learning
and academic performance, and each has his own in learning. The aim of IRTP is to provide
learning support to students who lag far behind their counterparts in school performance. By
adapting school curricula and teaching strategies, teachers can provide learning activities and
practical experiences to students according to their abilities and needs. They can also design
individualized educational programmes with intensive remedial support to help students
consolidate their basic knowledge in different subjects, master the learning methods,
strengthen their confidence and enhance the effectiveness of learning.
Throughout the teaching process, teachers should provide systematic training to develop
students' generic skills, including interpersonal relationship, communication, problem-
solving, self-management, self-learning, independent thinking, creativity and the use of
information technology. Such training can lay the foundation for students' life-long learning,
help them develop positive attitudes and values, as well as prepare them for future studies and
career
Principles of Helping Students with Learning Difficulties
Teaching Preparation
Before preparing for their lessons, remedial teachers should identify students' diverse
learning needs as soon as possible so that they may design appropriate teaching plans to
facilitate students' effective learning.
Devise various learning activities

Since students have different characteristics in learning, teachers must devise different
learning activities with the same teaching objective to develop students' varied abilities and
skills in problem solving. It is more effective for teachers to adopt a series of relevant and
simple teaching activities than assigning one long teaching activity since students may
acquire the required knowledge and skills through diversified activities.
Design meaningful learning situations

Remedial teachers should specifically design meaningful learning situations, language
environments(especially for English subject), games or activities so as to provide personal
learning experiences for students and stimulate their interest and initiative in learning.
Teaching approaches
Teachers should give concrete examples before proceeding to abstract concepts by way of
simple and easy steps at a pace in line with the learning abilities of students. Teachers may
teach new concepts from different perspectives by various approaches so that students can
grasp the ideas through meaningful and repeated illustrations. Teachers should encourage
students' active participation by more frequent use of teaching aids, games and activities.
They can also make use of information technology and all the teaching resources available to
help students understand the main points.
Provide clear instructions

Students with learning difficulties are less competent in understanding written language.
Therefore, remedial teachers should give students short and clear instructions to avoid
confusion. They must explain clearly the arrangement of each learning activity. If necessary,
they may ask students to repeat the steps of activities so that every student may understand
the instructions.
Summarize the main points

At the course of teaching, teachers should always sum up the main points in teaching and
write the key phrases on the board to enhance students' audio and visual memories. Teachers
can guide their students to link up the knowledge they learn from class with their life
experiences so as to enhance the effectiveness of learning. Besides, guiding students to repeat
the main points in verbal or written form is also an effective way of learning
Enhance learning interest and motivation
Suffering from frequent frustrations in their work, students with learning difficulties may
gradually lose their interest in learning. Therefore, teachers should adapt the curriculum to
meet the needs of students. With less students in the IRTP, teachers can design interesting
activities coupled with reward scheme to stimulate students' interest. It is most important to
help students overcome their learning difficulties so that they may gain a sense of
achievement and recover their confidence and interest in learning.
Encourage students' active participation in class activities

Students with learning difficulties usually lack self-confidence and are more passive in class.
They seldom ask questions or express their views. Remedial teachers should patiently
encourage active participation in class. Pleasurable learning experiences may help enhance
students' interest in learning.
Focus on the learning process

Teaching should not only focus on the transmission of knowledge. It is also important to see
that students are benefited from the entire learning process. Teachers should provide ample
opportunities in class for students to practise and think what they have learnt, and allow them
to solve problems by different means. Teachers should also carefully observe the
performances of students and give them appropriate assistance, feedback and encouragement
so as to help them acquire the learning skills, solve their problems and understand their own
capability, thus enhancing self-confidence and improving their learning skills.
Show concern for the performances of individual students

Students may encounter different problems in their studies, therefore, teachers should
carefully observe the learning process of individual students in class. Whenever necessary,
they should provide individualized remedial teaching before and after class, during recess or
lunchtime, so that they can remove their learning obstacles as soon as possible. When
marking assignments, teachers should take note of the common errors of students and deliver
the correct concepts and knowledge to them promptly
B) TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY
TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
Students‘ reactions to grammar-focused lessons seem to be typically one of three kinds. Some
students find grammar very appealing, some find it intrinsically boring, and some find it
useful but really hard work.
There might be a number of reasons for these reactions. For example, some students‘ brain
chemistry might be more (or less) pre-programmed for learning grammar. If this is the case,
the teacher has limited power to promote the enjoyment of grammar. But it‘s also possible
that students have had a negative learning experience with grammar – they might be used to
listening to long lectures about grammar (yes, even today) and doing long, esoteric exercises
on one particular area of target language.
In order to make grammar more interesting for students, I‘d recommend a more inductive
approach, i.e. students should be allowed to work out the meaning and the rules of the
grammar for themselves. I also think that the teachers‘ ‗metalanguage‘ (i.e. the language
used to talk about the target language) should be kept to an absolute minimum. Furthermore,
it‘s crucial to get learners to use the target language in an authentic way about their own lives.
And, in addition to such communicative work, I think that students can be encouraged to do
some analytical work, particularly where communicative outcomes are affected.
Let‘s now study, in more detail, what I mean by the above. Below are the seven ways,
together with sample teacher language for each part of the lesson.
The seven ways
1. Provide a context
In order to elicit the target language, get the students really interested in, for example, a
character, a situation (this process will vary according to the profile of each class). Use
language that is easy for the students to understand. Make the situation clear enough for the
students to hazard a guess about the target language. And do make it clear that you want the
students to come up with the target language! Finally, be sure to spend enough time on the
‗tease‘ – don‘t jump in too early with providing the target language yourself.
2. Help students to say the target language

Make a point of actually asking the students to say something (rather than just listen to you)!
Make it clear what the target language is (it can be confused with instructional language).
Give the students enough time to ‗get their tongues round‘ the target language. And make
sure that you get each individual student to say the target language – in a ‗comprehensible‘
way.
3. Provide a written record

Make a point of putting up (on the board) the written record directly after initial oral work.
Make sure that the students write the written record down (and in a particular section of their
notebooks). Write legibly and big enough for all the students to see. Write as concisely as you
can, and be sure to include both the target language itself, the stressed syllables (including the
tonic one) and a mini ‗concept statement‘.
4. Personalize the target language

Always ask the students to apply the target language to their own lives.
5. Help students to guess the grammar rules of the target language

Encourage the students to manipulate the new grammar (e.g. by asking them how to construct
more difficult sentences using questions, negatives, or question tags). If they are struggling to
guess, provide them with assistance by referring to other (known) patterns.
6. Help students to understand the communicative importance of grammar

Ask students to choose between two different communicative outcomes for one piece of
language. This can be done by getting students to follow certain instructions in class. Treats
can be used as a tangible reward for linking grammar to a communicative effect.
7. Help students to understand the importance of grammatical accuracy

Discuss with your students the importance of making a good impression with some formal
correspondence, e.g. a job application. Encourage them to edit 'roughly-tuned‘ texts.
TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING VOCABULARY
Teaching Vocabulary
"Without grammar very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be
conveyed." (Wilkins 1972:111)
"When students travel, they don't carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries." (Krashen in
Lewis 1993: iii)

"The more one considers the matter, the more reasonable it seems to suppose that lexis is
where we need to start from, the syntax needs to be put to the service of words and not the
other way round." (Widdowsen in Lewis 1993:115)
What to Teach While Teaching Vocabulary
Form
pronunciation
spelling
inflections
derivations
Meaning
basic and literal meanings
derived and figurative meanings
semantic relation
connotation
Usage
subcategorization
collocation
sociolinguistic and stylistic restrictions
slangs and idioms
What is involved in Teaching Vocabulary?

1. Presentation (outcome: establish an entry in the episodic memory with correct form and
basic meaning)
Ways of Presenting the Meaning of New Items (Ur, 1996)
 concise definition (as in a dictionary; often a superordinate with qualifications)
 detailed description (of appearance, qualities...)
 examples (hyponyms)
 illustration (picture, object)
 demonstration (acting, mime)
 context (story or sentence in which the item occurs)
 synonyms
 opposites(s) (antonyms)
 translation
 associated ideas, collocations.
2. Practice and Consolidation (outcome: store the item in the long-term memory; turn
passive vocabulary into active vocabulary)
 songs and games

 semantic field and semantic mapping
 key word method
 vocabulary exercises
 regular review
3. Lexical/Semantic Development
(outcome: integrate lexical/semantic information into entries; move words from episodic
memory to lexicon)
 Ideas for lexical/semantic development
 extensive reading
 communicative activities
Limitations of explicit vocabulary teaching

 Much of the lexical and semantic information cannot be or is not described and taught
as explicit knowledge;
 There is too much information involved in vocabulary that it is just impossible to
teach it all.
 What is taught does not necessarily lead to lexical competence on the learner's part.
Conclusion: much lexical competence has to be developed through natural communication.

Learners are able to pick up vocabulary
- through extensive reading
- through communicative interactions
- through exposure to natural input such as movies, TV.
Presentation, consolidation and lexical/semantic development occur at the same time
(parallel vs. serial process of lexical development);
Conclusion
 Explicit vocabulary teaching is necessary for teaching the core vocabulary,
particularly for the learning of basic lexical and semantic knowledge.
 Incidental vocabulary acquisition should be encouraged for further lexical and
semantic development of the words learned through explicit instruction and for
learning additional vocabulary.
C) TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING PROSE, POETRY AND DRAMA
PROSE:
Teaching Prose focuses on increasing student's comprehension of the material and

establishing a personal connection to it. The key is to use a variety of strategies to keep
students interested and involved. "Teaching Strategies" author Leif Danielson states, "As an
overall teaching strategy: You should create the conditions that will elicit the behavior that
you want from your class or an individual student."
 Choosing Prose
 Read Encourage
 Write
 Discuss
 Integrate Technology
POETRY:
Teaching Poetry Whether you're teaching kindergarteners or an adult enrichment class, a
poetry lesson can be engaging for all if you take a few things into consideration first.
 Examine your attitudes toward poetry

 Determine your goals
 Learn the terminology
 Select the poems
 Practice reading
DRAMA:
Literature includes various genres viz. poetry, drama, prose, fiction. That is to say, drama is
one of the important genres. I t has become one of the successful and effective aspects of
teaching literature. Drama is taught not only to please and instruct the learners but also to
develop in them the skill of interaction. 'Interaction' therefore, is the main aim of teaching
drama to language learners. Teaching drama can benefit the language learners in various
ways. The Principles of Teaching Drama: The principle of teaching drama are as follows:
a. General principle. it includes the following points. · Developing the vocabulary in learners
· Developing the skill of literal interpretation (i.e. reading comprehension)
b. Specific principle. it includes the following points:
· Developing the skill of interaction
 Exposure to language in conversation

 Understanding what someone really means.
 Ordering and sequencing in conversation
 Finding status and relationship: Developing the skill of critical reading. Developing
the skill of critical thinking and creative writing (i.e. skill for imagination)
UNIT II
A) CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES: LECTUR METHOD-

E
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Effective classroom management is much more than simply administering corrective

measures when a student misbehaves; it‘s about developing proactive ways to prevent
problems from occurring in the first place while creating a positive learning environment.
The report will teach you practical ways to create favorable conditions for learning, including
how to:
 Get the semester off on the right foot

 Prevent cheating
 Incorporate classroom management principles into the syllabus
 Handle students who participate too much
 Establish relationships with students
 Use a contract to help get students to accept responsibility
 Employ humor to create conditions conducive to learning
You‘ll learn classroom management strategies for a positive learning environment. This free
report will provide you with actionable strategies and no-nonsense solutions for creating a
positive learning environment – whether you‘re a seasoned educator or someone who‘s just
starting out.
Good classroom management doesn‘t just happen; you have to work at it. This collection of
insightful classroom management articles is just the thing to help. 10 Effective Classroom
Management Techniques Every Faculty Member Should Know is yours free when you
subscribe to Faculty Focus, our new online information resource for faculty in the higher
education industry.
Faculty Focus contains a wealth of valuable material – not just about classroom management,
but all of today‘s hot button issues that are important to faculty and administrators. It‘s
packed to its electronic rafters with ideas, best practices, analyses and other news you can use
on the topics that impact your students, your school and your work, including:
 Educational Assessment
 Effective Classroom Management
 Effective Teaching Strategies

 Curriculum Development
 Instructional Design
 Faculty Development
 Faculty Evaluation
 Online Education
 Philosophy of Teaching
 Teaching and Learning
LECTURE METHOD
Lecture method of teaching is the oldest teaching method applied in educational institution.
This teaching method is one way channel of communication of information. Students‘
involvement in this teaching method is just to listen and sometimes pen down some notes if
necessary during the lecture, combine the information and organized it.
One of the problems in this method is to grab the attention of students in class room. Another
big problem is that many students in the class cannot follow the theme. Learning has a strong
influence on method of teaching.
Advantages of Lecture Method of Teaching
 In this teaching method a large amount the topics can be covered in a single class
period.
 Using of this method exclude the using of any equipment or Lab.
 Learning material is not required.
 Student listening skills developed.
 Logical arrangement of the material in order to present it orally
 Help to learn languages
Disadvantages of Lecture Method of Teaching
 Psychologically this method is acceptable because individuals are not alike. Teacher
delivers the same lecture to both students without recognizing the individual
differences.
 Learning is an active process thus study should encourage to actively participate in
the class room instead of just listening the teacher.
 Language using in the lecture is above the standard of the students. They are not able
get full advantage of the lecture.
 Lecture are often forgotten by the students soon after while learning is retained if
activities are experienced.
 Attention level is not the same while student listening the lecture.
b) LEARNER CENTRED APPROACH: CLASSROOM DISCUSSION,

PAIR WORK, GROUP WORK, ROLE PLAY
In a nutshell, a learner centered approach is one where the complete eLearning experience is
focused on the learners. For example, the courses need to be very user-friendly, so that
learners can navigate the course without any difficulty. They should be able to easily access
the content of their choice, and skip the sections they are not interested in. Likewise, learners
should find the courses relevant to their challenges and learning needs. The courses should
include real life examples that learners can relate to. The advantages are:
 Improves participation
 Improves retention of knowledge
 Boosts performance at work
 Develops problem-solving skills
 Fosters collaborative learning
 Makes learning more fun
 Facilitates personalized learning
To conclude, as opposed to other approaches, such as a content centered eLearning or a

teacher centered eLearning, a learner centered approach provides many more benefits.
CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
Participation is one of those workhorse instructional strategies—easy to use, straightforward,

expected, and often quite successful at accomplishing a number of learning goals. It‘s good to
remind ourselves of its many different uses, especially on those days when getting students to
participate feels like pulling hens‘ teeth.
1. Participation adds interest—It‘s hard to maintain students‘ focus and attention when
all they hear is the professor talking. It helps to hear another voice as well as an
answer or another point of view.
2. Participation engages students—A good question can pique their interest, make
them wonder why, get them to think, and motivate them to make connections with the
content. This benefit is magnified when teachers play a bit with the question, when
they repeat it, write it on the board, and don‘t call on the first hand they see.
3. Participation provides the teacher feedback—When students answer or try to
explain, teachers can see the extent of their understanding. They can correct (or help
the students correct) what the students haven‘t got right or don‘t see quite clearly.
4. Participation provides the students feedback—When teachers ask questions or

otherwise seek student input over a topic, they are letting students know something
about the importance of certain ideas and information.
5. Participation can be used to promote preparation—If an instructor regularly calls
on students and asks questions about assigned reading or what‘s in their notes from
the previous class session, that can get students (at least some of them) coming to
class prepared.
6. Participation can be used to control what‘s happening in class—If a student is
dozing off, texting, quietly chatting, or otherwise not attending to what‘s happening,
that student can be called on or the student next to the offender can be asked to
respond.
7. Participation can be used to balance who‘s contributing in class and how much
—In the vast majority of cases, it is the teacher who selects the participant. If teachers
will wait patiently and not always select the same student, if they look expectantly to
others and confirm verbally and nonverbally the value of hearing from different
people, they can influence who speaks and how much. Participation even helps
teachers control how much they talk.
8. Participation encourages dialogue among and between students—Students can be
asked to comment on what another student has said. A question can be asked and
students can be invited to discuss possible answers with each other before the public
discussion.
9. Participation can be used to develop important speaking skills—In many
professional contexts, people need to be able to speak up in a group. They may need
to offer information, ask questions, or argue for a different solution. People don‘t
learn to speak up in a group by reading about how to do it—it‘s one of those skills
best developed with practice. And it‘s one of those skills that develops better with
feedback. If participation is being used to teach students this public communication
skill, they will need feedback.
10. Participation gives students the opportunity to practice using the language of the
discipline—Most faculty have spoken astronomy, accounting, psychology,
gerontology, political science, whatever the field for years, and they‘ve forgotten how
much of the language is new, different, and difficult for students. Participation gives
students the chance to practice using a different vocabulary
PAIR WORK & GROUP WORK
The tendency with primary learners is to treat the class as a whole group and underestimate
their ability to work in pairs or in small groups. Even very young learners can become
independent in their learning and guided early on they will be more likely to grow into
autonomous and successful language learners.
The advantages of pair work and small group work
 Gives learners more speaking time

 Changes the pace of the lesson
 Takes the spotlight off you and puts it onto the children
 Allows them to mix with everyone in the group
 Gives them a sense of achievement when reaching a team goal
 Teaches them how to lead and be led by someone other than the teacher
 Allows you to monitor, move around the class and really listen to the language they
are producing
ROLE PLAY
Role-play is any speaking activity when you either put yourself into somebody else's shoes,
or when you stay in your own shoes but put yourself into an imaginary situation. It is widely
agreed that learning takes place when activities are engaging and memorable. Role-play is
possible at elementary levels providing the students have been thoroughly repaired. Try to
think through the language the students will need and make sure this language has been
presented. Students may need the extra support of having the language on the board.
 It's fun and motivating

 Quieter students get the chance to express themselves in a more forthright way
 The world of the classroom is broadened to include the outside world - thus offering a
much wider range of language opportunities
 Bring situations to life
 Keep it real and relevant
 Feed-in language
 Error Correction
 Self-correction
 Peer-correction
C) TEAM TEACHING AND TEACHING LARGE CLASSES
TEAM TEACHING
Learning outcomes
 To consider different models of team teaching
 To consider the advantages and disadvantages of team teaching
 To reflect on applications to our organisation
 To be able to choose the most appropriate form of team teaching for the context
 To build on the strengths and minimise the potential weaknesses of the chosen model
Different types
 2 or more teachers join to teach one group
 2 or more teachers join to teach a large group
 May be for the whole lesson
 May be for part of the lesson
 May be in one location or by videoconferencing
 May be in a larger learning area or ―normal‖ classroom
Advantages for the students

 May increase students‘ level of understanding
 May lead to greater depth of understanding
 May allow students to see other viewpoints
 Variety of teaching styles may reach a greater variety of learning styles
For the teachers
 Allows team to play to its strengths
 Creates a supportive environment
 Allows development of new teaching approaches
 Overcomes pedagogic isolation
 May help create sounder solutions to discipline
 Fosters intellectual growth
Disadvantages for the students
 Potential for ambiguity and diversity
 Some students may be confused by more than one way of looking at an issue
 Some students may feel lost or anonymous in a larger group
 Less space
 Compatibility of groups
For the teachers
 Potentially time could be an issue
 Form, norm, storm, perform
 Emotional intelligence
 Compatibility
TEACHING LARGE CLASSES
What are the challenges of teaching a large class?
 It's difficult to keep good discipline going in a large class.

 You have to provide for more children of different ages and different abilities, wanting to
learn different things at different speeds and in different ways.
 You can't easily give each child the individual attention they need.
 You may not have enough books or teaching and learning aids.
How can you use group work to help learning in a large class?
In a large class children in pairs and groups can help each other and learn from each other.
They don't get bored listening to teacher talk. Try these strategies:
 Organize the groups to suit the children's abilities
 Teachers of large classes have tried different strategies:
 Mixed-ability groups: The more able learners in the group can help the others to master
the work so that the teacher need not teach some parts.
 Same-ability groups: The teacher can leave the groups of faster learners to get on with the
work on their own. S/he can give extra help to individual learners in the slower groups.
 Using group leaders/monitors: Some teachers appoint faster, more able learners as group
leaders or monitors who can help slower learners.
 Monitor the groups yourself
 The teacher needs to move around the classroom to see what progress learners are making
and what problems are coming up. S/he can give advice, encouragement and extra
individual help where it is needed.
How can you develop good discipline in a large class?

 Establish a code of behaviour that is created by teacher and learners together. It should
state clear basic rules of conduct that learners understand, such as:
 They have to work quietly;
 They may talk, but not loudly;
 Children who have finished the lesson tasks can read a book to keep them busy.
 Use the environment outside the classroom. It offers a new, different space when children
get noisy or bored, and helps to reduce overcrowding. Remember that:
 You can work with some groups inside the classroom while the other groups are
working outside (use different tasks or the same task)
 You need to set up outdoor activities clearly and carefully and monitor them.
 Appoint responsible group leaders who can help maintain discipline. They can also give
out and take in work for the groups, and explain what groups must do.
(These notes are prepared and complied by Dr Adi Ramesh, (9959026160) Govt. City
College, Hyderabad for the examination purpose only, not to print in any book form. Some
of these materials are downloaded from internet for the benefit of the students.)
UNIT III
a) TEACHIN AIDS: USE OF BLACKBOARD FLIP CHARTS,

G THE ,
REALIA
USE OF THE BLACKBOARD
The blackboard is one of the most useful of visual aids: it is always available in classroom,
and it can be used for many purposes without special preparation. It should make things
clearer to the class, but unfortunately many teachers use it badly. There are three main
principles, which are very basic but teachers (and future teachers) need to take them always
into account:
 Write clearly and large enough for all the students to read what you are
writing.
 Stand on a side, not hiding what you are writing.
 Talk as you write in order to involve students as much as possible.
Then, I show my mates a slide in which two teachers appear in front of a blackboard. Their
attitudes are very different: teacher A is doing what we should not do, and teacher B what we
should do (according to the previous principles).
Blackboard is a place where teacher can show main content on it.
Blackboard is a stage where teacher can tell stories by using flashcards, students can role-
play drama…
Blackboard likes a piece of paper that teacher and students can draw or write on it.
Blackboard is a screen that students can see pictures and play games such as guessing words,
slap the board, hang man…
Blackboard is a sticky notes that teacher uses to write tasks and homework.
Blackboard is used to play games: Playing Games. We can play many different games just
using the board. However, games should only be played as warmers, fillers, or lesson ending
activities. Here are the examples of games that we can play on the board: Hangman, ,XO
game, Bingo, Snake word game, Pictogram…You can also play word games which are good
in vocabulary class.
FLIP CHARTS
Flip charts are both a static display tool (like slides or props) and a dynamic creation
tool (like a whiteboard or the ubiquitous back of the napkin). This versatility offers many key
benefits to speakers, including:
 Writing or drawing on a flip chart is an active process, and energizes the speaker.
Whenever I step up to the flip chart, my energy levels rise.
 Audiences ask more questions. I don‘t really know why, but perhaps it‘s because the
scribbles or sketches on a flip chart feel less permanent (than electronic slides), and
thus more open to questioning and dialogue.
 Writing takes time, and this provides healthy pauses for your audienceto absorb
information or take notes.
 Flip charts and brainstorming go together like peanut butter and bananas
(yummy!). One of my favorite training techniques is using a flip chart to record
brainstorming sessions. I ask questions, and then speedily record responses shouted
out by my audience.
 Flip charts are low tech and analog. You don‘t need to worry about passwords,
projector bulbs, or extension cords — just present! (I‘m not saying they are better
than slides; rather, I think speakers should master both options.)
Flip Chart Do’s and Taboos
Using flip charts effectively is a basic skill every competent speaker must possess. You may
not use flip charts in every presentation, but you should be able to wield one effectively when
appropriate.
1. Be prepared.
2. Choose dark, saturated colors.
3. Use colors consistently.
4. Position the flip chart to maximize visibility for your audience.
5. Minimize the time spent standing in front of the flip chart.
6. Be neat… it matters.
7. Print.
8. Print large.
9. Print straight across.
10. Give the flip chart the focus.
11. Don‘t use flip charts for lengthy sentences.
12. Draw pictures. You don‘t need to be an artist.
13. Make tables, charts, or graphs.
14. Pre-fill some pages, either in whole or in part.
15. Use pencil to give yourself invisible hints.

16. Refer back to flip chart pages throughout your presentation.
17. Get your audience members at the flip chart.
REALIA
Objects and material from everyday life used as teaching aids.

Eg: the industrial English language course makes extensive and varied use of realia, such as
specifications, extracts from company brochures, manuals, diagrams, etc."
B) AUDIO VISUAL AIDS: OHP, PPT
According to Burton. These are sensory objectives and images which stimulate and
emphasis on learning process. Carter V. Good. It is a trainable (motivation, classification
and stimulation) process of learning.
Objectives of Teaching Aids
1. To enhance teachers skills which help to make teaching-learning process effective

2. Make learners active in the classroom
3. Communicate them according to their capabilities
4. Develop lesson plan and build interest
5. To make students good observer
6. Develop easy and understandable learning material
7. Follow child cornered learning process
8. Involve intimation in objectives
9. To create interest in different groups
10. To make teaching process more effective
It can be classified simply on the bases of sensory experience. Because human beings derive
their experiences mainly through direct sensory contact. Keeping this in view, it can be
classified in to three main groups:
1. Audio Aids examples are Radio, Tape-recorder, Gramophone, Linguaphone, Audio

cassette player, Language laboratory
2. Visual Aids examples are Chart, Black and while board, Maps, Pictures, Models,
Text-books, Slide projector, Transparency, Flash-cards, Print materials etc.
3. Audiovisual Aids examples are LCD project, Film projector, TV, Computer, VCD
player, Virtual Classroom, Multimedia etc.
Advantages
1. Its helps to make learning process more effective and conceptual.

2. Its helps to grab the attention of students
3. It builds interest and motivation teaching students learning process
4. It enhance the energy level of teaching and students
5. It is even better for over burden classrooms
6. It provides students a realistic approach and experience
Disadvantages
1. Technical Problems
2. Students Distractions
3. Expensive
4. Time consuming
5. Need Space
6. Convenience
Characteristics
1. Relevancy
2. Useful and purposeful teaching
3. Accuracy
4. Interest
5. Minimize verbalism
6. Comprehensibility
7. Motivation
8. Realism
THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP)
Though it can be a problem to have this object available in class, the overhead projector is
very useful with large classes because the teacher can face the students as he is writing on the
slide or explaining something appearing on it. The slides have to be prepared at home, but
this is very useful because the teacher does not spend any time writing things on the
blackboard: she/he has everything prepared and written down in the slide. Then, some other
explanations can be written down in the slide itself, or in the blackboard.
On the other hand, the overhead projector needs no special nor difficult preparation (its use is
very easy, both for teacher and students). Masking, for example, is very easy with an
overhead projector: the teacher simply needs to place a piece of paper over what he/she wants
to hide. Then, this simple act made by the teacher can be used in order to create many
creative activities in which students can use their imagination to guess the item that is
masked, or in which the teacher uses the overhead projector as a creative support for his/her
theoretical explanations.
POWER POINT PRESENTATION (PPT)
PPT is a file extension for a presentation file format used by Microsoft PowerPoint, the
popular presentation software commonly used for office and educational slide shows. All text
images, sound and video used in the presentation are contained in the PPT file.
Step 1:
Open Microsoft PowerPoint.
Step 2:
Go to File at the top of the screen and click New. A box that says ―New Presentation‖ should
appear on the right side of your screen.
Step 3:
In the ―New Presentation‖ dialog box, click on ―From Design Template.‖ You may then scan
through design templates and choose one that you like.
Step 4: Slide Design
Select a design template by clicking on the template you like. You may choose a different
color for your template by clicking on ―Color Schemes‖ in the ―New Presentation‖
dialog box.
Step 5: Slide Layout
Change the Slide Layout. You may change the slide layout (how information is presented in
the slide) by going to the top of the screen and clicking on ―Format‖ – ―Slide Layout.‖ A box
will appear on the right side of your screen (where ―New Presentation‖ appeared)
labeled
―Slide Layout.‖ You may select a design by clicking on it.
Step 6: Adding Text
Enter your text by clicking and then typing in the box titled ―Click to Add Text‖ or ―Click
to Add Title.‖
Step 7: Adding Pictures
You may add pictures by clicking on the box that says ―Click to add content.‖ Inside
that box, there will be a smaller box with six icons. Click on the icon that looks like a
photograph of a mountain. A new window will open, allowing you to browse for a picture on
your computer or a CD. Once you find your picture, click on it and then click ―Insert.‖
Step 8: Resizing Pictures
You may change the size of your picture by clicking on the picture. The picture will then
have black lines around it with small bubbles or boxes in the corners. Place your mouse over
the bubbles or boxes and click. Holding the mouse pointer down, drag the picture to the size
you want.
C) USING TECHNOLOGY: COMPUTER AIDED LANGUAGE

LEARNING (CALL), IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
LABORATORY
(CALL)
Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching and

learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to presentation, justification and
assessment of material to be learned.
CALL is a form of computer-based learning which carries two important features:

individualized learning and bidirectional learning. The old and traditional face-to-face
teaching in a classroom continues to be used in these days. Many teachers want to teach
English by using modern technology. It includes a lot of beneficial points. The learners also
like computer-assisted language learning because of visualization. Computers can motivate
the students and fill them with confidence. Students easily get the concentration needed using
computers and they acquire the technical knowledge also.
The teacher's role as facilitator of learning—as guide, correspondent, motivator, and

challenger, has increased in importance. Students should consult meaning and assimilate new
information through interaction and collaboration with someone other than the teacher, be
that person a classmate or someone outside of the classroom entirely.
Advantages and Disadvantages of CALL
i. Individualization
ii. Interaction and Negotiation
iii. Computers Can Help Overcome Barriers of Space and Time
iv. Computers are Very Useful for Teaching Composition
iv. Global understanding:
v. Motivation
vii. Authentic Materials for Study
viii. Authentic Tasks
Disadvantages
i. Basic Technology Knowledge and Learners' Lack of Interest

ii. Computers Are Very Expensive
iii. Computers Can Only Do What They Are Programmed To Do
iv. Computers May Cut the Students from the Classroom Environment
v. Computers Can Break Down
vi. No Creativity in Writing Tasks
IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LABORATORY
In the past, laboratories were used for purely science courses. The role of the teachers of
English was to teach English text books. Now, it is totally changed as English teaching means
not only teaching grammar, syntax and vocabulary but also teaching communication skills.
Language teaching in the past was conducted mainly in the classroom with teachers‘ teaching
and students‘ passive learning, and with the aids of blackboard, recorders and videos.
Students are tired of traditional English classes. They seem to give more attention to this new
style of teaching and learning. As a result, when using a computer, students may study more
actively. It is a novel thing in India to introduce laboratory for language learning while it is
very common in Western countries to train children in the laboratory to enrich their language
learning experiences.
The language laboratory is very useful for assessing students' pronunciation. It provides
students with the technical tools to get the best samples of pronunciation of the language. The
electronic devices used in the laboratory will excite the eyes and ears of the learner to acquire
the language quickly and easily. The learners can remember the pronunciation if they listen to
computer reproductions. The laboratory‘s collection is designed to assist learners in the
acquisition and maintenance of aural comprehension, oral and written proficiency, and
cultural awareness. The language laboratory offers broadcasting, television programmes,
web-assisted materials and videotaped off-air recordings in the target language. In a word, we
say that a learner can obtain the experience of having interaction with native speakers through
the laboratory.
Here, we would like to list the usefulness of language laboratory.
1. It provides practices for students through experiential learning.

2. It is a tool designed not only for English teaching but also for teaching other languages.
3. It increases students‘ motivation to learn.
4. It encourages greater interaction between teachers and students.
5. It helps one to learn pronunciation, accent, stress and all other aspects of the phonetics of a
language.
6. It enhances student achievement and enlarges global understanding.
7. It emphasizes the individual needs and increases authentic materials for study
8. It enables one to conduct courses for various groups of people like students, faculty
members, business people, etc.
9. It helps students to prepare for international examinations like IELTS, TOEFL and other
competitive examinations.
10. Online courses and paperless examinations can be conducted through the language
laboratory.
UNIT IV
A) TEACHING OF LITERATURE: TEACHING

LANGUAGE THROUGH LITERATURE: IMPORTANT
TECHNIQUES
Literature has been a subject of study in many countries at a secondary or tertiary level, but
until recently has not been given much emphasis in the EFL/ESL classroom. It has only been
since the 1980s that this area has attracted more interest among EFL teachers. The purpose of
this article is to look at some of the issues and ways in which literature can be exploited in the
classroom. There are also links to classroom activities and lessons with literature that you can
download and use straight away.
What is literature?
First of all, any method or approach towards using literature in the classroom must take as a
starting point the question: What is literature? The Macmillan English Dictionary gives the
following definition:
There are many good reasons for using literature in the classroom. Here are a few:
 Literature is authentic material. It is good to expose learners to this source of

unmodified language in the classroom because they skills they acquire in dealing with
difficult or unknown language can be used outside the class.
 Literature encourages interaction. Literary texts are often rich is multiple layers of
meaning, and can be effectively mined for discussions and sharing feelings or
opinions.
 Literature expands language awareness. Asking learners to examine sophisticated or
non standard examples of language (which can occur in literary texts) makes them
more aware of the norms of language use (Widdowson, 1975 quoted by Lazar 1993).
 Literature educates the whole person. By examining values in literary texts, teachers
encourage learners to develop attitudes towards them. These values and attitudes
relate to the world outside the classroom.
 Literature is motivating. Literature holds high status in many cultures and countries.
For this reason, students can feel a real sense of achievement at understanding a piece
of highly respected literature. Also, literature is often more interesting than the texts
found in course books.
Teaching language through literature and with the use of literature as a popular technique for
teaching both basic language skills example for reading, writing, listening, and speaking and
language areas example for vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation in our times. Literature
and the teaching of language skills, benefits of different genres of literature to language
teaching and some problem encountered by language teaching within the area of teaching
language trough literature genres of literature example for poetry, short fiction, drama and
novel.
Literature and the Teaching of Language skills

Teaching Language through Literature a Literature plays an important role in teaching four
basic language skills like reading, writing, listening and speaking. And when using literature
in the language classroom skills should never be taught in isolation but in an integrated way.
Teachers should try to teach basic language skills as an integral part of oral and written
language use, as part of the means for creating both referential and interactional meaning, not
merely as an aspect of the oral and written production of words, phrases and sentences. And
the study of literature in a language class, though being mainly associated with reading and
writing, can play an equally meaningful role in teaching both speaking and listening. Oral
reading, dramatization, improvisation, role-playing, pandomiming, reenactment, discussion,
and group activities may center on a work of literature.
Poetry:
Teaching language through literature Poetry can pave the way for the learning and teaching
of basic language skills. And it is metaphor that is the most prominent connection between
learning and poetry.
 provides readers with a different viewpoint towards language use by going beyond the
 known usages and rules of grammar, syntax and vocabulary,
 triggers unmotivated readers owing to being so open to explorations and different
 interpretations,
 evokes feelings and thoughts in heart and in mind,
 Makes students familiar with figures of speech due to their being a part of daily
language use
Thus, poetry is a rewarding and enjoyable experience with the properties of rhyming and
rhythm both of which convey ―love and appreciation for the sound and power of language.‖
At this juncture, it can be stated that students become familiar with the suprasegmental
aspects of the target language, such as stress, pitch, juncture, intonation by studying poetry.
Short Stories:
Teaching language through literature a Short fiction is a supreme resource for observing not
only language but life itself. And In short fiction, characters act out all the real and symbolic
acts people carry out in daily lives and do so in a variety of registers and tones. The world of
short fiction both mirrors and illuminates human lives (Sage 1987:43). The inclusion of short
fiction in the ESL / EFL curriculum offers the following educational benefits example for
following educational benefits.
 makes the students‘ reading task easier due to being simple and short when
 compared with the other literary genres,
 enlarges the advanced level readers‘ worldviews about different cultures and
 different groups of people,
 provides more creative, encrypt, challenging texts that require personal
 exploration supported with prior knowledge for advanced level readers,
 motivates learners to read due to being an authentic material,
 offers a world of wonders and a world of mystery,
 gives students the chance to use their creativity,
 promotes critical thinking skills,
 facilitates teaching a foreign culture (i.e. serves as a valuable instrument in
 attaining cultural knowledge of the selected community,
 makes students feel themselves comfortable and free,
 helps students coming from various backgrounds communicate with each other
 because of its universal language,
 helps students to go beyond the surface meaning and dive into underlying
 meanings,
 acts as a perfect vehicle to help students understand the positions of
 themselves as well as the others by transferring these gained knowledge to their own
world.
Thus, the use of a short story seems to be a very helpful technique in today‘s foreign
language classes. And it makes the students‘ reading task and the teacher‘s coverage easier.
An important feature of short fiction is its being universal.
Drama:
Teaching language through literature a drama in a language classroom is a good resource for
language teaching. And It is through the use of drama that learners become familiar with
grammatical structures in contexts and also learn about how to use the language to express,
control and inform. The use of drama raises the students‘ awareness towards the target
language and culture. In this context, the use of drama as a tool rather than an end gains
importance in teaching a foreign language. And the educational benefits of drama are that.
 stimulates the imagination and promotes creative thinking,

 develops critical thinking skills,
 promotes language development,
 heightens effective listening skills,
 strengthens comprehension and learning retention by involving the senses as an
 integral part of the learning process,
 increases empathy and awareness of others,
 fosters peer respect and group cooperation,
 reinforces positive self-concept,
 Provides teachers with a fresh perspective on teaching.

 bringing authenticity into the classroom,
 exposing the learners to the target culture as well as the social problems a society may
be undergoing,
 increasing creativity, originality, sensitivity, fluency, flexibility, emotional
 Stability, cooperation, and examination of moral attitudes, while developing
 Communication skills and appreciation of literature,
 helping learners improve their level of competence with respect to their receptive and
productive skills,
 providing a solid basis for the learners to bridge the gap between their receptive and
productive skills,
 offering students the space and time to develop new ideas and insights in a range of
contexts,
 enabling students to develop new understandings and forms of knowing not accessible
in other more traditional ways of learning.
Thus, the use of drama seems to be an effective technique in today‘s communication-based,

student-centered foreign language teaching. it is an authentic material, it helps students to
promote their comprehension of the verbal / nonverbal aspects of the target language they are
trying to master.
Novel:
Teaching language trough literature a novel is a beneficial technique for mastering not only
linguistic system but also life in relation to the target language. In novel, characters reflect
what people really perform in daily lives. Novels not only portray but also enlighten human
lives. Using novel in a foreign language class offers the following educational benefits that.
 develops the advanced level readers‘ knowledge about different cultures and
 different groups of people,
 increases students‘ motivation to read owing to being an authentic material,
 offers real life / real life like settings,
 gives students the opportunity to make use of their creativity,
 improves critical thinking skills,
 paves the way for teaching the target language culture,
 Enables students to go beyond what is written and dive into what is meant.
And when selecting a novel to be used in the foreign language class, the language teacher
should pay attention to whether the novel has an intriguing story that will be of interest to the
entire class. Themes and settings captivating their imagination and exploring the human
condition should be included in the nature of the selected novels. Novel should have a
powerful, fast-paced plot and interesting, well delineated, memorable characters. and The
content of the novel should be suitable to students' cognitive and emotional levels. Specific
themes and concepts being developed in class should also be incorporated within the novel.
When assessing comprehension, teachers may employ novel tests requiring students to
develop the sub-skills of written language like spelling, handwriting, grammar, and
punctuation. Essay type tests written by teachers help students to gradually improve their
skills in writing and organizing material into paragraphs with acceptable sentence structure.
b) STYLISTIC APPROACH TO TEACHING LITERATURE:

THE OF
NORM, DEVIATION AND FOREGROUNDING
A Stylistics approach teaches students how to look for and interpret stylistic dimensions of a
text. Students are made to learn how what is said is said and how meanings are made. They
are taught to know what makes the language of literature different from everyday language, if
it really is. The environment of our classes at the college level is lecture-based where teacher
remains at the helm of affairs and students are demanded to be patient listeners, which makes
them hardly participative.
Advantages of the Stylistic Approach
If we adopt the stylistic approach to teach literature at the college level, it will help the
students understand the role of language in literature. Language is made up of words,
structures and sentences and literature is made up of these words, structures and sentences.
Literature is language in its applied form and prepares a basis for the study of language
through various points of view. Every piece of literary writing is different from the other.
They have similarities but are never identical. Every piece of literature is unique with own
peculiarities. Therefore, literature offers as many models or varieties of language just as we
many writers. How the writers use the same limited set of sounds with a variety of words,
structures, syntax and collocations – set the platform for the stylistic analysis of a particular
task.
Students at the college level must be taught to recognize and focus on the style markers used
by the authors in their works which contribute to the effect of the work. A style marker may
be recognized intuitively, or with the help of critics who have analyzed the text and identified
various style markers used by the authors. Thus stylistics offers some critical and creative
ways of looking at a work under study. Students will develop a sense of appreciation as well
as acumen.
Students should be motivated to recognize intuitive responses to a text which are central to
the process of reading and re-reading the text, thus helping them develop their own
communicative competence as reading is the silent exposure of the self to the language.
Intensive and extensive reading of a literary text enables the students infer more than one
meaning and it helps them to understand how to make the use of the target language in
everyday contexts. It is very much essential for the learners learning English as a second or a
foreign language who most of the time remain less informed of the culture and practices of
the native speakers/writers of the target language. Our students remain busy in merely
memorizing answers for the questions based on the works or the authors to reproduce them in
their examination rather than learning how to bring out the aesthetic element of a particular
piece of art. It has become a malpractice among the college students to pick up readymade
material available in the form of guidebooks in the market. These guidebooks may not
provide the students with the authentic material, yet these are very popular among a large
number of college students. The stylistic approach will make learning of language an
interesting task as students work upon their own intuition, background knowledge and
experience of the language. They will learn to appreciate the artistic use of language and
enhance their own communicative competence.
THE CONCEPT OF "NORM"
It is very important in the study of deviation; every deviant utterance is understood against
the norm of a language system; this norm is the common stock, the background that is
assumed in any talk of deviation and against which features that are prominent because of
their abnormality are placed in focus. There are many norms from which a poet may deviate:
those of langue, parole and the poetic tradition. Therefore, the critic dealing with deviation
should define the norm against which the deviation of a given text to be assessed.
LINGUISTIC DEVIATION
‗A day Ago‘ / ‗a week ago‘ / ‗a month ago‘ / show the normal paradigm. But when the poet
uses ‗a grief ago‘, it shows an abnormal paradigm which has stylistic and semantic
variations.
‗A‘ the definite article shows that it is placed with a countable noun which can be pluralized.
The post modifying adverb ‗ago‘ would normally modify a noun which goes with time.
‗Grief‘ is a word denoting to emotion. Thus by using this abnormal paradigm, the poet wants
to stand out with a different and specific meaning which has a psychological appeal for the
reader.
Deviation is the breaking of rules which others obey. Poetry as a genre is a deviation from the
ordinary language, though, despite the poetic deviation, poetry skill has its own rules and
norms which separate it from ordinary language and therefore creates its own pattern. In
literary circle, deviation is taken as poetic license or writer‘s license and it should be noted
that deviation could occur at various linguistic level. We can have grammatical lexical,
phonological, semantic and textual deviation.
The Importance of Linguistic deviation:

- The Importance of Linguistic deviation due to its being motivated breach of the rules. it has
a purpose & a function.
Writers especially poets resort to / turn to deviation to achieve certain artistic aims and effects
as Leech say ―a poet may transcend the limits of the language to explore and
communicate new areas of experiences ".
Through deviation a poet can communicate unique experiences which he feels cannot be
effectively communicated by means of the normal communicative resources of his tongue
(his native normal language).
Poets may also deviate to realize specific effects on the reader by striking him with
something unexpected forcing him to focus his attention on the deviant sequences.
Deviation is actually a very significant way to ―Foregrounding" certain aspects of a

given literary text. So, What is Foregrounding?
FOREGROUNDING
Foregrounding as postulated by Mukarovsky is" the intentional violation of the scheme by

means of which an item brought into artistic emphasis and thus stands out from its
background.
Linguist M.A.K. Halliday has characterized foregrounding as motivated prominence: "the

phenomenon of linguistic highlighting, whereby some features of the language of a text stand
out in some way" (Explorations in the Functions of Language, 1973).
c) DESIGNING LANGUAGE TASKS FROM LITERARY TEXTS
Motivation
When we want to answer the question what creative use of literature is, we have to highlight
that any use of literature is creative. Everybody is creative because it is an inborn
qualification, but everybody can learn how to be more creative. Even the reading of a text
without additional tasks can be considered creative because the reader develops his fantasy.
However, there are a lot of activities that help develop creativity.
Teaching Listening
It is very important to be in contact with the English language presented by many different
speakers. When students have a possibility to hear other speakers besides their own teacher,
they gain a certain ability to adapt to different kinds of pronunciation different ways of
speaking.
Again, there are quite a lot of strategies to develop listening skills:

- prediction – students will guess the right answers (this is based on their background
knowledge)
- attitude – when listening we may feel the speaker´s attitude (according to the intonation and
stress he/she uses)
working out the meaning based on the context – listening for general understanding (students
try to guess the unknown vocabulary)
- gap filling (this activity is very useful with songs)
- true/false questions
- multiple choice
Teaching Speaking
The reason for learning the language is to be able to use it in practice, to make oneself
understood. Thus, the most frequent way of using it is speaking. According to Ur, and I
believe most language teachers would agree, speaking plays an important part in learning a
foreign language.
1. Story-telling games – students speak out a story when the teacher´s finger moves. When
the teacher points at another student, then he/she continues to invent the story. The teacher
can define limits, e.g. the number of sentences, using specific vocabulary or tense…
2. TV or radio interviews – the teacher acts as an interviewer and students as characters who
are asked questions about events, other characters or their own opinion. Characters are
selected from a book, story, novel…
3. Telling the truth – students have sheets of paper stuck on their backs, and each student will
write something to that person. He/she may represent a character from a book.
4. Music workshop – the teacher reads a story and students create dramatic effects with their
voices, percussion instruments or improvised simple musical instruments.
5. Fly on the wall – students pretend they are flies on the wall and comment on a certain
situation, such as the plot in a story, discussion of two people, an important event –
Halloween, Christmas…
6. Autobiographical sketch – students make an autobiographical sketch of a famous character
from a story. They will draw things as a clue to describe a certain character.
7. Curriculum vitae – this activity is similar to the previous one, students write a CV of a
selected character and will supply all the needed unknown information.
8. Completion of a story – the teacher presents only a part of a story – introduction, ending –
and students write the missing part.
9. Making up dialogues – students write missing dialogues into the bubbles in comics
according to the pictures.
10. Description of a character – students receives a picture of a character from a book. Their
task is to describe it in such a detail (body, clothes, facial expression, characteristic features)
so that the other learners can guess who this character is.
11. Design of a cover of a book – when students are familiar with the plot of a story, fairy tale
or novel, they design a cover on this book.
12. In a bookshop – a dialogue between a shop-assistant and customer about books. A shop-
assistant presents several books giving their basic characteristics to a customer in order to sell
him a book. Here a school library can be used as the setting.
13. What is it about? – Students watch a story on the video without any voice. They are asked
to retell the story guessing the plot from what they have seen.
14. Who is the first? – It is a game (a competition) in which students are asked to look for
particular word categories (adjectives, verbs, modal verbs…)
15. Opposites – students choose two characters and try to compare them (e.g., David and
Goliath).
16. Letter to a character – students write a letter to a character (formal, informal, request…).
17. What would you do if? – Students are asked to imagine they would be in the place of a
character. They answer the question what they would do in a different way (reaction on a
story, change from good to bad or vice versa…).
18. Actors – students divided into groups of four are given a short story. They read it and act
it to their classmates, using verbal or non-verbal language (pantomime).
19. Story telling – students are given a series of questions or words which suggest a story
they should create.
20. Stories based on things – students are given several objects (or their pictures) and are
asked to make a story in which all these objects would be included.
21. Picture spread – the teacher tells a story and then spreads a large number of pictures
among students who are asked to choose one picture each. The pictures should remind them
of an important theme of the story and they describe them.
22. Making a poster – students prepare a poster on a new book or a famous character. This
activity can also be done as a project work for an individual or groups.
23. Party – students organize a party for characters in a book. They will write an invitation
for them, prepare menu and social activities.
24. Searching for differences – students listen to a story or watch its film adaptation and then
compare them with the book version.
25. Radio – learners prepare scripts and produce their own radio programme using a
microphone.
Teaching Reading:
- Skimming – it is used when a student has to select from a list only those titles that are
appropriate for his task. Skimming involves quickly reading through the list and matching
titles with his topic.
- Scanning – this involves reading more slowly than skimming so that students can extract
specific information that is required.
- Predicting – the reader predicts how a text is going to develop and what a writer is likely to
say next.
- Intensive reading – is usually used with a shorter section when students read a text to find
certain details.
- Extensive reading – this kind of reading is used when we read for pleasure, to understand a
text in general.
Teaching Writing
It is generally known that writing as a learning skill is in most cases neglected. Teachers
either omit this skill or place it as a homework activity. It must be mentioned that students
have to be taught how to write.
UNIT V
A) PRACTICAL ENGLISH I: ESSENTIALS OF PRESENTATION

SKILLS ELOCUTION, DEBATE, COMPEERING INTERVIEWS,
, ,
GROUP DISCUSSIONS
PRESENTATION SKILLS
The formal presentation of information is divided into two broad categories: Presentation
Skills and Personal Presentation. These two aspects are interwoven and can be described as
the preparation, presentation and practice of verbal and non-verbal communication. This
article describes what a presentation is and defines some of the key terms associated with
presentation skills. Many people feel terrified when asked to make their first public talk.
Some of these initial fears can be reduced by good preparation that also lays the groundwork
for making an effective presentation.
A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking

situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. A presentation
can also be used as a broad term that encompasses other ‗speaking engagements‘ such as
making a speech at a wedding, or getting a point across in a video conference. To be
effective, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting the information
should be carefully considered.
A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will often contain a
'persuasive' element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive work of your
organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should receive additional
funding for a project.
Presentations skills training
1. Fear of public speaking - You are not alone - 'Fearlessness in an Assembly'

2. Understanding and overcoming fear of public speaking - Managing causes and effects
2.1 Confidence and control - Experience, preparation and rehearsal
2.2 Physiology and stress - control/process - Understanding and managing stress
3. Tips for presentations and public speaking - a list of helpful pointers
4. Tips for using visual aids in presentations - how to bring a presentation to life
5. Process for preparing and creating presentations - starting your ideas -
6. Delivering Presentations Successfully - relax, control, enjoy
7. Summary of main points
Tips for using visual aids in presentations and public speaking
1. For printed visual aids with several paragraphs of text, use serif fonts (a font is a typeface)
for quicker readability.
2. For computer and LCD projectors use sans serif fonts, especially if the point size (letter
size) is quite small.
3. Arial is a sans serif font. Time is a serif font. (A serif font has the extra little cross-lines at
the ends of the strokes of the letters. Interestingly, serif fonts originated in the days of
engraving, before printing, when the engraver needed a neat exit from each letter.)
4. Extensive sections of text can be read more quickly in serif font because the words have a
horizontal flow, but serif fonts have a more old-fashioned traditional appearance than sans
serif, and so stylistically can seem old-fashioned, which does not fit certain presentations.
5. If you need to comply with a company/corporate typeface (font/letter design) you'll maybe
have no choice of lettering style. If you are creating and delivering the presentation for a
company or organization of any sort then ask if there is a recommended/compulsory 'house'
typeface, and if so, then use it, along with corporate colour/color schemes and branding.
Marketing departments usually keep this information.
6. Generally try to use no more than two different typefaces (fonts) and no more than two
size/bold/italic variants, or the text presentation becomes confused and very distracting to
read quickly and easily.
7. Whatever - try to select fonts and point sizes that are the best fit for your medium and
purpose.
8. If in doubt simply pick a good readable serif font and use it big and bold about 20-30pt for
headings, and 14 - 16 point size for the body text.
Teleconference
Teleconferencing among multiple participants in two or more locations is a strategic

communication tool deployed by many companies with multiple locations and dispersed
employees. Business cyclical shifts and economic downturns tend to see a rise in the use of
teleconferencing facilities. Used judiciously and strategically, teleconferencing can enhance

organizational productivity, engage employees at all levels and reduce travel budgets.
ELOCUTION
It is the skill of clear and expressive speech, especially of distinct pronunciation and
articulation.
"Lessons in singing and elocution"
DEBATE
1. There are two teams, each consisting of two or three speakers.
2. Each team has two or three constructive speeches, and two to three rebuttal speeches. The
affirmative gives the first constructive speech, and the rebuttals alternate: negative,
affirmative, negative, affirmative. The affirmative has both the first and last speeches of the
debate.
3. When worded as a proposition of policy, the topic requires the affirmative to support some
specified action by some particular individual or group. The affirmative has the right to make
any reasonable definition of each of the terms of the proposition. If the negative challenges
the reasonableness of a definition by the affirmative, the judge must accept the definition of
the team that shows better grounds for its interpretation of the term.
4. The affirmative must advocate everything required by the topic itself. No revision of
position of a team is permitted during the debate.
5. He who asserts must prove. In order to establish an assertion, the team must support it with
enough evidence and logic to convince an intelligent but previously uninformed person that it
is more reasonable to believe the assertion than to disbelieve it. Facts must be accurate.
Visual materials are permissible, and once introduced, they become available for the
opponents' use if desired.
6. In the questioning period, the questioner may ask any fair, clear question that has a direct
bearing on the debate. The questioner may use the period to build up any part of his own
case, to tear down any part of his opposition's case, or to ascertain facts, such as the
opposition's position on a certain issue, that can be used later in the debate. The questioner
must confine himself to questions and not make statements, comments, or ask rhetorical
questions.
7. Each speaker is questioned as soon as he concludes his constructive speech. The witness
must answer the questions without consulting his colleagues.
8. No new constructive arguments may be introduced in the rebuttal period. The affirmative
must, if possible, reply to the major negative arguments before the last rebuttal.
9. The judge must base his decision entirely on the material presented, without regard for
other material which he may happen to possess.
10. Any gains made outside of the established procedure are disallowed.
Debate Etiquette
1. Team members must meet together in preparation for the debate, so they can work
together as an effective team. Practice, practice, practice!
2. All members of each side must participate in the debate.
3. Do not read your materials.
4. You may bring some brief notes, but you may not read them.
5. Maintain good eye contact with the audience.
6. Use proper language and be polite in referring to your opposing team.
7. The pro team should write the topic on the board before class begins, listing the
names of each pro and con debater in a clear fashion.
Some of the Debate Topics
1. Should cell phones be banished in education institutions?

2. Should laptops be allowed in classrooms?
3. Is cloning human beings ethical?
4. Should plastic bags be banned?
5. Are human beings depended on computers too much?
6. Is co-education is a good idea?
7. Who is more complicated gender: men or women?
8. Vegetarianism or non-vegetarianism
9. All citizens who don‘t vote should pay a fine.
10. Does India still need caste reservations?
COMPEERING
It is a host, master of ceremonies, or the like, especially of a stage revueor television program
It means act as a compere for (a variety show).
INTERVIEWS
Even the smartest and most qualified job seekers need to prepare for job interviews. Why,
you ask? Interviewing is a learned skill, and there are no second chances to make a great first
impression. So study these 10 strategies to improve your interview skills.
Practice good nonverbal communication
It's about demonstrating confidence: standing straight, making eye contact and connecting
with a firm handshake. That first nonverbal impression can be a great beginning -- or quick
ending -- to your interview.
Dress for the job or company
Today's casual dress codes do not give you permission to dress as "they" do when you
interview. It is important to know what to wear to an interview and to be well-groomed.
Whether you wear a suit or something less formal depends on the company culture and the
position you are seeking. If possible, call to find out about the company dress code before the
interview.
Listen
From the very beginning of the interview, your interviewer is giving you information, either
directly or indirectly. If you are not hearing it, you are missing a major opportunity. Good
communication skills include listening and letting the person know you heard what was said.
Observe your interviewer, and match that style and pace.
Don't talk too much
Telling the interviewer more than he needs to know could be a fatal mistake. When you have
not prepared ahead of time, you may ramble when answering interview questions, sometimes
talking yourself right out of the job. Prepare for the interview by reading through the job
posting, matching your skills with the position's requirements and relating only that
information.
Don't be too familiar
The interview is a professional meeting to talk business. This is not about making a new
friend. Your level of familiarity should mimic the interviewer's demeanor. It is important to
bring energy and enthusiasm to the interview and to ask questions, but do not overstep your
place as a candidate looking for a job.
Use appropriate language
It's a given that you should use professional language during the interview. Be aware of
any inappropriate slang words or references to age, race, religion, politics or sexual
orientation -- these topics could send you out the door very quickly.
Don't be cocky
Attitude plays a key role in your interview success. There is a fine balance between
confidence, professionalism and modesty. Even if you're putting on a performance to
demonstrate your ability, overconfidence is as bad, if not worse, as being too reserved.
Take care to answer the questions
When interviewers ask for an example of a time when you did something, they are
asking behavioral interview questions, which are designed to elicit a sample of your past
behavior. If you fail to relate a specific example, you not only don't answer the question, but
you also miss an opportunity to prove your ability and talk about your skills.
Ask questions
When asked if they have any questions, most candidates answer, "No." Wrong answer. Part
of knowing how to interview is being ready to ask questions that demonstrate an interest in
what goes on in the company. Asking questions also gives you the opportunity to find out if
this is the right place for you. The best questions come from listening to what you're asked
during the interview and asking for additional information.
Don't appear desperate
When you interview with the "please, please hire me" approach, you appear desperate and
less confident. Reflect the three Cs during the interview: cool, calm and confidence. You
know you can do the job; make sure the interviewer believes you can, too.
GROUP DISCUSSIONS
A GD is a methodology used by an organization to gauge whether the candidate has certain

personality traits and/or skills that it desires in its members. In this methodology, the group of
candidates is given a topic or a situation, given a few minutes to think about the same, and
then asked to discuss the topic among themselves for 15-20 minutes. Freshersworld.com
brings you an elaborate section for GD as you had ever seen anywhere else. It is a very useful
tool to screen the candidate‘s potential as well as their skills.
GD evaluation is done by the subject experts based on the discussions. A report will be
prepared on analyzing the facts at the end of the discussion
Some of the personality traits the GD is trying to gauge may include
 Communication skills
 Interpersonal Skills
 Leadership Skills
 Motivational Skills
 Team Building Skills
 Analytical /Logical Skills
 Reasoning ability
 Different Thinking
 Initiative
 Assertiveness
 Flexibility
 Creativity
 Ability to think on ones feet
Type 1: Roles which contribute to the fruitful discussion of a particular topic include
activities such as
a) Initiating:
b) Asking for and giving information
c) Asking for and for giving reactions
d) Restating
e) Comparing Ideas.
f) Clarifying, synthesizing and summarizing.
Type 2: Two roles essential to the process of group discussion are
g) Gatekeeping: Gatekeeping is a kind of verbal traffic management. A person play this role
momentarily attempts to spread participation by encouraging those who have not recently
spoken to share their thoughts and questions. Gatekeeping is also necessary when several
persons wish to speak at once. At such times, encouraging the less assertive members to
continue first will often facilitate communication. Gatekeeping also helps the group move
efficiently from one topic to the next and through the steps of the discussion process.
h) Timekeeping: This is a special kind of gate keeping, sometimes best handled by choosing
a timekeeper for the day‘s discussion. If the group is to keep within the time budget it has
allowed itself, someone must be responsible for keeping track of the time and warning other
members when the time allotted for discussion of a particular discussion is nearly up.
B) PRACTICAL
ENGLISH II: CORPORATE/BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION: INTER OFFIC MEMO (IOMS) NOTICES,
E S ,
AGENDA AND MINUTES OF MEETING
CORPORATE/BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
It is a set of activities involved in managing and orchestrating all internal and external
communications aimed at creating favourable point of view among stakeholders on which the
company depends. It is the messages issued by a corporate organization, body, or institute to
its audiences, such as employees, media, channel partners and the general public.
Organizations aim to communicate the same message to all its stakeholders, to
transmit coherence, credibility and ethic. Corporate Communications help organizations
explain their mission; combine its many visions and values into a cohesive message to
stakeholders. The concept of corporate communication could be seen as an integrative
communication structure linking stakeholders to the organisation.
INTER OFFICE MEMOS (IOMS)
Company Name
Memo
Recipient Name
To:
Your Name
From:
Name
cc:
Date
Date:
Subject
Re:
To get started right away, just tap any placeholder text (such as this) and start typing to
replace it with your own.
Want to insert a picture from your files or add a shape, text box, or table? You got it! On the
Insert tab of the ribbon, just click the option you need.
Find even more easy-to-use tools on the Insert tab, such as to add a hyperlink or insert a
comment.
Think a document that looks this good has to be difficult to format? Think again! To easily
apply any text formatting you sees in this document with just a click, on the Home tab of the
ribbon, check out Styles.
NOTICES
DRAFTING A NOTIC
 Use the organization letter head
 Clearly state the date, time and venue of the meeting
 Specify the reason (agenda) for the meeting
 Mention the name and designation of the issuing authority
 Mention the authorities to whom the copies are sent as at the right/left bottom of the
page
AGENDA:
 Are the points to be discussed in a meeting

 Sent along with the notice to the participants of the meeting
 It enables the participants to come prepared for a discussion question, suggest and
opine on any issue so that a final clear decision can be arrived at the end of the
discussion.
 Numbering in Agenda and Minutes
In Arabic numerals
Two types
a. 1, 2, 3 … b. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 …
Type a –Serial Numbering
Type b –Begins with the serial number of the meeting as the first digit and the number
following the decimal to indicate the meeting number
Agenda –Format
The First Point is always ‗Review of the previous meeting‘ if any

What has been discussed in the previous meeting and the status of the completed and pending
work
The other Points pertain to the discussion of various issues, in the order of priority
The last point is ‗Any other matter‘
Any other issue which has arisen after the notification or which any member brings up during
the meeting
Example: (Agenda)
2.1 Review of the previous meeting
2.2 Proposal to start a new unit
2.3 Salary revision
2.4 Conduct of the General Body Meeting
2.5 Any other matter
MINUTES OF MEETING
Checklist Letterhead
Date to the right margin
Introductory sentence –Nature of meeting, date, venue and time
List of members who attended the meeting
Content in past tense, reported speech
Concluding sentence –Note of Thanks and concluding time
Signature and designation of the convener
Minutes…
Report of the meeting conducted
Elaborates on the discussions held and the decisions taken on the points in Agenda
Lists the names of persons who are assigned with specific responsibilities
C) PRACTICAL ENGLISH BUSINES LETTERS: LETTER OF

III: S
ENQUIRY, LETTER OF COMPLAINT, LETTER OF REPLY
BUSINESS LETTERS
A business letter is a formal document, with a set structure. As you can see from the
examples in the links above, a business letter has a very defined format. A business
letter includes contact information, a salutation, the body of the letter, a complimentary
close, and a signature
Write an inquiry letter to ask for more information concerning a product, service or other
information about a product or service. These letters are often written in response to an
advertisement that we have seen in the paper, a magazine, a commercial on television when
we are interested in purchasing a product, but would like more information before making a
decision. Inquiries are also written to ask for business contact information to develop new
business.
For further types of business letters, use this guide to different types of business letters to
refine your skills for specific business purposes such as making inquiries, adjusting claims,
writing cover letters and more.
Remember to place your or your company's address at the top of the letter (or use your
company's letterhead) followed by the address of the company you are writing to. The date
can either be placed double spaced down or to the right.
Important Language to Remember
 The Start: Dear Sir or MadamTo Whom It May Concern - (very formal as you do
not know the person to whom you are writing)
 Giving Reference: With reference to your advertisement (ad) in...Regarding your
advertisement (ad) in ...
 Requesting a Catalog, Brochure, Etc.: After the reference, add a comma and
continue - ... , would (Could) you please send me ...
 Requesting Further Information: I would also like to know ...Could you tell me
whether ...
 Signature: Yours faithfully - (very formal as you do not know the person to whom
you are writing)
LETTER OF ENQUIRY
 Letters of enquiry describe what the writer wants and why.

 The more unusual the request, the more convincing the reason needs to be.
 It is important to recognize that a well-written letter of inquiry is crucial to securing
funding for your project.
 The letter of inquiry should be brief—no more than three pages—and must be a
succinct but thorough presentation of the need or problem you have identified, the
proposed solution, and your organization's qualifications for implementing that
solution.
 The letter of inquiry should be addressed to the appropriate contact person at a
foundation or to its CEO and should be sent by regular mail.
Subject Heading: This should inform the reader that this is an enquiry or request
A.Q.Electronics Ltd.
Calle Estoril 1701
Barselona
Ref: JR/ct
Standart Office Furniture Ltd.
Cantley Rd.
London, SW4 9HX
Great Britain 14 Oct., 2017
Dear Sirs,
We have read an article in ―Office News‖ about your range of visible record system
filing cabinets. We are interested in introducing a modern filing system in our main office.
We also wish to install an electronic system for the storage and retrieval of data.
Please send us price list and catalogues of your manual and electronic data processing
systems, quoting your price f.o.b. London if possible. We are particularly interested in type
TW37, so we would be grateful if you would enclose more detailed information about this
particular model.
We look forward to hearing from you
soon. Yours faithfully,

Rohan Sanshray,
Office Manager
LETTER OF COMPLAINT
Complaint letters are those letters are usually written to business forms. They must be:
1. Reliable: Make sure that the language should be convincing while writing a complain
letter. It should be real, relevant and to-the-point.
2. Factual: To justify your complain, you should enclose all the relevant documents along
with the letter. All the facts and documents will undoubtedly resolve you problem as soon as
possible
3. Concise and constructive: It should be written in simple language. Additionally, the letter
should demand immediate response, quicker decision or positive actions in order to resolve
the complaint as soon as possible
The message conveyed in the complaint letter should be direct and credible. It should contain
all the details. For example – if you had purchased a product, which is defective or unsealed
then, you should keep the purchasing bill, order number and other details as evidence. You
can enclose the photocopy of that bill with the letter as it may help you to get an immediate
response from the concerned authority.
56- Seemapuram
Jammikunta
11th January 2017
M/s.Rama Electronics
Commercial Street
Warangal
Sub: Complaining about the Washing Machine.
Sir
I am sorry to inform you that the Washing Machine which I bought from your shop against
cash memo No.2050 dated 10thDecember with two year guarantee stopped working well
after ten days. Now the machine makes an unbearable noise and the motor tears delicate
fabrics.
All these are causing great inconvenience and I feel cheated. I, therefore, request you to
remove the fault if it is minor or replace it for a new one as per the conditions of guarantee
certificate. Your quick action will be highly appreciated.
Thanking you
Yours faithfully
Sreeja
LETTER OF REPLY
Acknowledging receipt of an enquiry/request

Thank you for your letter of … regarding / concerning / in connection with …
I refer to your enquiry about / relating to…
We would like to thank you for enquiring about ...
Explaining action taken as a consequence of the enquiry

I have (reviewed our available stock) …
We held a meeting on 21 January to discuss possible solutions.

I have checked/looked into/investigated (the possible approaches) …
Making suggestions / justifying recommendations / pointing out pros and cons / hedging
The best choice would be … since …
I highly recommend … as / due to the fact that …
Perhaps you should choose … even though…
Apologizing and rejecting proposals

While I appreciate your firm‘s need for this information, I regret that
… It will not be possible to … for legal reasons. We are bound to …
Stipulating action requested or to be taken

We shall arrange for … by …at the latest.
I shall see to it that …
Establishing goodwill and suggesting contact

I hope this suggestion/information will be useful to you.
I hope this information will prove useful to you.
Everlong Batteries
171, Bhem Bhem Nagar
Tika Tika Pally,
Tel/Fax 2235 2449
18 July 2017
Pulluri Eeshwaraiah
Purchasing Officer
Fortune Goods
317 Orchard Road
Jammikunta
Dear Thodeti Raju

Enquiry about Batteries
Thank you for your letter of Thursday, 14 July 2017 regarding making copies of the sample
battery you sent us.
I have investigated the situation and found that your specifications are exactly the same as the
design of a proprietary camera battery manufactured by a large Japanese electronics
company.
We feel that it would not be in our interests to supply this type of battery.
However, I would like to thank you for considering our company as your supplier.
I look forward to doing business with your company in the future
Yours sincerely
Pulluri Eeshwaraiah
Distributions Manager
PAPER-II
Note
examinations also.

ENG 302 AMERICAN LITERATURE-I

PAPER-II
UNIT –I
BACKGROUND
ANTEBELLUM PERIOD
Antebellum Period summary: The Antebellum Period in American history is generally

considered to be the period before the civil war and after the War of 1812, although some
historians expand it to all the years from the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 to the
beginning of the Civil War. It was characterized by the rise of abolition and the gradual
polarization of the country between abolitionists and supporters of slavery. During this same
time, the country‘s economy began shifting in the north to manufacturing as the Industrial
Revolution began, while in the south, a cotton boom made plantations the center of the
economy. The annexation of new territory and western expansion saw the reinforcement of
American individualism and of Manifest Destiny, the idea that Americans and the institutions
of the U.S. are morally superior and Americans are morally obligated to spread these
institutions.
Our historical understanding of antebellum America is heavily colored by our knowledge of

the disaster that brought that era of American history to a close: the Civil War. But the people
who lived through the antebellum period had no way of knowing that historians would later
define their era by the war that ended it. (―Antebellum‖ is Latin for ―pre-war.‖) Antebellum
Americans did, however, understand and appreciate the seriousness of the increasing
sectional conflict dividing the country between the slave-labor, agricultural South and the
―free labor,‖ industrializing North.
Antebellum culture in America reflected the growing sectional crisis, at times seeking to pave
over sectional differences and at other times making light of them. Congressmen pushed
through a “gag rule” so that the difficult subject of slavery would simply be made taboo in the
chambers of government. Playwrights invented ―vernacular characters‖ that represented
the Yankee of the North and the Cavalier of the South; these exaggerated embodiments of
regional stereotypes enabled audiences to chuckle at the idiosyncrasies of each group.
Sometimes, however, the differences between North and South were less pronounced than the
similarities; while only southerners enslaved black people, white Americans from both North
and South overwhelmingly embraced anti-black racism. White people in the North rubbed
burnt cork or coal on their faces to perform in “blackface,” mimicking ludicrous stereotypes
of African-Americans to entertain each other. This blackface minstrelsy was obviously
deeply racist, but the popular form of entertainment was actually more complicated than that.
The performances revealed how northerners were simultaneously fascinated by black people
and derisive of them; onstage mocking of blacks provided relief for working-class whites'
anxieties over their own social status as hourly wage laborers.
Other dimensions of the economic, technological, and social changes underway in

Antebellum American society manifested themselves in the national culture in surprising
ways. The innovations of the mass printing press made possible the first popular newspapers
and advertisements (especially in the cities), and fueled an explosion of printed material—
from women's sentimental novels to classic works of literature to inflammatory abolitionist
tracts. The rapid communication made possible by the telegraph facilitated the advent of
mass spectator sports, in which men in saloons hundreds of miles from a horse race or
boxing match could receive rapid updates on the progress and outcome. The new practice of
photography dazzled Americans everywhere; they sent one another their portraits through the
mail, purchased pictures of celebrities, famous political leaders and even erotic nudes, and
received photographic evidence of whipped and abused slaves (whether they wanted to see it
or not). The patriotic rhetoric championed by Andrew Jackson's administration empowered
the common white man to feel as though he was an important part of the political culture.
Partisan political machines created by both parties organized huge torchlight parades,
transforming political participation into a spectacle of democracy, motivating the highest
voter turnouts in American history.
Americans dealt with the rapidly changing conditions of the Antebellum era by manifesting
their hopes, their values, and their anxieties on the stage and through the culture that infused
their daily actions and interactions.
POSTBELLUM PERIOD
Definition of postbellum: of, relating to, or characteristic of the period following a war and
especially following the American Civil War
Postbellum American literature, by its very nature, was written under the influence of the
preceding catastrophic events of the American Civil War. The Civil War‘s impact on society
was immense, and the brutal reality of war permeated all aspects of American life - especially
literature. The immeasurable magnitude of war inspired literature of all forms, such as press
releases, memoirs, fiction and poetry. Press releases and memoirs are expected and their
relevance is obvious, but fiction influenced by war is not as easily deciphered. The dissection
of war‘s literary impact on society is arguably the most intricate and profound, yet it is often
overlooked.
Today‘s critics of postbellum American literature often focus on influential current events of
the time, and little on prior events. Common events of the postbellum era include mass
immigration from Europe, labor strikes, women‘s independence, and African American
rights. These are indeed monumental themes of the time and undeniably deserve allusion in
literature, but is it possible the issues have been over-scrutinized? Has anyone revealed how
the lingering effects of the War transformed into pages of postbellum literature?
The purpose of this website is to identify and evaluate how the Civil War affected authors of
postbellum literature. Some authors, like Stephen Crane, were deeply impacted by the War
and wrote whole novels dedicated to the topic. Other authors, like William Dean Howells,
were less impressed and their mention of the War was less focused on battlefield hardships
than it was on cultural influence.
PURITANISM AND AMERICAN LITERATURE
―The first settlers who became the founding fathers of American were quite a few of them
Puritans. They came to America out of various reasons. But they were a group of serious
religious people, advocating highly religious and moral principles. They carried with them
to America a code of values, a philosophy of life, and a point of view, and what is became
known as ―American Puritanism‖. American Puritanism is a dominant fact in American life,
and was one of the most enduring shaping influences in American thought and in American
literature. To some extent, it has become a state of mind, a part of the national culture
atmosphere that the Americans breathe. So that we can state safely that without some
understanding of American Puritanism, there can be no real understanding of American
literature.
―The American puritans, like their brothers in England, were idealists, believing that
the church should be restored the ―purity‖ of the 1st –century church as established by
Jesus Christ Himself. To them, religion was a matter of primary importance. They accepted
the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity and limited atonement through
a special infusion of grace from God.
As Edmond S. Morgan had said, the puritans ―know how to laugh, and they and they
also know how to love,‖ yet it is also true, as Morgan observes, ―that they did not spend their
best hours in either love or laugh. They had fixed their eyes on a heavenly goal, which
directed and informed their lives.
The influence of American Puritanism:
The New England Puritans formed only one of a number of groups of settlers in the New
World. But among these groups, at least well into the eighteenth century, the puritan
contributed a substantial body of intellectual and literary works.‖ Virtually, no non-puritan
writing on this continent survived from the 17thcentury. The puritans made three lasting
contributions to American literature. ―Firstly they invested American with a mythology of its
own,‘ and the second was inextricably bound up with the first one, and it refers to the
corporate ideal through which they resolve ambiguities of their—universalistic venture. The
third aspect refers to the ―international, adversary, visionary ‗America‘ and it has root in
the phase of the New England.
The Puritan sense of history:
The Puritans looked into the history with a special intensity and excitement; for the rule they
had been chosen to play in the universal drama was all together exceptional. A major reasons
for the Puritans‘ confidence in their historic mission was their belief that history was
overwhelmingly meaningful—because God, the governer of the history had willed that it
should be so. There were four representative figures—William Bradford, John Winthrop,
Cotton Marther, and Thomos Shepherd. They addressed themselves to questions of history, to
a record of concrete historical fact, to a meditation on the unique nature of the present
historical moment.
In his history of Playmouth Platation—the story of the founding, the development and the
decline of the colony between 1620 and 1650, William Bradford gave the first expression of
to the idea that America was a scene of a unique experiment. William Bradford was
undoutblly the key figure in the Plantation at Playmouth. John Winthrop was his counterpart
in the Massachusetts colony. In his work A Model of Christian Charity. Winthrop says that,
the puritans should be in a situation of visibility: ―For we must consider that we shall be as a
city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us.‖ Cotton Marther was a prolific writer,
among his works; Magnalia Christi America is his best known production, a ―pastiche
of brilliance, beauty, and botch-work which, comprises seven books to describe the history
of the New England settlements, the lives of governors, the magistrates and ‗six famous
divines‘ as well as what he called the ‗wars of the Lord‘ against Satan, witches, Quakers and
Indians‖
The Puritan sense of self:
While the Americans were intent upon large questions about God‘s purpose and the processes
the history, each was no less preoccupied with the condition of his own soul. Three writers—
Thomas Hookern, Mary Rowlandson, and Samual Sewall reflected this habit of strenuous
self-searching and the compelling reasons that lead to it.
Of course, it had always been a tenet of protestant doctrine hat an individual must find about
what sins he had been guilty of by self-examination, rather than by checking his against a list
of sins in some prescribed book. But for the puritans, self-examination was truly demanding
exercise. Hooker‘s exceeding impressive sermons is a good example of what is meant by
speaking of Puritans as tough and bold.
In American romantic writing, the inward jouney reappears as a predominantly psychological

events; and to the examples of Poe and Whitman, we may add several of Melville‘s writings
—Pypee and Clarel, and shorter pieces like ―The Encantadas‖ and ―I and my
Chimney‖. Francis Parkman‘s first and best known work, The Oregon Trail, may be taken on
one level as a searching out of the self‘s hidden territories. Howthorne, gave the theme his
own special twist when he wrote in his note book as follows:
―The human heart to be allegorized as a cavern; at the entrance there is

sunshine, and flowers growing about it. You step within, but a short distance and
begin to find yourself surrounded with a terrible gloom, and monsters of divers
kinds; it seems like a hell its self. You are bewildered, and wander long without
hope. At last, a light stricken upon you. You peep towards it, and find yourself in
a region that seems, in some sort, to reproduce the flowers and sunny beauty of
the entrance, but all perfect. These are the depth of the human heart, or of human
nature.‖
Beyond Howthone, there are those key moments in the novels of Henry James—Isabel
Archer’s Night-long Vigil Before the Fire in the Portrait of a Lady comes first to mind.
The Puritan theory of style:
―One of the aspects of human activity that the Puritans were determined to purify was that of
literary style, and if they were mainly concerned with prose styles, particularly with the style
of church sermons, what they have to say bore no less than on the writings of poetry.
The phrase often used by the Puritans when writing about rhetoric was ―plain
style‖. Bradford begins his the history of Plymouth by assuming his readers that events he is
about narrate he will seek to ―manifest in plain style. With singular regard onto the simple
truth in all things‖
Puritanism was central to colonial American literature; its impact could find expression in
almost in all respects concerning literature. The conviction that all religion progress centered
in the individual led colonial writers to make records of his spiritual development in forms of
diary and autobiography; a strenuous self-analysis and ceaseless searching of conscience in
the writings of the puritans was the result of the belief that ―election‖ would show itself in the
behavior and in the expression of the inner life of a individual.
TRANSCENDENTALISM
Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s
in the eastern United States. It arose as a reaction to or protest against the general state of
intellectualism and spirituality at the time. The doctrine of the Unitarian church as taught at
Harvard Divinity School was of particular interest.
Transcendentalism emerged from English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of
Johann Gottfried Herder and Friedrich Schleiermacher, the skepticism of David Hume, and
the transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant and German Idealism. Miller and Versluis
regard Emanuel Swedenborg as a pervasive influence on transcendentalism. It was also
influenced by Hindu texts on philosophy of the mind and spirituality, especially the
Upanishads.
A core belief of transcendentalism is in the inherent goodness of people and nature.

Adherents believe that society and its institutions have corrupted the purity of the individual,
and they have faith that people are at their best when truly ―self-reliant‖ and independent.
Transcendentalism emphasizes subjective intuition over objective empiricism. Adherents

believe that individuals are capable of generating completely original insights with as little
attention and deference to past masters as possible.
Major Writers of the Transcendentalist Movement
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882)

 Thoreau, Henry David (1817-1862)
 Fuller, Margaret (1810-1850)
 Channing, William Henry (1810-1884)
 Ripley, George (1802-1880)
 Dickinson, Emily (1830-1886)
 Whitman, Walt (1819-1892)
 Very, Jones (1813-1880)
 Alcott, Amos Bronson (1799-1888)
 Francis, Convers (1795-1863)
 Peabody, Elizabeth (1804-1894)
 Hedge, Frederick Henry (1805-1890)
THE AMERICAN ROMANTICS (1830 -1865)
The American Romantic period, which lasted from about 1830-1870, was a time of rapid
expansion and growth in the United States that fueled intuition, imagination and
individualism in literature. When you think about stories that are labeled 'romantic,' you
probably think of a romance novel, where some half-dressed woman has some Fabio-esque
guy hanging all over her. That is NOT what we're talking about in the American Romantic
period. Don't get me wrong: like those stories, Romantic literature is both adventuresome and
improbable, but it's a lot more than just a randy love story.
In 1830, just fifty years after the Revolutionary War, America was still really young, but its
citizens were anxious to create their own identity that was uniquely American and not so
reliant on European values. Therefore, the American Romantic movement challenged the
very rational thinking that we saw in the Age of Reason during the Revolutionary War. This
period produced fewer instructional texts and more stories, novels and poetry.
Within these stories, novels and poems, there are five characteristics that we can use to
identify American Romantic literature. These are:
1. Imagination
2. Individuality
3. Nature as a source of spirituality
4. Looking to the past for wisdom
5. Seeing the common man as a hero
Imagination
The first of these characteristics is imagination. This falls in line with the Industrial
Revolution, which was a great time of progress. In many cases, when there is progress, there
is also great optimism. People start to imagine what could happen next, and progress
continues. On the flip-side of that, with that much progress, a lot of people began migrating
to big cities that were becoming overpopulated. The cities became dirty and disease-ridden,
so it's no surprise that many people wanted to escape that. Therefore, the American Romantic
writers embraced that notion through escapism.
Escapism is where the mind allows you to escape harsh conditions by taking you to a place
that is purely beautiful. Characters in Romantic literature are often journeying away from the
city and into the countryside to a place that's not totally realistic, a place that has improbable
and even supernatural qualities. The authors develop these places with imagery to make the
reader experience the locale as if it were real. Washington Irving, who's known as the father
of American literature, wrote a story called 'Rip Van Winkle,' which is about a man who
wanders out into the woods to escape some chores his wife is asking him to do. After falling
asleep for twenty years in the woods, he not only escapes his chores but his wife as well
because she's dead. This fanciful escape is typical during this time, but it's something we still
see in movies today. Think about the movie Avatar. Jake Sully is able to escape by assuming
a new identity in a beautiful new world. Even the audience, as they watch, is able to escape
reality as they experience the fantastical world of Pandora. So, we see escapism continues
today.
Individuality
The second characteristic used to identify American Romanticism is individuality. As people

are moving into the frontier, they are establishing new areas in ways that best suit their needs.
Not only are people moving across the country but into the country. Immigration begins
creating what we now call the 'melting pot' in America. As a result, you see not only people
creating an identity for themselves, but the country creating its own identity as people with
different social pasts come together to create something new.
Americans also wanted to distance themselves from Europe and become intellectually
independent. This shows up in literature with characters that live on the outskirts of society.
Kind of like that old-school cowboy, they aren't going to follow the norms that have come
over from Europe; they're going to follow their intuition and their feeling, and they're going
to embrace this newly found freedom and become individuals.
Nature as a Source of Spirituality
Third, we have nature as a source of spirituality. Remember, initially, the Puritans were
coming to the Colonies to escape religious persecution in England. Those Puritans' ideas did
not disappear when the country was established. During this time, the Romantics wanted to
embrace that spiritual root that was planted by the Puritans. To do that, they're taking what
was established in that spiritual realm, but then taking it into nature. Where the Puritans saw
nature as savage, with the Devil hiding behind every tree, the Romantics really are finding
God in nature. They believed that they could achieve high levels of insight and information
about the world around them just by going to nature. William Cullen Bryant was a poet
during this time, and he wrote a poem called 'Thanatopsis.' It's a prime example of looking
into nature for spiritual insight. He explores death through the life cycles that we see in
nature. He finds comfort both for the living and for the dying. In his point of view, death is
just a chance to go back to nature.
The writers are:
Ralph Waldo Emerson. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a man of many talents. ...
Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau lived a pretty extraordinary life. ...
Walt Whitman. Walt Whitman is the most important poet of the American Romantic
movement.
Herman Melville.
Nathaniel Hawthorne.
AMERICAN FRONTIER
American Frontier comprises the geography, history, folklore, and cultural expression of
life in the forward wave of American expansion that began with English colonial settlements
in the early 17th century and ended with the admission of the last mainland territories as
states in 1912. ―Frontier‖ refers to a contrasting region at the edge of a European-American
line of settlement. American historians cover multiple frontiers but the folklore is focused
primarily on the so-called ―conquest‖ and settlement of the lands west of the
Mississippi River, in what is now the Midwest, Texas, the Great Plains, the Rocky
Mountains, the Southwest, and the West Coast.
This era of massive migration and settlement was particularly encouraged by the Colonial
and early United States government following the Louisiana Purchase, and coined the term
and political philosophy, ―Manifest Destiny‖.
Enormous popular attention in the 19th and early 20th century media focused on the Western
United States in the second half of the 19th century, a period sometimes called the Old West,
or the Wild West, the theme of which frequently exaggerated the romance, anarchy, and
chaotic violence of the period for greater dramatic effect. This eventually inspired the
Western genre of film and comic books, as well as the more general theme of ―Cowboys
and Indians‖—though the latter term is now considered outdated and derogatory.
As defined by Hine and Faragher, ―frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense
of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states.‖
They explain, ―It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging
of peoples and cultures that gave birth and continuing life to America.‖ Through treaties with
foreign nations and native tribes; political compromise; military conquest; establishment of
law and order; the building of farms, ranches, and towns; the marking of trails and digging of
mines; and the pulling in of great migrations of foreigners, the United States expanded from
coast to coast, fulfilling the dreams of Manifest Destiny. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner
in his ―Frontier Thesis― (1893) theorized that the frontier was a process that
transformed Europeans into a new people, the Americans, whose values focused on equality,
democracy, and optimism, as well as individualism, self-reliance, and even violence. Thus,
Turner's Frontier Thesis proclaimed the westward frontier as the defining process of
American history.
As the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took
firm hold in the imagination of Americans and foreigners alike. America is exceptional in
choosing its iconic self-image. David Murdoch has said: ―No other nation has taken a time
and place from its past and produced a construct of the imagination equal to America's
creation of the West.‖[2]
To describe my major field as ―Literature of the American Frontier‖ raises, at the

outset, questions of definition. In his watershed essay bemoaning the ―closing of the
frontier‖ in 1890, Frederick Jackson Turner is satisfied with proclaiming that the ―term
[frontier] is an elastic one, and for our purposes does not need sharp definition,‖ and ensuing
discussions on the subject have too often reproduced this unwillingness to define their central
term. The first task before me, then, is to devise a useful definition of the frontier that takes
into account not only space but time and that recognizes the frontier as a border zone where
different cultures, nations, ethnicities, and narratives communicate and compete with each
other.
UNIT –II (POETRY)
WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT
William Cullen Bryant was Born on November 3, 1794, William Cullen Bryant was an
American nature poet and journalist. He wrote poems, essays, and articles that championed
the rights of workers and immigrants. In 1829, Bryant became editor in chief of the New York
Evening Post, a position he held until his death in 1878. His influence helped establish
important New York civic institutions such as Central Park and the Metropolitan Museum of
Art. In 1884, New York City‘s Reservoir Square, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Sixth
Avenue, was renamed Bryant Park in his honor.
A FOREST HYMN
- WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT
The groves were God's first temples. Ere man learned

To hew the shaft, and lay the architrave,
And spread the roof above them,---ere he framed
The lofty vault, to gather and roll back
The sound of anthems; in the darkling wood,
Amidst the cool and silence, he knelt down,
And offered to the Mightiest solemn thanks
And supplication. For his simple heart
Might not resist the sacred influences,
Which, from the stilly twilight of the place,
And from the gray old trunks that high in heaven
Mingled their mossy boughs, and from the sound
Of the invisible breath that swayed at once
All their green tops, stole over him, and bowed
His spirit with the thought of boundless power
And inaccessible majesty. Ah, why
Should we, in the world's riper years, neglect
God's ancient sanctuaries, and adore
Only among the crowd, and under roofs,
That our frail hands have raised? Let me, at least,
Here, in the shadow of this aged wood,
Offer one hymn---thrice happy, if it find
Acceptance in His ear.
Father, thy hand
Hath reared these venerable columns, thou
Didst weave this verdant roof. Thou didst look down
Upon the naked earth, and, forthwith, rose
All these fair ranks of trees. They, in thy sun,

Budded, and shook their green leaves in the breeze,
And shot towards heaven. The century-living crow,
Whose birth was in their tops, grew old and died
Among their branches, till, at last, they stood,
As now they stand, massy, and tall, and dark,
Fit shrine for humble worshipper to hold
Communion with his Maker. These dim vaults,
These winding aisles, of human pomp and
pride Report not. No fantastic carvings show
The boast of our vain race to change the form
Of thy fair works. But thou art here---thou fill'st
The solitude. Thou art in the soft winds
That run along the summit of these trees
In music; thou art in the cooler breath
That from the inmost darkness of the place
Comes, scarcely felt; the barky trunks, the ground,
The fresh moist ground, are all instinct with thee.
Here is continual worship;---Nature, here,
In the tranquility that thou dost love,
Enjoys thy presence. Noiselessly, around,
From perch to perch, the solitary bird
Passes; and yon clear spring, that, midst its herbs,
Wells softly forth and wandering steeps the roots
Of half the mighty forest, tells no tale
Of all the good it does. Thou hast not left
Thyself without a witness, in these shades,
Of thy perfections. Grandeur, strength, and grace
Are here to speak of thee. This mighty oak---
By whose immovable stem I stand and seem
Almost annihilated---not a prince,
In all that proud old world beyond the deep,
E'er wore his crown as lofty as he
Wears the green coronal of leaves with which
Thy hand has graced him. Nestled at his root
Is beauty, such as blooms not in the glare
Of the broad sun. That delicate forest flower
With scented breath, and look so like a smile,
Seems, as it issues from the shapeless mould,
An emanation of the indwelling Life,
A visible token of the upholding Love,
That are the soul of this wide universe.
My heart is awed within me when I think

Of the great miracle that still goes on,
In silence, round me---the perpetual work
Of thy creation, finished, yet renewed
Forever. Written on thy works I read
The lesson of thy own eternity.
Lo! all grow old and die---but see again,
How on the faltering footsteps of decay
Youth presses- - -ever gay and beautiful youth
In all its beautiful forms. These lofty trees
Wave not less proudly that their ancestors
Moulder beneath them. Oh, there is not lost
One of earth's charms: upon her bosom yet,
After the flight of untold centuries,
The freshness of her far beginning lies
And yet shall lie. Life mocks the idle hate
Of his arch enemy Death---yea, seats himself
Upon the tyrant's throne- -the sepulchre,
And of the triumphs of his ghastly foe
Makes his own nourishment. For he came forth
From thine own bosom, and shall have no end.
There have been holy men who hid themselves

Deep in the woody wilderness, and gave
Their lives to thought and prayer, till they outlived
The generation born with them, nor seemed
Less aged than the hoary trees and rocks
Around them;- -and there have been holy
men
Who deemed it were not well to pass life thus.
But let me often to these solitudes
Retire, and in thy presence reassure
My feeble virtue. Here its enemies,
The passions, at thy plainer footsteps shrink
And tremble and are still. Oh, God! when thou
Dost scare the world with falling thunderbolts, or fill,
With all the waters of the firmament,
The swift dark whirlwind that uproots the woods
And drowns the village; when, at thy call,
Uprises the great deep and throws himself
Upon the continent, and overwhelms
Its cities- -who forgets not, at the sight
Of these tremendous tokens of thy power,
His pride, and lays his strifes and follies by?

Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy face
Spare me and mine, nor let us need the wrath
Of the mad unchained elements to teach
Who rules them. Be it ours to meditate,

In these calm shades, thy milder majesty,
And to the beautiful order of the works
Learn to conform the order of our lives.
Summary:
―A Forest Hymn‖ is an 1824 poem written by William Cullen Bryant which has been called
one of Bryant's best poems, and ―one of the best nature poems of that age‖ It was
first published in Boston in the The United States Literary Gazette along with several other
poems written by Bryant.
Said to have been only conceivable by someone familiar with the ―thick foliage and
tall trunks of [the] primeval forests‖ in Massachusetts, ―A Forest Hymn‖ is said to
have been Bryant's way of saying farewell to country life before moving to New York City
in 1825, which came about during a period where he wrote a large amount of works. It is
reflective of Bryant's love of nature and religious belief, has been called a ―picturesque
poem‖, and Richard Henry Stoddard has said:
The gravity, the dignity, the solemnity of natural devotion, were never before stated so
accurately and with such significance. We stand in thought in the heart of a great forest,
under its broad roof of boughs, awed by the sacred influences of the place. A gloom which is
not painful settles upon us; we are surrounded by mystery and unseen energy. The shadows
are full of worshippers and beautiful things that live in their misty twilights.
At the pace of the wind ―playing upon the leaves and the branches of the ancient
woods, Eleanor O'Grady has suggested that the poem be read in a smooth and gliding
manner, as done in Median Stress.
THE YELLOW VIOLET
When beechen buds begin to swell,

And woods the blue-bird‘s warble know,
The yellow violet‘s modest bell
Peeps from the last year‘s leaves below.
Ere russet fields their green resume,

Sweet flower, I love, in forest bare,
To meet thee, when thy faint perfume
Alone is in the virgin air.
Of all her train, the hands of Spring

First plant thee in the watery mould,
And I have seen thee blossoming
Beside the snow-bank‘s edges cold.
Thy parent sun, who bade thee view

Pale skies, and chilling moisture sip,
Has bathed thee in his own bright hue,
And streaked with jet thy glowing lip.
Yet slight thy form, and low thy seat,

And earthward bent thy gentle eye,
Unapt the passing view to meet
When loftier flowers are flaunting nigh.
Oft, in the sunless April day,

Thy early smile has stayed my walk;
But midst the gorgeous blooms of May,
I passed thee on thy humble stalk.
So they, who climb to wealth, forget

The friends in darker fortunes tried.
I copied them—but I regret
That I should ape the ways of pride.
And when again the genial hour

Awakes the painted tribes of light,
I‘ll not o‘erlook the modest flower
That made the woods of April bright.
Summary:
William Cullen Bryant‘s ―The Yellow Violet‖ is composed of eight rimed quatrains.
Each quatrain adds a field to the portrait of spring that the speaker is celebrating in his song
of beauty, modesty, alertness, and humility.
First Quatrain: ―When beechen buds begin to swell‖
The first quatrain finds the speaker establishing the period of time that the ―yellow violet's
modest bell‖ makes its appearance in the woods. At the same time, the blue-bird may be
heard in all its glory, and all the buds on the trees are beginning to appear. The small bright
yellow flower then makes its appearance, ―peep[ing]‖ out from the leaves that had fallen
two seasons before.
Second Quatrain: ―Ere russet fields their green resume‖
In the second quatrain, the speaker speaks to the flower, telling it about his fondness of
encountering it and being able to detect it because of its ―faint perfume‖ which is the
only fragrance in ―the virgin air.‖ Thrillingly, all this happens even before the fields,
which are still brown from winter‘s stay, have been ploughed and made ready to sprout their
growing produce.
Third Quatrain: ―Of all her train, the hands of Spring‖
In the third quatrain, the speaker compliments the flower for being the earliest to bloom. He
personifies spring saying ―the hands of Spring / First plant thee in the watery mould.‖
The speaker then remarks that he has even observed the small blossom, showing its bright
head by ―snow-bank‘s edges cold.‖ The speaker thus suggests that the tiny flower is rugged
and dauntless because it is able to endure such harsh weather conditions.
Fourth Quatrain: ―Thy parent sun, who bade thee view‖
The speaker then focuses on discipline. He dramatically portrays the sun's role in discipling
the little flower as the violet's parent. Through personification, the speaker places the sun in
the role of a parent instructing and guiding the child to become self-sufficient, strong, and
persistent in the face of daunting obstacles.
The little flower through the sun's tough love has come to reflect the same feature of the
―parent‖: its ―own bright hue‖ is ―streaked with jet thy glowing lip.‖ The bright color of the
flower reflects that of the sun, while at the same time featuring a strip of ―jet‖ on her
lip, signifying her individuality and independence.
Fifth Quatrain: ―Yet slight thy form, and low thy seat‖
Even in spite of the vigor and persistence of this robust little flower, the tiny blossom
portrays its modest environment: ―Yet slight thy form, and low thy seat, / And earthward
bent
thy gentle eye.‖ The flower is tiny; it grows low and close to the earth, as it appears to bow its
head, not showing its ―gentle eye.‖
It is not likely that anyone casually passing by would even take note of the little flower. Other
flowers in comparison would be deemed ―loftier,‖ as they ―are flaunting nigh.‖ This
tiny blossom remains modest and inconspicuous.
Sixth Quatrain: ―Oft, in the sunless April day‖
The sixth quatrain finds the speaker offering further evidence to support his claim that the
little flower is modest as he chafes at his own failure to observe it as other blossoms were
asserting themselves: ―Oft, in the sunless April day, / Thy early smile has stayed my walk; /
But midst the gorgeous blooms of May, / I passed thee on thy humble stalk.‖
The speaker confesses that when it is early spring and easy to see a tiny yellow blossom
where no other flowers were showing themselves, he had gladly halted on his walk to take in
the ―smile‖ of the yellow violet. But after the ―gorgeous blooms of May‖ had
begun displaying their glory, he had neglected the little humble flower.
Seventh Quatrain: ―So they, who climb to wealth, forget‖
The speaker therefore takes note that human nature tends to overlook the lowly, the humble,
and the modest. As they ―climb to wealth,‖ the human being becomes full of pride and self-
satisfaction, failing to take notice of beauty in humble places. The speaker regrets that he has
succumbed to such failure. He exhibits remorse that he ―should ape the ways of pride.‖
Eighth Quatrain: ―And when again the genial hour‖
The speaker then promises the tiny yellow violet that he will no longer take the route of pride
and obliviousness, but he will remember to observe and pay attention to the humble flower.
He will look forward to welcoming,‖the modest flower / That made the woods of April
bright.‖
Instead of overlooking again the little flower, he will overlook his pride, keep it in check, and
while giving proper attention to the other ―gorgeous blooms of May,‖ he will pay
proper homage to the little blossom that is always the very first one to presage the beauty of
the season of growth.
AMERICA
OH mother of a mighty race,

Yet lovely in thy youthful
grace!
The elder dames, thy haughty peers,
Admire and hate thy blooming years.
With words of shame
And taunts of scorn they join thy name.
For on thy cheeks the glow is spread

That tints thy morning hills with red;
Thy step—the wild deer‘s rustling feet
Within thy woods are not more fleet;
Thy hopeful eye
Is bright as thine own sunny sky.
Ay, let them rail—those haughty ones,

While safe thou dwellest with thy sons.
They do not know how loved thou art,
How many a fond and fearless heart
Would rise to throw
Its life between thee and the foe.
They know not, in their hate and pride,

What virtues with thy children bide;
How true, how good, thy graceful maids
Make bright, like flowers, the valley shades;
What generous men
Spring, like thine oaks, by hill and glen;—
What cordial welcomes greet the guest

By thy lone rivers of the West;
How faith is kept, and truth revered,
And man is loved, and God is feared,
In woodland homes,
And where the ocean border foams.
There ‘s freedom at thy gates and rest

For Earth‘s down-trodden and opprest,
A shelter for the hunted head,
For the starved laborer toil and bread.

Power, at thy bounds,
Stops and calls back his baffled hounds.
Oh, fair young mother! on thy brow

Shall sit a nobler grace than now.
Deep in the brightness of the skies
The thronging years in glory rise,
And, as they fleet,
Drop strength and riches at thy feet.
Thine eye, with every coming hour,

Shall brighten, and thy form shall tower;
And when thy sisters, elder born,
Would brand thy name with words of scorn,
Before thine eye,
Upon their lips the taunt shall die.
EDGAR ALLAN POE
Edgar Allan Poe, (born January 19, 1809, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.—died October 7,
1849, Baltimore, Maryland), American short-story writer, poet, critic, and editor who is
famous for his cultivation of mystery and the macabre. His tale ―The Murders in the
Rue Morgue‖ (1841) initiated the modern detective story, and the atmosphere in his tales of
horror is unrivaled in American fiction. His ―The Raven‖ (1845) numbers among the best-
known poems in the national literature.
THE RAVEN
-EDGAR ALLAN POE
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and

weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore
—
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door.
―‘Tis some visitor,‖ I muttered, ―tapping at my chamber door
— Only this and nothing more.‖
Ah, distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December;

And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor.
Eagerly I wished the morrow;—vainly I had sought to borrow
From my books surcease of sorrow—sorrow for the lost Lenore—
For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name Lenore—
Nameless here for evermore.
And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain

Thrilled me—filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before;
So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating
―‘Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door
— Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door;
—
This it is and nothing more.‖
Presently my soul grew stronger; hesitating then no longer,

―Sir,‖ said I, ―or Madam, truly your forgiveness I implore;
But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping,
And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door,
That I scarce was sure I heard you‖—here I opened wide the door;—
Darkness there and nothing more.
Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering,

fearing, Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream
before;
But the silence was unbroken, and the stillness gave no token,
And the only word there spoken was the whispered word, ―Lenore?‖
This I whispered, and an echo murmured back the word, ―Lenore!‖—
Merely this and nothing more.
Back into the chamber turning, all my soul within me burning,

Soon again I heard a tapping somewhat louder than before.
―Surely,‖ said I, ―surely that is something at my window lattice;
Let me see, then, what thereat is, and this mystery explore—
Let my heart be still a moment and this mystery explore;—
‘Tis the wind and nothing more!‖
Open here I flung the shutter, when, with many a flirt and flutter,
In there stepped a stately Raven of the saintly days of yore;
Not the least obeisance made he; not a minute stopped or stayed he;
But, with mien of lord or lady, perched above my chamber door—
Perched upon a bust of Pallas just above my chamber door—
Perched, and sat, and nothing more.
Then this ebony bird beguiling my sad fancy into smiling,

By the grave and stern decorum of the countenance it wore,
―Though thy crest be shorn and shaven, thou,‖ I said, ―art sure no
craven, Ghastly grim and ancient Raven wandering from the Nightly
shore— Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night‘s Plutonian shore!‖
Quoth the Raven ―Nevermore.‖
Much I marvelled this ungainly fowl to hear discourse so plainly,

Though its answer little meaning—little relevancy bore;
For we cannot help agreeing that no living human being
Ever yet was blessed with seeing bird above his chamber door—
Bird or beast upon the sculptured bust above his chamber door,
With such name as ―Nevermore.‖
But the Raven, sitting lonely on the placid bust, spoke only
That one word, as if his soul in that one word he did outpour.
Nothing farther then he uttered—not a feather then he fluttered—
Till I scarcely more than muttered ―Other friends have flown before—
On the morrow he will leave me, as my Hopes have flown before.‖
Then the bird said ―Nevermore.‖
Startled at the stillness broken by reply so aptly spoken,

―Doubtless,‖ said I, ―what it utters is its only stock and store
Caught from some unhappy master whom unmerciful Disaster
Followed fast and followed faster till his songs one burden bore—
Till the dirges of his Hope that melancholy burden bore
Of ‗Never—nevermore‘.‖
But the Raven still beguiling all my fancy into smiling,

Straight I wheeled a cushioned seat in front of bird, and bust and door;
Then, upon the velvet sinking, I betook myself to linking
Fancy unto fancy, thinking what this ominous bird of yore—
What this grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt, and ominous bird of yore
Meant in croaking ―Nevermore.‖
This I sat engaged in guessing, but no syllable expressing

To the fowl whose fiery eyes now burned into my bosom‘s core;
This and more I sat divining, with my head at ease reclining
On the cushion‘s velvet lining that the lamp-light gloated o‘er,
But whose velvet-violet lining with the lamp-light gloating o‘er,
She shall press, ah, nevermore!
Then, methought, the air grew denser, perfumed from an unseen censer
Swung by Seraphim whose foot-falls tinkled on the tufted floor.

―Wretch,‖ I cried, ―thy God hath lent thee—by these angels he hath sent thee Respite—
respite and nepenthe from thy memories of Lenore;
Quaff, oh quaff this kind nepenthe and forget this lost Lenore!‖
―Prophet!‖ said I, ―thing of evil!—prophet still, if bird or devil!

— Whether Tempter sent, or whether tempest tossed thee here
ashore,
Desolate yet all undaunted, on this desert land enchanted—
On this home by Horror haunted—tell me truly, I implore—
Is there—is there balm in Gilead?—tell me—tell me, I implore!‖
―Prophet!‖ said I, ―thing of evil!—prophet still, if bird or devil!

By that Heaven that bends above us—by that God we both adore—
Tell this soul with sorrow laden if, within the distant Aidenn,
It shall clasp a sainted maiden whom the angels name Lenore—
Clasp a rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name Lenore.‖
―Be that word our sign of parting, bird or fiend!‖ I shrieked, upstarting—
―Get thee back into the tempest and the Night‘s Plutonian shore!
Leave no black plume as a token of that lie thy soul hath spoken!
Leave my loneliness unbroken!—quit the bust above my door!
Take thy beak from out my heart, and take thy form from off my door!‖
And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting

On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door;
And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon‘s that is dreaming,
And the lamp-light o‘er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor;
And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor
Shall be lifted—nevermore!
Summary:
―The Raven‖ is unquestionably Poe‘s most famous poem. After its publication, it became so
well known that its refrain ―nevermore‖ became a catchphrase repeated by people on
the street. Poe, who told one friend that he thought the poem was the greatest poem ever
written, was delighted one night at the theatre when an actor interpolated the word into his
speech, and almost everyone in the audience seemed to recognize the allusion.
The work remains Poe‘s best-known poem today partly because, in his ―Philosophy
of Composition,‖ Poe describes what he claims was the method by which he composed
the poem. Whether or not that description is an accurate account of how the work was
composed, it is surely a description of how Poe wished the poem to be read. Thus, Poe
himself was the first, and is perhaps still the best, critic and interpreter of his own poem.
As Poe makes clear in ―The Philosophy of Composition,‖ he wished to create an effect of

beauty associated with melancholy in the poem; he decided that the refrain
―nevermore,‖ uttered to a young man whose mistress has recently died, was perfectly
calculated to achieve that effect. According to Poe, the basic situation, the central character,
and the plot of the poem were all created as a pretext or excuse for setting up the
―nevermore‖ refrain, to be repeated with a variation of meaning and impact each time.
The plot is a simple one: A young student is reading one stormy night in his chamber, half-
dreaming about his beloved deceased mistress. He hears a tapping at his window and opens it
to admit a raven, obviously someone‘s pet which has escaped its master, seeking shelter from
the storm. The raven can speak only one word, ―nevermore.‖ When the student, amused by
this incident, asks the raven questions, its reply of ―nevermore‖ strikes a melancholic echo in
his heart. Although he knows that the raven can only speak this one word, he is compelled by
what Poe calls the universal human need for self-torture to ask the bird questions to which the
response ―nevermore‖ will cause his suffering to be even more intense. When this self-torture
reaches its most extreme level, Poe says, the poem then naturally ends.
The sorrow of the young student and the stormy midnight hour contribute to the overall effect
of the poem, but the most important feature is the sound of the refrain—a sound that is
established even before the raven appears by the dead mistress‘s name ―Lenore.‖ The echo of
the word ―Lenore‖ by ―nevermore‖ is further emphasized in stanza 5, when the student peers
into the darkness and whispers ―Lenore?‖ only to have the word echoed back, ―Merely this
and nothing more.‖
Once the lost Lenore is projected as the source of the student‘s sorrow, the appearance of the
raven as a sort of objectification of this sorrow seems poetically justified. When he asks the
raven its name and hears the ominous word, ―nevermore,‖ the student marvels at the bird‘s
ability to utter the word but realizes that the word has no inherent meaning or relevance. The
relevance of the bird‘s answer depends solely on the nature of the questions or remarks the
student puts to it. For example, when he says that the bird will leave tomorrow, like all his
―hopes have flown before,‖ he is startled by the seemingly relevant reply, ―nevermore.‖
The student begins to wonder what the ominous bird ―means‖ by repeating
―nevermore.‖ When he cries that perhaps his god has sent him respite from his sorrow and
memory of Lenore, the bird‘s response of ―nevermore‖ makes him call the bird ―prophet‖
and compels him to ask it if, after death, he will clasp the sainted maiden whom the angels
call Lenore; to this question he knows he will receive the reply, ―nevermore.‖ Obsessively
pushing his need
for self-torture to its ultimate extreme, the young man calls for the bird to take its beak from
its heart and its form from his door, once again knowing what response he will receive.
Although the poem is often dismissed as a cold-blooded contrivance, it is actually a carefully
designed embodiment of the human need to torture the self and to find meaning in
meaninglessness.
DREAM-LAND
-EDGAR ALLAN POE
By a route obscure and lonely, Where dwell the Ghouls,—

Haunted by ill angels only, By each spot the most unholy—
Where an Eidolon, named In each nook most melancholy—
NIGHT, On a black throne reigns There the traveller meets aghast
upright, Sheeted Memories of the Past—
I have reached these lands but newly Shrouded forms that start and sigh
From an ultimate dim Thule— As they pass the wanderer by—
From a wild clime that lieth, sublime, White—robed forms of friends long given,
Out of SPACE— out of TIME. In agony, to the Earth— and Heaven.
Bottomless vales and boundless floods,

And chasms, and caves, and Titan For the heart whose woes are legion
woods, With forms that no man can ‗Tis a peaceful, soothing region—
discover For the spirit that walks in shadow
For the tears that drip all over; ‗Tis— oh, ‗tis an Eldorado!
Mountains toppling evermore But the traveller, travelling through it,
Into seas without a shore; May not— dare not openly view it!
Seas that restlessly aspire, Never its mysteries are exposed
Surging, unto skies of fire; To the weak human eye unclosed;
Lakes that endlessly outspread So wills its King, who hath forbid
Their lone waters— lone and dead,— The uplifting of the fringed lid;
Their still waters— still and chilly And thus the sad Soul that here passes
With the snows of the lolling lily. Beholds it but through darkened glasses.
By the lakes that thus outspread By a route obscure and lonely,

Their lone waters, lone and dead,— Haunted by ill angels only,
Their sad waters, sad and chilly Where an Eidolon, named NIGHT,
With the snows of the lolling lily,— On a black throne reigns upright,
By the mountains— near the river I have wandered home but newly
Murmuring lowly, murmuring ever,— From this ultimate dim Thule.
By the grey woods,— by the swamp
Where the toad and the newt encamp—
By the dismal tarns and pools
MA English, III Semester Notes, Compiled by: Dr. ADI
Summary:
―Dream-Land‖ tells the story of a journey, although it's never quite clear where that trip
starts or where it ends. For the most part, the poem describes the strange and amazing sights
the speaker seesalongtheway.
We begin with a tantalizingly vague description of the speaker arriving in a strange new land.
He doesn't say where exactly he's coming from, just that it was far away, beyond the borders
of space and time. The place he's arrived in is haunted by evil spirits and ruled by the creepy,
dark figure of ―Night.‖ This new country has a huge landscape of oceans, valleys, caves,
and forests. Nothing looks or moves the way it does in everyday life. Mountains tumble, the
sky is on fire, the ocean leaps up, the snow sits on the ground forever. Sometimes this world
is violent and exciting, sometimes it's creepily quiet and still, but there's a sad loneliness
everywhere.
It's not just the landscape that's strange and sad. Apparently the speaker sees ghosts on his
journey too, the spirits of dead loved ones. Weirdly enough, this makes the speaker feel kind
of good. Apparently his life has been tough, and he prefers to live in this strange and different
land. He only gets a glimpse of the mysterious world when he is sleeping, but he still loves it
and treasures those moments.
EMILY DICKINSON
Emily Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Massachusetts, Emily
Dickinson left school as a teenager, eventually living a reclusive life on the family
homestead. There, she secretly created bundles of poetry and wrote hundreds of letters. Due
to a discovery by sister Lavinia, Dickinson's remarkable work was published after her death
—on May 15, 1886, in Amherst—and she is now considered one of the towering figures of
American literature.
BECAUSE I COULD NOT STOP FOR DEATH
-EMILY DICKINSON
Because I could not stop for Death –

He kindly stopped for me –
The Carriage held but just Ourselves –
And Immortality.
We slowly drove – He knew no haste
And I had put away

My labor and my leisure too,
For His Civility –
We passed the School, where Children strove

At Recess – in the Ring –
We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain –
We passed the Setting Sun –
Or rather – He passed us –
The Dews drew quivering and chill –
For only Gossamer, my Gown –
My Tippet – only Tulle –
We paused before a House that seemed

A Swelling of the Ground –
The Roof was scarcely visible –
The Cornice – in the Ground –
Since then – ‗tis Centuries – and yet

Feels shorter than the Day
I first surmised the Horses‘ Heads
Were toward Eternity
Summary:
Stanza-1:
The speaker represents the human race when she declares that she is too busy to think about
death. It has become our primordial instinct to survive through all the difficulties posed by
the community. But death never forgets and comes after those whose time in this realm is
over. To the speaker Death is kind and it offers a chariot to take her away. There is a lot of
perplexity about the inclusion of ―Immortality‖ in the last line of the stanza (as the speaker
says that the chariot has Death, her and Immortality). The reason for the inclusion of the word
can be only understood from the meaning of the last stanza.
Stanza-2:
The speaker considers Death as wooer who shows civility in his manners. She expresses
pleasantness about the steady handling of the chariot by Death. In response, she forgets all
her labour and leisure to enjoy the ride. This description of the chariot ride can be interpreted
as a smooth passing of the soul after death and the person has left the world without having to
struggle too much nor with pain.
Stanza-3:
The third stanza in the poem – Because I could not stop for Death – through three various
descriptions gives a complete cycle of life. The chariot passes children playing joyfully
indicating the innocent childhood, the grazing grain attaining fruitfulness indicating manhood
and the setting sun dawning light indicating the old age where one waits for the darkness to
take over.
Stanza-4:
The speaker shows uncertainty about the passing of the sun as she feels that they didn‘t pass
over, but it was the Sun who crossed them. This glimpses that the speaker is resting
somewhere and it is her soul travelling in the chariot. The realization slowly creeps into the
speaker as she feels the chill and understands the way she dresses, which is inappropriate for
a pleasant chariot ride and feels as if it is an abrupt gesture (from Death).
Stanza-5:
The chariot pauses at her grave, which she calls as her ―house‖ and it is nothing but
a swelling on the ground. It is indeed no house but the speaker‘s grave where she rests and
watches the world eternally. The journey of the speaker after witnessing different marvels of
the world pauses at the grave and goes on, indicating that there is an after-life for her (human
race) and she must continue her journey. The grave is only the resting place.
Stanza-6:
The first line of the last stanza in ―Because I could not stop for Death‖ reveals that it has been
centuries since the death of the speaker. Although, it was so many years ago she feels the
memory as fresh and it feels as if it happened on that very day. She believes that it is the day
she died when the horses‘ of the chariot were pointing her towards eternity. It is the reason
for the inclusion of ―Immortality‖ in the first stanza, as death though appears to be a
gentleman apprehends the soul for eternity and one has to journey through without any
respite.
The poem – Because I could not stop for Death – deals with heavy subjects such as death,
time and eternity. But Emily Dickinson deals with them in a simple manner so that the idea or
intention of the poem is clearly visible to the reader. One can comprehend infinite meanings
on the poem and this is one of the crowning pieces of Dickinson; because of the way Death is
personified as a gentleman and how the true nature of death causes a realization in the
speaker about the eternity of being in a grave.
TASTE A LIQUOR NEVER BREWED
-EMILY DICKINSON
I taste a liquor never brewed –

From Tankards scooped in Pearl –
Not all the Frankfort Berries
Yield such an Alcohol!
Inebriate of air – am I –
And Debauchee of Dew –
Reeling – thro‘ endless summer days –
From inns of molten Blue –
When ―Landlords‖ turn the drunken Bee

Out of the Foxglove‘s door –
When Butterflies – renounce their ―drams‖ –
I shall but drink the more!
Till Seraphs swing their snowy Hats –

And Saints – to windows run –
To see the little Tippler
Leaning against the – Sun!
Summary:
―I taste a liquor never brewed—‖ consists of four stanzas, the second and fourth
lines rhyming in each quatrain. This is a poem of visionary experience in which the richness
of a natural setting in summer is the cause. Speaking in her own lyric voice, Dickinson
describes the exhilaration of going outdoors in summer in terms of getting drunk in a tavern.
In the first stanza, she asserts that she is drinking an unusual kind of liquor, one that has not
been brewed but that is superior to the finest Rhine wine. In the second stanza, she says that
she has become drunk by consuming the air and the dew of summer days. This consumption
has taken place in ―inns of Molten Blue,‖ or under the hot summer sky. In the third stanza,
she claims that her capacity for this liquor exceeds that of the most dedicated of summer‘s
drinkers, the bees and the butterflies: When they have ceased drinking, she will continue. In
the final quatrain, she affirms that she will drink until seraphs—the six-winged angels that
stand in the presence of God—and saints as well run to Heaven‘s windows to see her, ―the
little Tippler/ Leaning against the—Sun—.‖
The last image of the poem, which grows out of the central comparison between drunkenness
and her experiences of the summer day, humorously conveys a spiritual expansion of the self.
Through this expansion, she comes to the notice of divine spirits, calling them away from
their usual adoration of God in order to see this smaller god who, though perhaps a little
unruly, has grown momentarily toward her true stature and importance.
HOPE IS THE THING WITH FEATHERS
-EMILY DICKINSON
That perches in the soul,

And sings the tune--without the words,
And never stops at all,
And sweetest in the gale is heard;

And sore must be the storm
That could abash the little bird
That kept so many warm.
I've heard it in the chillest land,

And on the strangest sea;
Yet, never, in extremity,
It asked a crumb of me.
Summary:
Emily Dickinson takes an abstract feeling or idea – in this case, hope – and likens it to
something physical, visible, and tangible – here, a singing bird. Hope, for Dickinson, sings its
wordless tune and never stops singing it: nothing can faze it. In other words (as it were), hope
does not communicate by ‗speaking‘ to us in a conventional sense: it is a feeling that we get,
not always a rational one, that cheers us even in dark times of despair. Indeed, hope is
sweetest of all when the ‗Gale‘ is busy raging: during turbulent or troubled times, hope is
there for us. And hope can withstand just about anything: even in times of cold comfort (‗the
chillest land‘) or in foreign or unfamiliar climes (‗on the strangest Sea‘), hope remains. And
hope never asks for anything from us in return. It provides comfort and solace but does not
require anything back.
Note Dickinson‘s ingenious use of the word ‗words‘ in the first stanza, which, coming at the
end of the third line, looks back to the first line for a rhyme but instead of finding ‗bird(s)‘
finds, instead, ‗thing with feathers‘. ‗Bird‘ will be delayed until the second stanza, because
Dickinson appears to want to reject any glib simile of ‗hope = singing bird‘. The analogy
must instead unfold and develop gradually. The result is a fine Dickinson poem which
deserves to be better known.
UNIT –III (FICTION)

NATHANIEL
HAWTHORNE
Nathaniel Hawthorne, (born on July 4, 1804, Salem, Mass., U.S.—died May 19, 1864,
Plymouth, N.H.), American novelist and short-story writer who was a master of the
allegorical and symbolic tale. One of the greatest fiction writers in American literature, he is
best known for The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of the Seven Gables (1851).
THE SCARLET LETTER

-NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE
Characters List:
Arthur Dimmesdale is a respected minister in Boston and the father of Pearl. While Hester
waited for her husband to arrive from Amsterdam, she met Dimmesdale and had an
adulterous affair with him, which led to the birth of their daughter. While Hester is publicly
shamed for the adultery, Dimmesdale must suffer the ignominy quietly since no one knows of
his culpability. The suffering begins to take its physical toll, especially since Hester's husband
Chillingworth seeks to destroy Dimmesdale and is a constant reminder of the guilt and shame
he harbors from his affair with Hester. At the very end of the novel, Dimmesdale admits to
being Pearl's father and reveals that he has a scarlet letter branded into his flesh. He dies upon
the scaffold while holding Hester's hand.
Black Man a nickname for the devil. The legend speaks of a Black Man who inhabits the
woods and gets people to write their names in his book, using their own blood as ink.
General Miller the oldest inhabitant of the Customs House. He has the independent position
of Collector, which allows him to avoid the politicized shuffling of positions. He also
protects the other men from being fired, which is why many of the employees are old.
Governor Bellingham the former governor, who believes Hester should not be allowed to
raise Pearl since it would only lead to the child's spiritual demise. He decides to allow Pearl
to stay with her mother after Dimmesdale pleads on her behalf.
Hester Prynne the protagonist of the novel is the mother of Pearl. She must wear the scarlet
letter A on her body as punishment for her adulterous affair with Arthur Dimmesdale, the
town minister. Hester is married to Roger Chillingworth, but while Hester awaited her
husband's arrival from Amsterdam, she met Dimmesdale and engaged in the adulterous
affair, which led to Pearl's birth.
Inspector is the patriarch of the Customs House. His father created the post for him, and he
has retained it ever since. He is considered one of the happiest workers, likely because he
knows he will never be removed from his post.
John Wilson the eldest clergyman in Boston and a friend of Arthur Dimmesdale.
Jonathan Pue, an ancient surveyor of the Customs House. Hawthorne, as narrator, claims to
have found a package with his name on it, containing the story of the novel.
Mistress Hibbins, the sister of Governor Bellingham. She is killed for being a witch after the
novel's events. She routinely sneaks into the woods during the night to conduct covert
business in the service of ―The Black Man.‖
Pearl, Hester's daughter. Pearl is characterized as a living version of the scarlet letter. She
constantly causes her mother and Dimmesdale torment and anguish throughout the novel with
her ability to at once state the truth and deny it when it is most necessary. Pearl is described
as extremely beautiful but lacking Christian decency. After Arthur Dimmesdale dies, Pearl's
wildness eases, and she eventually marries.
Roger Chillingworth, Hester's husband from the Netherlands. Chillingworth arrives in

Boston on the day that Hester is publicly shamed and forced to wear the scarlet letter. He
vows revenge on the father of Pearl, and he soon moves in with Arthur Dimmesdale, who
Chillingworth knows has committed adultery with his wife. His revenge is frustrated at the
end of the novel, when Dimmesdale reveals that he is Pearl's father before dying.
Chillingworth, having lost the object of his hatred, dies soon thereafter.
Plot:
Hester is being led to the scaffold, where she is to be publicly shamed for having committed
adultery. Hester is forced to wear the letter A on her gown at all times. She has stitched a
large scarlet A onto her dress with gold thread, giving the letter an air of elegance . Hester
carries Pearl, her daughter, with her. On the scaffold she is asked to reveal the name of Pearl's
father, but she refuses. In the crowd Hester recognizes her husband from Amsterdam, Roger
Chillingworth.
Chillingworth visits Hester after she is returned to the prison. He tells her that he will find out
who the man was, and he will read the truth on the man's heart. Chillingworth then forces her
to promise never to reveal his true identity as her cuckolded husband.
Hester moves into a cottage bordering the woods. She and Pearl live there in relative solitude.
Hester earns her money by doing stitchwork for local dignitaries, but she often spends her
time helping the poor and sick. Pearl grows up to be wild, even refusing to obey her mother.
Roger Chillingworth earns a reputation as a good physician. He uses his reputation to get
transferred into the same home as Arthur Dimmesdale, an ailing minister. Chillingworth
eventually discovers that Dimmesdale is the true father of Pearl, at which point he spends
every moment trying to torment the minister. One night Dimmesdale is so overcome with
shame about hiding his secret that he walks to the scaffold where Hester was publicly
humiliated. He stands on the scaffold and imagines the whole town watching him with a letter
emblazoned on his chest. While standing there, Hester and Pearl arrive. He asks them to stand
with him, which they do. Pearl then asks him to stand with her the next day at noon.
When a meteor illuminates the three people standing on the scaffold, they see Roger
Chillingworth watching them. Dimmesdale tells Hester that he is terrified of Chillingworth,
who offers to take Dimmesdale home. Hester realizes that Chillingworth is slowly killing
Dimmesdale and that she has to help Dimmesdale.
A few weeks later, Hester sees Chillingworth picking herbs in the woods. She tells him that
she is going to reveal the fact that he is her husband to Dimmesdale. He tells her that
Providence is now in charge of their fates, and she may do as she sees fit. Hester takes Pearl
into the woods, where they wait for Dimmesdale to arrive. He is surprised to see them, but he
confesses to Hester that he is desperate for a friend who knows his secret. She comforts him
and tells him Chillingworth's true identity. He is furious but finally agrees that they should
run away together. He returns to town with more energy than he has ever shown before.
Hester finds a ship that will carry all three of them, and it works out that the ship is due to sail
the day after Dimmesdale gives his Election Sermon. But on the day of the sermon,
Chillingworth persuades the ship's captain to take him on board as well. Hester does not
know how to get out of this dilemma.
Dimmesdale gives his Election Sermon, and it receives the highest accolades of any
preaching he has ever performed. He then unexpectedly walks to the scaffold and stands on
it, in full view of the gathered masses. Dimmesdale calls Hester and Pearl to come to him.
Chillingworth tries to stop him, but Dimmesdale laughs and tells him that he cannot win.
Hester and Pearl join Dimmesdale on the scaffold. Dimmesdale then tells the people that he is
also a sinner like Hester, and that he should have assumed his rightful place by her side over
seven years earlier. He then rips open his shirt to reveal a scarlet letter on his flesh.
Dimmesdale falls to his knees and dies on the scaffold.
Hester and Pearl leave the town for a while, and several years later Hester returns. No one
hears from Pearl again, but it is assumed that she has gotten married and has had children in
Europe. Hester never removes her scarlet letter, and when she passes away she is buried in
the site of King's Chapel.
HERMAN MELVILLE
Herman Melville was born in New York City in 1819. He worked as a crew member on
several vessels beginning in 1839, his experiences spawning his successful early novels
Typee (1846) and Omoo (1847). Subsequent books, including his masterpiece Moby-Dick
(1851), sold poorly, and by the 1860s Melville had turned to poetry. Following his death in
New York City in 1891, he posthumously came to be regarded as one of the great American
writers.
BILLY BUDD
-HERMAN MELVILLE
Characters List:
Billy is twenty-one years old, a foretopman, and a man who was impressed (conscripted
against his will) into military service. He is physically beautiful, a specimen of what Melville
calls the Handsome Sailor. He is likened to both Adam before the Fall and Jesus Christ. He is
often called ―Baby Budd‖ by his fellow sailors, emphasizing that he is innocence embodied,
wild and natural man, pure unadulterated goodness. His one weakness is inarticulateness:
though bright, when seized by strong feeling he stutters.
John Claggart is evil personified, though on the surface he seems a competent and devoted
officer. His obsession with Billy Budd is in part sexual; nothing unusual there, as the narrator
suggests that Billy excites desire in one form or another in most of the men he meets. But for
Claggart, what begins as desire becomes something much darker. He longs to destroy what he
cannot have. What he cannot have is not merely Billy's physical body, but the foretopman's
innocence and purity.
The Dansker, An elderly sailor who befriends Billy. He bestows on Billy the nickname
―Baby.‖ The Dansker sees quickly that Claggart's intentions on Billy are less than benign,
but he is reluctant to give Billy any real advice.
Albert, Captain Vere's hammock boy. He is Vere's trusted aid and messenger.
Lieutenant Ratcliffe, The officer who chooses Billy for impressments. A forward and
somewhat off-putting man, he chooses Billy alone to be conscripted out of all of the sailors
aboard the Rights-of-Man.
Captain Graveling, Billy's old captain aboard the merchant vessel Rights-of-Man. Though
Lieutenant Ratcliffe only chooses one man out of his whole crew, Captain Graveling remains
upset because the one man is Billy.
Red Whiskers, One of Billy's fellow sailors aboard the Rights-of-Man. He is the one man on
the merchant ship who hates Billy, until Billy gives him a sound beating.
Surgeon, verifies Claggart's death. Some days after Billy's execution, he discusses the
stillness of the body with the ship's purser.
Purser, The ship's purser. Some days after Billy's execution, he discusses the stillness of the
body with the ship surgeon.
The Afterguardsman, An unsavory character. Possibly trying to trap Billy at Claggart's

command, he approaches Billy to ask for his help in a possible mutiny.
Squeak, One of Claggart's spies aboardship.
Drumhead Court, Captain of the Marines, the Sea Lieutenant, and the Sailing Master: Three
officers called to hear Billy's case. Persuaded by Vere's arguments about the threat of mutiny
and duty to the king, they condemn Billy to hang.
Plot:
It is the end of the eighteenth century, and Billy Budd is a young sailor on a merchant ship
called the Rights-of-Man. Billy is a beautiful young man, a specimen of what Melville calls
the Handsome Sailor. He is young, simple, innocent, a foundling with no real family, and his
charm and good nature put the men around him at ease. The narrator tells us of Billy's one
serious weakness: when seized by strong emotion, he stutters.
The time is one of dread for the British Empire: from the continent, Napoleon's ambitions and
France's revolutionary fervor menace the world. The navy is extremely short-handed, and
recent mutinies have threatened the force that is the foundation of Britain's prosperity and
defense. The navy continues to depend on impressments, or forced conscriptions, to fill its
rosters.
Billy's merchant ship is boarded by the H.M.S. Bellipotent, but the boarding officer,
Lieutenant Ratcliffe, chooses only Billy for impressment. Even so, Captain Graveling
protests: Billy, he says, is the ship's peacemaker. By his mere beauty and goodness he
puts the men into good spirits. Nonetheless, Billy and his captain have no choice, and Billy is
set on his way. As he leaves, he cries out with unknowing prophecy, ―And goodbye to you
too, old Rights-of-Man‖ (297).
Life aboard the new ship agrees with Billy. He becomes a foretopman, and loves his new
position. Though less a center of attention than he was aboard the merchant ship, Billy does
not notice the difference. He is well-liked, and makes friendships quickly. He brings smiles to
the faces of the officers and the older, weathered sailors. But he also draws the attention of
the master-at-arms, John Claggart.
Claggart becomes obsessed with Billy, despising goodness that he himself will never possess.
Through his corporals, he finds small ways of putting Billy on edge, criticizing every slight
deviation from protocol and regulation. But he himself never has anything but a kind word
for Billy. Despite the warnings of the Dansker, a wise old sailor who befriends Billy, Billy
cannot believe that Claggart harbors any ill will toward him.
One night, Billy is asked by an aftguardsman if he would help in the event of a mutiny.
Shocked to be approached in such an insidious way, Billy sends the man on his way. But
because of a youthful fear of ratting on his peers, he doesn't tell any officers of what has
happened. He tells the Dansker, who believes that Claggart is behind some kind of set-up.
But even the Dansker, who is reluctant to be involved in anything not directly concerning
himself, gives little in the way of advice to Billy.
Claggart's hatred for Billy festers. Finally, the master-at-arms goes to Captain Vere and says
that Billy is behind a mutiny plot. Not really believing Claggart, Vere has both men meet
with him in his cabin. When faced with Claggart's accusations, Billy is so overcome with
emotion that his stutter seizes him. He is completely unable to speak. Helpless, and terrified,
the simple boy defends himself the only way he knows how: he punches Claggart. But Billy
doesn't know his own strength, and Claggart is slain by the blow.
Vere, grieving for Billy in his heart, calls a drumhead court to decide Billy's case. After Billy
speaks and answers the court's questions, he leaves so that Vere can address the court. Vere
argues that the court has little real choice. A man has slain an officer. Because of the
discontent in the navy, and the large number of impressed men on the Bellipotent, anything
less than Billy's execution might result in an all-out mutiny. What's more, the provisions of
the code under which they operate are clear: a crewman has slain an officer, and that
crewman must die.
The court convicts Billy. He is hanged the next morning. Before he dies, he seems as
beautiful as a vision; none of the sailors can look away from him. Billy cries out ―God bless
Captain Vere!‖ and the crew echoes him, as they would have echoed anything Billy said. The
light of dawn touches him, making him appear like some kind of divinity as he dies. His
body, miraculously, is untouched by any of the spasms that mark hanging deaths.
Some time afterward, Vere is fatally wounded in battle. Before he dies, he is heard
murmuring Billy Budd's name.
As for the spar from which Billy was hanged, the sailors keep track of its location. Though
they know nothing of the secret facts of Billy's case, they all instinctively know that he was
innocent. A piece of the spar, to them, is like a piece of the Cross. The novella finishes with a
song composed by one of the sailors from Billy's watch. Called ―Billy in the Darbies‖ (―Billy
in Irons‖), it has Billy waiting for execution and imagining being a corpse dropped down into
the sea. The final image of the book is the song's haunting final line. Billy, in chains and
awaiting death, imagines himself at the bottom of the sea. He asks for his chains to be
loosened, adding, ―I am sleepy, and the oozy weeds about me twist.‖
MARK TWAIN
Born on November 30, 1835, in Florida, Missouri, Samuel L. Clemens wrote under the pen
name Mark Twain and went on to author several novels, including two major classics of
American literature: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He
was also a riverboat pilot, journalist, lecturer, entrepreneur and inventor. Twain died on April
21, 1910, in Redding, Connecticut
THE ADVENTURES OF HUCKLEBERRY FINN

-MARK TWAIN
Character List
Huckleberry ―Huck‖ Finn - The protagonist and narrator of the novel. Huck is the thirteen-
year-old son of the local drunk of St. Petersburg, Missouri, a town on the Mississippi River.
Frequently forced to survive on his own wits and always a bit of an outcast, Huck is
thoughtful, intelligent (though formally uneducated), and willing to come to his own
conclusions about important matters, even if these conclusions contradict society‘s norms.
Nevertheless, Huck is still a boy, and is influenced by others, particularly by his imaginative
friend, Tom.
Tom Sawyer - Huck‘s friend and the protagonist of Tom Sawyer, the novel to which
Huckleberry Finn is ostensibly the sequel. In Huckleberry Finn, Tom serves as a foil to
Huck: imaginative, dominating, and given to wild plans taken from the plots of adventure
novels, Tom is everything that Huck is not. Tom‘s stubborn reliance on the ―authorities‖ of
romance novels leads him to acts of incredible stupidity and startling cruelty. His rigid
adherence to society‘s conventions aligns Tom with the ―sivilizing‖ forces that Huck learns
to see through and gradually abandons.
Widow Douglas and Miss Watson - Two wealthy sisters who live together in a large house
in St. Petersburg and who adopt Huck. The gaunt and severe Miss Watson is the most
prominent representative of the hypocritical religious and ethical values Twain criticizes in
the novel. The Widow Douglas is somewhat gentler in her beliefs and has more patience with
the mischievous Huck. When Huck acts in a manner contrary to societal expectations, it is the
Widow Douglas whom he fears disappointing.
Jim - One of Miss Watson‘s household slaves. Jim is superstitious and occasionally
sentimental, but he is also intelligent, practical, and ultimately more of an adult than anyone
else in the novel. Jim‘s frequent acts of selflessness, his longing for his family, and his
friendship with both Huck and Tom demonstrate to Huck that humanity has nothing to do
with race. Because Jim is a black man and a runaway slave, he is at the mercy of almost all
the other characters in the novel and is often forced into ridiculous and degrading situations.
Pap - Huck‘s father, the town drunk and ne‘er-do-well. Pap is a wreck when he appears at the
beginning of the novel, with disgusting, ghostlike white skin and tattered clothes. The
illiterate Pap disapproves of Huck‘s education and beats him frequently. Pap represents both
the general debasement of white society and the failure of family structures in the novel.
The duke and the dauphin - A pair of con men whom Huck and Jim rescue as they are
being run out of a river town. The older man, who appears to be about seventy, claims to be
the ―dauphin,‖ the son of King Louis XVI and heir to the French throne. The younger man,
who is about thirty, claims to be the usurped Duke of Bridgewater. Although Huck quickly
realizes the men are frauds, he and Jim remain at their mercy, as Huck is only a child and Jim
is a runaway slave. The duke and the dauphin carry out a number of increasingly disturbing
swindles as they travel down the river on the raft.
Judge Thatcher - The local judge who shares responsibility for Huck with the Widow
Douglas and is in charge of safeguarding the money that Huck and Tom found at the end
of Tom Sawyer. When Huck discovers that Pap has returned to town, he wisely signs his
fortune over to the Judge, who doesn‘t really accept the money, but tries to comfort Huck.
Judge Thatcher has a daughter, Becky, who was Tom‘s girlfriend in Tom Sawyer and whom
Huck calls ―Bessie‖ in this novel.
The Grangerfords - A family that takes Huck in after a steamboat hits his raft, separating
him from Jim. The kindhearted Grangerfords, who offer Huck a place to stay in their tacky
country home, are locked in a long-standing feud with another local family, the
Shepherdsons. Twain uses the two families to engage in some rollicking humor and to mock
a overly romanticizes ideas about family honor. Ultimately, the families‘ sensationalized feud
gets many of them killed.
The Wilks family - At one point during their travels, the duke and the dauphin encounter a
man who tells them of the death of a local named Peter Wilks, who has left behind a rich
estate. The man inadvertently gives the con men enough information to allow them to pretend
to be Wilks‘s two brothers from England, who are the recipients of much of the inheritance.
The duke and the dauphin‘s subsequent conning of the good-hearted and vulnerable Wilks
sisters is the first step in the con men‘s increasingly cruel series of scams, which culminate in
the sale of Jim.
Silas and Sally Phelps - Tom Sawyer‘s aunt and uncle, whom Huck coincidentally
encounters in his search for Jim after the con men have sold him. Sally is the sister of Tom‘s
aunt, Polly. Essentially good people, the Phelpses nevertheless hold Jim in custody and try to
return him to his rightful owner. Silas and Sally are the unknowing victims of many of Tom
and Huck‘s ―preparations‖ as they try to free Jim. The Phelpses are the only intact
and functional family in this novel, yet they are too much for Huck, who longs to escape
their
―sivilizing‖ influence.
Aunt Polly - Tom Sawyer‘s aunt and guardian and Sally Phelps‘s sister. Aunt Polly appears
at the end of the novel and properly identifies Huck, who has pretended to be Tom, and Tom,
who has pretended to be his own younger brother, Sid.
Plot:
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is often considered Twain's greatest masterpiece.

Combining his raw humor and startlingly mature material, Twain developed a novel that
directly attacked many of the traditions the South held dear at the time of its publication.
Huckleberry Finn is the main character, and through his eyes, the reader sees and judges the
South, its faults, and its redeeming qualities. Huck's companion Jim, a runaway slave,
provides friendship and protection while the two journey along the Mississippi on their raft.
The novel opens with Huck telling his story. Briefly, he describes what he has experienced
since, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, which preceded this novel. After Huck and Tom
discovered twelve thousand dollars in treasure, Judge Thatcher invested the money for them.
Huck was adopted by the Widow Douglas and Miss Watson, both of whom took pains to
raise him properly. Dissatisfied with his new life, and wishing for the simplicity he used to
know, Huck runs away. Tom Sawyer searches him out and convinces him to return home by
promising to start a band of robbers. All the local young boys join Tom's band, using a
hidden cave for their hideout and meeting place. However, many soon grow bored with their
make-believe battles, and the band falls apart.
Soon thereafter, Huck discovers footprints in the snow and recognizes them as his violent,
abusive Pap's. Huck realizes Pap, who Huck hasn't seen in a very long time, has returned to
claim the money Huck found, and he quickly runs to Judge Thatcher to ―sell‖ his share of the
money for a ―consideration‖ of a dollar. Pap catches Huck after leaving Judge
Thatcher, forces him to hand over the dollar, and threatens to beat Huck if he ever goes to
school again.
Upon Pap's return, Judge Thatcher and the Widow try to gain court custody of Huck, but a
new judge in town refuses to separate Huck from his father. Pap steals Huck away from the
Widow's house and takes him to a log cabin. At first Huck enjoys the cabin life, but after
receiving frequent beatings, he decides to escape. When Pap goes into town, Huck seizes the
opportunity. He sees his way out of the log cabin, kills a pig, spreads the blood as if it were
his own, takes a canoe, and floats downstream to Jackson's Island. Once there, he sets up
camp and hides out.
A few days after arriving on the island, Huck stumbles upon a still smoldering campfire.
Although slightly frightened, Huck decides to seek out his fellow inhabitant. The next day, he
discovers Miss Watson's slave, Jim, is living on the island. After overhearing the Widow's
plan to sell him to a slave trader, Jim ran away. Jim, along with the rest of the townspeople,
thought Huck was dead and is frightened upon seeing him. Soon, the two share their escape
stories and are happy to have a companion.
While Huck and Jim live on the island, the river rises significantly. At one point, an entire
house floats past them as they stand near the shore. Huck and Jim climb aboard to see what
they can salvage and find a dead man lying in the corner of the house. Jim goes over to
inspect the body and realizes it is Pap, Huck's father. Jim keeps this information a secret.
Soon afterwards, Huck returns to the town disguised as a girl in order to gather some news.
While talking with a woman, he learns that both Jim and Pap are suspects in his murder. The
woman then tells Huck that she believes Jim is hiding out on Jackson's Island. Upon hearing
her suspicions, Huck immediately returns to Jim and together they flee the island to avoid
discovery.
Using a large raft, they float downstream during the nights and hide along the shore during
the days. In the middle of a strong thunderstorm, they see a steamboat that has crashed, and
Huck convinces Jim to land on the boat. Together, they climb aboard and discover there are
three thieves on the wreck, two of whom are debating whether to kill the third. Huck
overhears this conversation, and he and Jim try to escape, only to find that their raft has come
undone from its makeshift mooring. They manage to find the robbers' skiff and immediately
take off. Within a short time, they see the wrecked steamship floating downstream, far
enough below the water-line to have drowned everyone on board. Subsequently, they reclaim
their original raft, and continue down the river with both the raft and the canoe.
As Jim and Huck continue floating downstream, they become close friends. Their goal is to
reach Cairo, where they can take a steamship up the Ohio River and into the free states.
However, during a dense fog, with Huck in the canoe and Jim in the raft, they are separated.
When they find each other in the morning, it soon becomes clear that in the midst of the fog,
they passed Cairo.
A few nights later, a steamboat runs over the raft, and forces Huck and Jim to jump
overboard. Again, they are separated as they swim for their lives. Huck finds the shore and is
immediately surrounded by dogs. After managing to escape, he is invited to live with a
family called the Grangerfords. At the Grangerford home, Huck is treated well and discovers
that Jim is hiding in a nearby swamp. Everything is peaceful until an old family feud between
the Grangerfords and the Shepherdsons is rekindled. Within one day all the men in the
Grangerford family are killed, including Huck's new best friend, Buck. Amid the chaos, Huck
runs back to Jim, and together they start downriver again.
Further downstream, Huck rescues two humbugs known as the Duke and the King.
Immediately, the two men take control of the raft and start to travel downstream, making
money by cheating people in the various towns along the river. The Duke and the King
develop a scam they call the Royal Nonesuch, which earns them over four hundred dollars.
The scam involves getting all the men in the town to come to a show with promises of great
entertainment. In the show, the King parades around naked for a few minutes. The men are
too ashamed to admit to wasting their money, and tell everyone else that the show was
phenomenal, thus making the following night's performance a success. On the third night,
everyone returns plotting revenge, but the Duke and King manage to escape with all their ill
gotten gains.
Further downriver, the two con men learn about a large inheritance meant for three recently
orphaned girls. To steal the money, the men pretend to be the girls' British uncles. The girls
are so happy to see their ―uncles‖ that they do not realize they are being swindled.
Meanwhile, the girls treat Huck so nicely that he vows to protect them from the con men's
scheme. Huck sneaks into the King's room and steals the large bag of gold from the
inheritance. He hides the gold in Peter Wilks's (the girls' father) coffin. Meanwhile, the
humbugs spend their time liquidating the Wilks family property. At one point, Huck finds
Mary Jane Wilks, the eldest of the girls, and sees that she is crying. He confesses the entire
story to her. She is infuriated, but agrees to leave the house for a few days so Huck can
escape.
Right after Mary Jane leaves, the real Wilks uncles arrive in town. However, because they
lost their baggage on their voyage, they are unable to prove their identities. Thus, the town
lawyer gathers all four men to determine who is lying. The King and the Duke fake their roles
so well that there is no way to determine the truth. Finally, one of the real uncles says his
brother Peter had a tattoo on his chest and challenges the King to identify it. In order to
determine the truth, the townspeople decide to exhume the body. Upon digging up the grave,
the townspeople discover the missing money Huck hid in the coffin. In the ensuing chaos,
Huck runs straight back to the raft and he and Jim push off into the river. The Duke and King
also escape and catch up to rejoin the raft.
Farther down the river, the King and Duke sell Jim into slavery, claiming he is a runaway
slave from New Orleans. Huck decides to rescue Jim, and daringly walks up to the house
where Jim is being kept. Luckily, the house is owned by none other than Tom Sawyer's Aunt
Sally. Huck immediately pretends to be Tom. When the real Tom arrives, he pretends to be
his younger brother, Sid Sawyer. Together, he and Huck contrive a plan to help Jim escape
from his ―prison,‖ an outdoor shed. Tom, always the troublemaker, also makes Jim's
life difficult by putting snakes and spiders into his room.
After a great deal of planning, the boys convince the town that a group of thieves is planning
to steal Jim. That night, they collect Jim and start to run away. The local farmers follow them,
shooting as they run after them. Huck, Jim, and Tom manage to escape, but Tom is shot in
the leg. Huck returns to town to fetch a doctor, whom he sends to Tom and Jim's hiding
place. The doctor returns with Tom on a stretcher and Jim in chains. Jim is treated badly until
the doctor describes how Jim helped him take care of the boy. When Tom awakens, he
demands that they let Jim go free.
At this point, Aunt Polly appears, having travelled all the way down the river. She realized
something was very wrong after her sister wrote to her that both Tom and Sid had arrived.
Aunt Polly tells them that Jim is indeed a free man, because the Widow had passed away and
freed him in her will. Huck and Tom give Jim forty dollars for being such a good prisoner
and letting them free him, while in fact he had been free for quite some time.
After this revelation, Jim tells Huck to stop worrying about his Pap and reveals that the dead
man in the floating house was in fact Huck's father. Aunt Sally offers to adopt Huck, but he
refuses on the grounds that he had tried that sort of lifestyle once before, and it didn't suit
him. Huck concludes the novel stating he would never have undertaken the task of writing
out his story in a book, had he known it would take so long to complete.
UNIT –IV (DRAMA)

EUGENE O’NEILL
Eugene O‘Neill, in full Eugene Gladstone O‘Neill (born Oct. 16, 1888, New York, N.Y.,
U.S.—died Nov. 27, 1953, Boston, Mass.), foremost American dramatist and winner of the
Nobel Prize for Literature in 1936. His masterpiece, Long Day’s Journey into Night
(produced posthumously 1956), is at the apex of a long string of great plays, including
Beyond the Horizon (1920), Anna Christie (1922), Strange Interlude (1928), Ah! Wilderness
(1933), and The Iceman Cometh (1946).
DESIRE UNDER THE ELMS

-EUGENE O’NEILL
Characters List
Ephraim Cabot, the patriarch of the Cabot family who worked the farm and made it
successful, Ephraim has been married three times. His first wife bore him Simeon and Peter
but died, and his second wife bore him Eben and also died. He brings home Abbie, his new
wife, after a journey he undertakes ostensibly for religious purposes. Ephraim is seventy-six
years old at the beginning the play, but is still strong in body. He has poor eyesight, though,
and does not notice what is happening around him. His mind is going a bit, and he craves the
warmth of the barn rather than the house. He complains of being lonesome and the fact that
no one really knows him.
Eben Cabot, a handsome but angry and grim young man, Eben desires nothing else than the
farmland that his beloved Maw worked so hard and died upon. He pays off his half brothers
but is threatened by his father's new wife Abbie. They fall in love and have a son, but he
comes to think she tricked him and wants the land for himself. After she kills their son as an
act of love, Eben cannot deny his passion for her anymore and proclaims he will go to prison
with her or for her.
Abbie Putnam, a sensual and passionate woman of thirty-five, Abbie marries Cabot for his
land and falls in love with Eben. She bears his son and is happy until Eben comes to think she
was tricking him for the land. In a crazed act of love for Eben, she smothers their son. She
tells Cabot how much she hates him just as Eben returns and proclaims his love for her too.
She is going to prison at the end of the play.
Simeon, one of Eben's half-brothers and son to Cabot and his first wife, Simeon is a middle-
aged, hard, and squat man. He and Peter dream of California's gold fields, and accept Eben's
buyout of their share of the farm so they can go seek their fortune. They are not heard from
again.
Peter, one of Eben's half-brothers and son to Cabot and his first wife, Peter is a middle-aged,
hard, and squat man. He and Peter dream of California's gold fields, and accept Eben's buyout
of their share of the farm so they can go seek their fortune. They are not heard from again.
Maw, while never seen onstage because she is dead by the time of the play's action, Maw is
an important character in the play nonetheless. Her presence is felt in the house, particularly
the parlor, until Eben and Abbie claim their love is vengeance for her death-by-overworking
at Cabot's hands, and her presence leaves.
Plot:
The setting is a New England farmhouse in 1850. Two great, oppressive, drooping elms
frame the house. Eben Cabot, a handsome but hard young man, lives there with his two half-
brothers, Simeon and Peter. Their father, Ephraim Cabot (known as Cabot), an old but strong
man, left two months ago for an unknown reason. The brothers all want the farmland and
claim that it is theirs. Eben believes his claim is strongest because his beloved Maw died
working it, and for that he resents his father strongly.
The brothers hear that Cabot is on his way home with a new wife, and it is assumed the land
will go to her. They accept Eben‘s buyout of their shares so they can go to California to seek
their fortune in the gold fields.
They barely stay long enough to see Cabot and his new wife, Abbie Putnam, a vivacious and
buxom thirty-five year old, arrive at the farm. She is excited to see the land, which is clearly
why she married Cabot.
When she sees Eben, his good looks and aloof demeanor immediately strike her. She revolts
him because he fears she wants to take his land, and he refuses all of her flirtatious advances.
As time goes on, Eben has trouble controlling his desire and hatred for Abbie. She gets
frustrated with him and tells Cabot offhandedly that Eben flirted with her. He grows irate and
threatens to kill him, but she manages to convince him she did not mean it. Abbie decides she
will have a son, which makes Cabot very happy. He has been lonesome of late, and claims
that none of his past wives ever truly knew him; all he did was work hard his whole life yet is
still lonesome.
Abbie continues to try and seduce Eben, and he finally gives in once he realizes that his
Maw, whose presence haunts the parlor, probably approves of this union as a way to seek
vengeance against Cabot. Eben and Abbie begin their torrid affair, and eventually have a son.
After the baby is born, there is a party at the house. Cabot is drunk and dancing around,
naively uncomprehending of the gossipy townspeople‘s comments about how blind he is to
the affair of Eben and Abbie and the baby‘s true parentage. Eben stays upstairs, conflicted
about his son. Abbie joins him, and they embrace.
Later Eben steps outside and Cabot joins him. Cabot says jocularly that Eben should get
married soon and get a piece of a farm, to which Eben retorts that this is his farm already.
Cabot tells him that it is Abbie‘s and his new son‘s, and he thinks Eben should stay away
from Abbie, and that he knows he trued to flirt with her. Eben is stunned by this, and believes
Abbie had a son to trick him and get the land.
Eben and Cabot physically fight, and Abbie runs outside to break it up. Eben flings her aside.
After Cabot goes inside, Eben spits out how much he hates Abbie. She is confused until he
accuses her of her plot to take Maw‘s land from him. Frantic and desperate, Abbie tries to
explain that she never did such a thing, but Eben stubbornly refuses to believe her. He even
says he wishes the baby had never been born, and Abbie realizes that the baby stands
between them.
Eben proclaims he will go to California and get rich and buy the farm himself, and seek his
revenge. Abbie wildly asks if she could fix things if he would love her again, and he says that
is not possible because she is not God. After he leaves Abbie vows to earn his love again.
Before dawn of the next morning Abbie stands over the cradle and smothers the baby to
death. She tells Eben, who is preparing to leave, what she did. She is feverish and proud, but
he is horrified and says he will go tell the Sheriff. She does not care because she only wants
his love. He departs.
Abbie sits at the kitchen table and Cabot comes downstairs. He asks for food and says the
baby is sleeping, to which she dully says the baby is dead. Cabot is incredulous but sees that
it is true, and bemoans his fate. Abbie cruelly tells him the truth of the baby‘s parentage and
Cabot says he will go get the Sheriff too. Abbie tells him not to bother since Eben already
did.
Eben comes back and says the Sheriff is on his way. He then turns to Abbie and tells her that
he realized he loves her more than anything and will take the blame for the baby‘s death.
Elated, Abbie embraces him. They disgust Cabot.
Cabot plans to go to California too and give up the farm; he set the cows free and wants to
burn the whole thing down. When he realizes that Eben had taken the saved money and given
it to Simeon and Peter to buy them out, he knows that God wants him to stay; he knows God
is hard and life is to be lonesome.
The Sheriff comes to arrest Abbie and Eben announces he is guilty too. They are led outside
and stare up at the beautiful sky before being led away. The Sheriff remarks on how beautiful
a farm it is, and how he wished he owned it.
TENNESSEE WILLIAMS
Playwright Tennessee Williams was born on March 26, 1911, in Columbus, Mississippi.
After college, he moved to New Orleans, a city that would inspire much of his writing. On
March 31, 1945, his play, The Glass Menagerie, opened on Broadway and two years later A
Streetcar Named Desire earned Williams his first Pulitzer Prize. Many of Williams' plays
have been adapted to film starring screen greats like Marlon Brando and Elizabeth Taylor.
Williams died in 1983.Tennessee Williams was a Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright whose
works include, A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.
THE GLASS MENAGERIE

- TENNESSEE WILLIAMS
Characters List:
Amanda Wingfield - Laura and Tom‘s mother. A proud, vivacious woman, Amanda clings
fervently to memories of a vanished, genteel past. She is simultaneously admirable,
charming, pitiable, and laughable.
Laura Wingfield - Amanda‘s daughter and Tom‘s older sister. Laura has a bad leg, on which
she has to wear a brace, and walks with a limp. Twenty-three years old and painfully shy, she
has largely withdrawn from the outside world and devotes herself to old records and her
collection of glass figurines.
Tom Wingfield - Amanda‘s son and Laura‘s younger brother. An aspiring poet, Tom works
at a shoe warehouse to support the family. He is frustrated by the numbing routine of his job
and escapes from it through movies, literature, and alcohol.
Jim O‘Connor - An old acquaintance of Tom and Laura. Jim was a popular athlete in high
school and is now a shipping clerk at the shoe warehouse in which Tom works. He is
unwaveringly devoted to goals of professional achievement and ideals of personal success.
Mr. Wingfield - Amanda‘s husband and Laura and Tom‘s father. Mr. Wingfield was a
handsome man who worked for a telephone company. He abandoned his family years before
the action of the play and never appears onstage. His picture, however, is prominently
displayed in the Wingfields‘ living room.
Plot:
The Glass Menagerie is a memory play, and its action is drawn from the memories of the
narrator, Tom Wingfield. Tom is a character in the play, which is set in St. Louis in 1937. He
is an aspiring poet who toils in a shoe warehouse to support his mother, Amanda, and sister,
Laura. Mr. Wingfield, Tom and Laura‘s father, ran off years ago and, except for one
postcard, has not been heard from since.
Amanda, originally from a genteel Southern family, regales her children frequently with tales
of her idyllic youth and the scores of suitors who once pursued her. She is disappointed that
Laura, who wears a brace on her leg and is painfully shy, does not attract any gentlemen
callers. She enrolls Laura in a business college, hoping that she will make her own and the
family‘s fortune through a business career. Weeks later, however, Amanda discovers that
Laura‘s crippling shyness has led her to drop out of the class secretly and spend her days
wandering the city alone. Amanda then decides that Laura‘s last hope must lie in marriage
and begins selling magazine subscriptions to earn the extra money she believes will help to
attract suitors for Laura. Meanwhile, Tom, who loathes his warehouse job, finds escape in
liquor, movies, and literature, much to his mother‘s chagrin. During one of the frequent
arguments between mother and son, Tom accidentally breaks several of the glass animal
figurines that are Laura‘s most prized possessions.
Amanda and Tom discuss Laura‘s prospects, and Amanda asks Tom to keep an eye out for
potential suitors at the warehouse. Tom selects Jim O‘Connor, a casual friend, and invites
him to dinner. Amanda quizzes Tom about Jim and is delighted to learn that he is a driven
young man with his mind set on career advancement. She prepares an elaborate dinner and
insists that Laura wear a new dress. At the last minute, Laura learns the name of her caller; as
it turns out, she had a devastating crush on Jim in high school. When Jim arrives, Laura
answers the door, on Amanda‘s orders, and then quickly disappears, leaving Tom and Jim
alone. Tom confides to Jim that he has used the money for his family‘s electric bill to join the
merchant marine and plans to leave his job and family in search of adventure. Laura refuses
to eat dinner with the others, feigning illness. Amanda, wearing an ostentatious dress from
her glamorous youth, talks vivaciously with Jim throughout the meal.
As dinner is ending, the lights go out as a consequence of the unpaid electric bill. The
characters light candles, and Amanda encourages Jim to entertain Laura in the living room
while she and Tom clean up. Laura is at first paralyzed by Jim‘s presence, but his warm and
open behavior soon draws her out of her shell. She confesses that she knew and liked him in
high school but was too shy to approach him. They continue talking, and Laura reminds him
of the nickname he had given her: ―Blue Roses,‖ an accidental corruption of
pleurosis, an illness Laura had in high school. He reproaches her for her shyness and low
self-esteem but praises her uniqueness. Laura then ventures to show him her favorite glass
animal, a unicorn. Jim dances with her, but in the process, he accidentally knocks over the
unicorn, breaking off its horn. Laura is forgiving, noting that now the unicorn is a normal
horse. Jim then kisses her, but he quickly draws back and apologizes, explaining that he was
carried away by the moment and that he actually has a serious girlfriend. Resigned, Laura
offers him the broken unicorn as a souvenir.
about Larry's disappearance and her vehement self-denial are symptomatic of greater
issues than just a grief-stricken mother's inability to cope with the loss of a child.
Nervous and suspicious, Mother has taken on the burden of her husband's secret while
he presents the face of an untroubled conscience to the world, while she suffers from
headaches and nightmares. Her fantasies about Larry are constructed from a sense of
self-preservation, and the flimsy basis for her hopes is threatened any time someone
who loved Larry intimates that he or she may not share Kate's confidence in his return.
Chris Keller, returning from the war as a hero, Chris found the day-to-day
provincialism of his old life stifling. But Chris is a family man, and he is devoted to his
parents. He is uncomfortable with the success his father's business found during the
war, when so many of his comrades died pointlessly. He redirects his discomfort into an
idealism and an attitude of social awareness that is foreign to his family environment.
Others perceive Chris's idealism as oppressive, asking sacrifices of others that Chris
himself does not make as he lives comfortably (if guiltily) on his father's dime.
Larry Keller, although he has been dead for some years by the start of the play, Larry is
as much a character in the play as anyone who actually appears on stage. His
disappearance haunts his family through his mother's superstitious belief in his return,
as well as through his brother's wary but measured rejection of Larry's claim on his
childhood sweetheart. Larry is constantly compared to Chris throughout the play,
ostensibly for the purpose of better defining the character of Chris, but in the end we
learn that Larry's own character had quite an effect on the story. Larry is portrayed by
his father as the more sensible and practical of his sons, the one with a head for
business who would understand his father's arguments. Larry, not Chris, possessed the
stronger sense of honor and connectedness, and Larry sacrificed himself in penance for
his father's misdeeds.
Ann Deever, the beautiful Ann has not become attached to a new man since her beau
Larry died in the war, but this is not through lack of suitors. Ann is mired in the past,
though she has not been waiting for Larry to return. Rather, she has waited for his
brother Chris to step forward and take Larry's place in her heart. She is an honest,
down-to-earth girl, and she is emboldened by the strength of certain of her convictions.
Sharing Chris's idealism and righteousness, she has shunned her father for his crimes
during the war, and she fully understands his assertion that if he had any suspicions of
his own father, he could not live with himself. Ann and her brother work to establish
“appropriate” reactions to a father's wartime racketeering.
George Deever, serves a mostly functional role in the story of the Keller family. His
arrival in the second act is a catalyst for a situation that was on edge from long-
established tensions. His disdain is for the crime, not for the man, and now that he has
been newly convinced of his father's innocence, he is here to rescue his sister from
entering the family of the man he believes is actually guilty. Yet George is easily
disarmed by Keller's good humor, and his own convictions about his father's innocence
are almost undermined by his awareness of his father's other faults and weaknesses.
Dr. Jim Bayliss, the neighborhood doctor, Jim is a good man who believes in the duty of
one man to help another, but he at the same time acknowledges a man's responsibility
to his family. He is interested in medicine not for the money but to help people. This
point is dramatized by his reluctance to bother with a hypochondriac. He once left his
wife to do medical research, but he eventually went home, putting his responsibility to
his family ahead of his responsibility to the world.
Sue Bayliss, Jim's wife Sue put her husband through medical school, and she expects
more than gratitude in return. She blames Chris's infectious, insinuating idealism for
her husband's interest in the fiscally unrewarding field of medical research.
Frank Lubey, a simple neighbor, Frank has an interest in astrology. Mother asked him
before the start of the play to prepare a horoscope for Larry in order to determine his
“favorable day.”
Lydia Lubey, now married to Frank, Lydia is a former sweetheart of George's, but she
did not wait for him to return from the war. Seeing Lydia makes George wistful about
the simpler life he could have had, if he had not left home for the greater world of New
York.
Bert, is a neighborhood boy who plays cop-and-robber games with Joe Keller, to
Mother's chagrin. Keller has allowed Bert and the other children to get the story of his
jail time wrong and to believe that he is a chief of police with a jail in his basement.
Mother is made very anxious by these games.
Plot:
Joe and Kate Keller had two sons, Chris and Larry. Keller owned a manufacturing plant with
Steve Deever, and their families were close. Steve's daughter Ann was Larry's beau, and
George was their friend. When the war came, both Keller boys and George were drafted.
During the war, Keller's and Deever's manufacturing plant had a very profitable contract with
the U.S. Army, supplying airplane parts. One morning, a shipment of defective parts came in.
Under pressure from the army to keep up the output, Steve Deever called Keller, who had not
yet come into work that morning, to ask what he should do. Keller told Steve to weld the
cracks in the airplane parts and ship them out. Steve was nervous about doing this alone, but
Keller said that he had the flu and could not go into work. Steve shipped out the defective but
possibly safe parts on his own.
Later, it was discovered that the defective parts caused twenty-one planes to crash and their
pilots to die. Steve and Keller were arrested and convicted, but Keller managed to win an
appeal and get his conviction overturned. He claimed that Steve did not call him and that he
was completely unaware of the shipment. Keller went home free, while Steve remained in
jail, shunned by his family.
Meanwhile, overseas, Larry received word about the first conviction. Racked with shame and
grief, he wrote a letter to Ann telling her that she must not wait for him. Larry then went out
to fly a mission, during which he broke out of formation and crashed his plane, killing
himself. Larry was reported missing.
Three years later, the action of the play begins. Chris has invited Ann to the Keller house
because he intends to propose to her--they have renewed their contact in the last few years
while she has been living in New York. They must be careful, however, since Mother insists
that Larry is still alive somewhere. Her belief is reinforced by the fact that Larry's memorial
tree blew down in a storm that morning, which she sees as a positive sign. Her superstition
has also led her to ask the neighbor to make a horoscope for Larry in order to determine
whether the day he disappeared was an astrologically favorable day. Everyone else has
accepted that Larry is not coming home, and Chris and Keller argue that Mother should learn
to forget her other son. Mother demands that Keller in particular should believe that Larry is
alive, because if he is not, then their son's blood is on Keller's hands.
Ann's brother George arrives to stop the wedding. He had gone to visit Steve in jail to tell
him that his daughter was getting married, and then he left newly convinced that his father
was innocent. He accuses Keller, who disarms George by being friendly and confident.
George is reassured until Mother accidentally says that Keller has not been sick in fifteen
years. Keller tries to cover her slip of the tongue by adding the exception of his flu during the
war, but it is now too late. George is again convinced of Keller's guilt, but Chris tells him to
leave the house.
Chris's confidence in his father's innocence is shaken, however, and in a confrontation with
his parents, he is told by Mother that he must believe that Larry is alive. If Larry is dead,
Mother claims, then it means that Keller killed him by shipping out those defective parts.
Chris shouts angrily at his father, accusing him of being inhuman and a murderer, and he
wonders aloud what he must do in response to this unpleasant new information about his
family history.
Chris is disillusioned and devastated, and he runs off to be angry at his father in privacy.
Mother tells Keller that he ought to volunteer to go to jail--if Chris wants him to. She also
talks to Ann and continues insisting that Larry is alive. Ann is forced to show Mother the
letter that Larry wrote to her before he died, which was essentially a suicide note. The note
basically confirms Mother's belief that if Larry is dead, then Keller is responsible--not
because Larry's plane had the defective parts, but because Larry killed himself in response to
the family responsibility and shame due to the defective parts.
Mother begs Ann not to show the letter to her husband and son, but Ann does not comply.
Chris returns and says that he is not going to send his father to jail, because that would
accomplish nothing and his family practicality has finally overcome his idealism. He also
says that he is going to leave and that Ann will not be going with him, because he fears that
she will forever wordlessly ask him to turn his father in to the authorities.
Keller enters, and Mother is unable to prevent Chris from reading Larry's letter aloud. Keller
now finally understands that in the eyes of Larry and in a symbolic moral sense, all the dead
pilots were his sons. He says that he is going into the house to get a jacket, and then he will
drive to the jail and turn himself in. But a moment later, a gunshot is heard--Keller has killed
himself.
UNIT –V (PROSE AND SHORT FICTION)
RALPH WALDO EMERSON
Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on May 25, 1803, in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1821, he
took over as director of his brother‘s school for girls. In 1823, he wrote the poem
―Good- Bye.‖ In 1832, he became a Transcendentalist, leading to the later essays ―Self-
Reliance‖ and
―The American Scholar.‖ Emerson continued to write and lecture into the late 1870s. He
died on April 27, 1882, in Concord, Massachusetts.
THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR
-RALPH WALDO EMERSON
Emerson opens ―The American Scholar‖ with greetings to the college president and
members of the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Harvard College. Pointing out the differences
between this gathering and the athletic and dramatic contests of ancient Greece, the poetry
contests of the Middle Ages, and the scientific academies of nineteenth-century Europe, he
voices a theme that draws the entire essay together: the notion of an independent American
intelligentsia that will no longer depend for authority on its European past. He sounds what
one critic contends is ―the first clarion of an American literary renaissance,‖ a call for
Americans to seek their creative inspirations using America as their source, much like
Walt Whitman would do in Leaves of Grass eighteen years later. In the second paragraph,
Emerson announces his theme as ―The American Scholar‖ not a particular individual but an
abstract ideal.
The remaining five paragraphs relate an allegory that underlies the discussion to follow.
According to an ancient fable, there was once only ―One Man,‖ who then was divided into
many men so that society could work more efficiently. Ideally, society labors together —
divine presence.‖ The non-creative bookworm is more spiritually distanced from God — and,
therefore, from nature — than is the thinker of original thoughts.
But the genius, too, can suffer from the undue influence of books. Emerson's example of this
kind of sufferer are the English dramatic poets, who, he says, have been ―Shakespearized‖
for two hundred years: Rather than producing new, original texts and thoughts, they mimic
Shakespeare's writings. Citing an Arabic proverb that says that one fig tree fertilizes another
— just like one author can inspire another — Emerson suggests that true scholars should
resort to books only when their own creative genius dries up or is blocked.
The last three paragraphs of this section refer to the pleasures and benefits of reading,
provided it is done correctly. There is a unique pleasure in reading. Because ancient authors
thought and felt as people do today, books defeat time, a phenomenon that Emerson argues is
evidence of the transcendental oneness of human minds. Qualifying his previous insistence
on individual creation, he says that he never underestimates the written word: Great thinkers
are nourished by any knowledge, even that in books, although it takes a remarkably
independent mind to read critically at all times. This kind of reading mines the essential vein
of truth in an author while discarding the trivial or biased.
Emerson concedes that there are certain kinds of reading that are essential to an educated
person: History, science, and similar subjects, which must be acquired by laborious reading
and study. Foremost, schools must foster creativity rather than rely on rote memorization of
texts: ―. . . [schools] can only highly serve us, when they aim not to drill, but to create.‖
In this third section, Emerson comments on the scholar's need for action, for physical labor.
He rejects the notion that the scholar should not engage in practical action. Action, while
secondary to thought, is still necessary: ―Action is with the scholar subordinate, but it
is essential.‖ Furthermore, not to act — declining to put principle into practice — is cowardly.
The transcendental concept of the world as an expression of ourselves makes action the
natural duty of a thinking person.
Emerson observes the difference between recent actions and past actions. Over time, he says,
a person's past deeds are transformed into thought, but recent acts are too entangled with
present feelings to undergo this transformation. He compares ―the recent act‖ to an
insect larva, which eventually metamorphoses into a butterfly — symbolic of action
becoming thought.
Finally, he praises labor as valuable in and of itself, for such action is the material creatively
used by the scholar. An active person has a richer existence than a scholar who merely
undergoes a second-hand existence through the words and thoughts of others. The ideal life
has ―undulation‖ — a rhythm that balances, or alternates, thought and action, labor
and contemplation: ―A great soul will be strong to live, as well as strong to think.‖ This
cycle
creates a person's character that is far superior to the fame or the honor too easily expected by
a mere display of higher learning.
After Emerson has discussed how nature, books, and action educate the scholar, he now
addresses the scholar's obligations to society. First, he considers these obligations in general,
abstract terms; then he relates them to the particular situation of the American scholar.
The scholar's first and most important duty is to develop unflinching self-trust and a mind
that will be a repository of wisdom for other people. This is a difficult task, Emerson says,
because the scholar must endure poverty, hardship, tedium, solitude, and other privations
while following the path of knowledge. Self-sacrifice is often called for, as demonstrated in
Emerson's examples of two astronomers who spent many hours in tedious and solitary
observation of space in order to make discoveries that benefited mankind. Many readers will
wonder just how satisfying the reward really is when Emerson acknowledges that the scholar
―is to find consolation in exercising the highest functions of human nature.‖
The true scholar is dedicated to preserving the wisdom of the past and is obligated to
communicating the noblest thoughts and feelings to the public. This last duty means that the
scholar — ―who raises himself from private considerations, and breathes and lives on public
illustrious thoughts‖ — must always remain independent in thinking and judgment,
regardless of popular opinion, fad, notoriety, or expediency. Because the scholar discovers
universal ideas, those held by the universal human mind, he can communicate with people of
all classes and ages: ―He is the world's eye. He is the world's heart.‖
Although he appears to lead a reclusive and benign life, the scholar must be brave because he
deals in ideas, a dangerous currency. Self-trust is the source of courage and can be traced to
the transcendental conviction that the true thinker sees all thought as one; universal truth is
present in all people, although not all people are aware of it. Instead of thinking individually,
we live vicariously through our heroes; we seek self-worth through others when we should
search for it in ourselves. The noblest ambition is to improve human nature by fulfilling our
individual natures.
Emerson concludes the essay by observing that different ages in Western civilization, which
he terms the Classic, the Romantic, and the Reflective (or the Philosophical) periods, have
been characterized by different dominant ideas, and he acknowledges that he has neglected
speaking about the importance of differences between ages while speaking perhaps too
fervently about the transcendental unity of all human thought.
Emerson now proposes an evolutionary development of civilization, comparable to the

development of a person from childhood to adulthood. The present age — the first half of the
1800s — is an age of criticism, especially self-criticism. Although some people find such
criticism to be an inferior philosophy, Emerson believes that it is valid and important.
Initiating a series of questions, he asks whether discontent with the quality of current thought
and literature is such a bad thing; he answers that it is not. Dissatisfaction, he says, marks a
transitional period of growth and evolution into new knowledge: ―If there is any period
one would desire to be born in,is it not the age of Revolution; when the old and the new stand
side by side, and admit of being compared; . . . This [present] time, like all times, is a very
good one, if we but know what to do with it.‖
Emerson applauds the views of English and German romantic poets like Wordsworth and
Goethe, who find inspiration and nobility in the lives and work of common people. Instead of
regarding only royal and aristocratic subjects as appropriate for great and philosophical
literature, the Romantic writers reveal the poetry and sublimity in the lives of lower-class and
working people. Their writing is full of life and vitality, and it exemplifies the transcendental
doctrine of the unity of all people. Ironically, we should remember that at the beginning of
the essay, Emerson advocated Americans' throwing off the European mantle that cloaks their
own culture. Here, he distinguishes between a European tradition that celebrates the lives of
common people, and one that celebrates only the monarchical rule of nations: ―We
have listened too long to the courtly muses of Europe.‖
Making special reference to the Swedish philosopher and mystic Emanuel Swedenborg,
Emerson contends that although Swedenborg has not received his due recognition, he
revealed the essential connection between the human mind and the natural world, the
fundamental oneness of humans and nature. Emerson finds much inspiration for his own
thinking and writing in the doctrines of Swedenborg.
In his long, concluding paragraph, Emerson dwells on the romantic ideal of the individual.
This fundamentally American concept, which he develops at much greater length in the essay
―Self-Reliance,‖ is America's major contribution to the world of ideas. The scholar must be
independent, courageous, and original; in thinking and acting, the scholar must demonstrate
that America is not the timid society it is assumed to be. We must refuse to be mere
purveyors of the past's wisdom: ―. . . this confidence in the unsearched might of man,
belongs by all motives, by all prophecy, by all preparation, to the American Scholar,‖ who
will create a native, truly American culture.
HENRY DAVID
THOREAU
Henry David Thoreau, (born July 12, 1817, Concord, Massachusetts, U.S.—died May 6,
1862, Concord), American essayist, poet, and practical philosopher, renowned for having
lived the doctrines of Transcendentalism as recorded in his masterwork, Walden (1854), and
for having been a vigorous advocate of civil liberties, as evidenced in the essay ―Civil
Disobedience‖ (1849).
PAPER-III
PAPER-III
ENG: 303: INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH –I
UNIT –I
BACKGROUND
19 CENTURY REFORM MOVEMENTS IN

INDIA
The 19th Century India witnessed a strong wave of reformation activities in religion and
society. There were attempts made by the educated young Indians to end the evils and abuses
in religion and society. Western ideas of reason, equality, liberty and humanity inspired them.
They tried to remove the defects in their culture. They wanted to revive the glory of Indian
culture. Hence we call the socio-religious reform movement of the 19th century India as
the Indian Renaissance movement. Raja Rammohan was the pioneer of this movement.
Causes for the Social and Religious reform movement:
Political Unity: India was politically united due to the expansion and consolidation of British
rule. It led to the understanding of many common problems of the Indians. The nature of the
British rule provoked many young Indians to find out the causes of their misery and
degradation.
Reaction against the propaganda of Christian Missionaries: The Christian missionaries

made all possible attempts to spread Christianity particularly among the poor and the
oppressed. Educational institutions, hospitals, charity services and official support were also
made use for this purpose. Therefore, both the Hindus and the Muslims made efforts to
protect their religions.
Contribution of foreign scholars: Many western scholars like Max Muller and William
Jones rediscovered India‘s past. They studied the scholarly works of Indians of the ancient
period. They brought to light the rich cultural heritage of India which was even superior to
the western culture. They translated many literary and religious texts. These works received
worldwide recognition. It made the educated Indians develop faith in their culture. They
wanted to establish the superiority of Indian culture against the western culture.
Indian Press: The Europeans introduced the printing press in India. It made possible the
appearance of many newspapers and magazines. Books were also published in different
Indian languages. Mostly their subject matter was Indian. It certainly helped to open the eyes
of the educated Indians with regard to the national heritage and glory. Therefore they started
to work for the revival of Indian culture.
Western Education: The spread of western education led to the spread of the western
concepts of democracy, liberty, equality and nationalism. The Indians who went abroad came
in direct contact with the working of these concepts. After their return they were pained to
see the lack of awareness among the Indians about such concepts. They did the spade work
for the spread of such ideas. There is no denying the fact that Indian nationalism and
modernism are largely the result of the efforts of the English educated Indians in different
fields of life.
The Brahmo Samaj – 1828: The Brahmo Samaj was established by Raja Rammohan
Roy in 1828. He was born in a Brahmin family of Bengal. He learnt many languages like
Arabic, Sanskrit, Persian, English, French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. He also studied several
religious philosophies like Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Sufism. His primary aim was to
reform the Hindu society and religion. He wrote a number of books in Bengali, Hindi,
Sanskrit, Persian and English. Precepts of Jesus Christ, The Guide to Peace and
Happiness are some of them. He started newspapers one in Bengali, and the other in Persian.
He was given the title of Raja and sent to England by the Mughal Emperor Akbar II as his
envoy.
The Brahmo Samaj was an assembly of all those who believed in a universal religion based
on the principle of one Supreme God. Raja Rammohan Roy condemned idol worship, rites
and rituals. But he never lost his faith in Hinduism and the Vedas. The Brahmo Samaj
condemned caste, untouchability, the practice of Sati and image worship.
In order to improve the position of women Raja Rammohan Roy and Lord William
Bentinck tried to abolish Sati. Bentinck declared in 1829 that the practice of Sati as an
offence, punishable with death sentence. The young Rammohan had seen how the wife of his
elder brother, who was so dearer to him, was forced to commit Sati. It made a deep wound in
his tender heart. Therefore he made up his mind to eradicate this evil practice at his young
age.
The Brahmo Samaj also opposed child marriage and Polygamy.It supported widow
remarriage. Due to the efforts of Keshab Chandra Sen, one of the leaders of Brahmo Samaj,
an Act was passed in 1872. It abolished polygamy and childmarriage. The Act also supported
intercaste marriage and widow remarriage. After the death of Raja Rammohan Roy, the work
of the Samaj was carried by great men like Keshab Chandra Sen andDevendranath
Tagore.
The Arya Samaj-1875: Swami Dayananda Saraswathi started theArya Samaj in

1875. He was born at a small town in Gujarat in a conservative Brahmin family. His
childhood name was Mul Shankar. He met Swami Vrajanand at Mathura. He became the
disciple of Vrajanand. There he studied Vedas. He devoted his life to the propagation of the
Vedas. He wanted to reform the Hindu Society. According to Dayananda Saraswathi the
Vedas contained all the truth. His motto was ‖Go Back to the Vedas‖. His book Sathyartha
Prakash contains his views about Vedas. In the field of religion Arya Samaj opposed idol
worship, ritualism, animal sacrifice, the idea of heaven and hell and the concept of
fatalism.
Dayananda Saraswathi started Suddhi movement to reconvert the Hindus who had
been converted to other religions earlier. By his efforts, large number of people was taken
back within the fold of Hinduism. Swami Dayananda Saraswathi is described as the Martin
Luther of Hinduism. Martin Luther was a great religious reformer of Germany. The Arya
Samaj provided useful service to Hindu society. It opposed child marriage, polygamy, purdah
system, casteism and the practice of Sati. The Samaj insisted the education of the women and
upliftment of the depressed classes. Intercaste marriages and interdining were encouraged.
The Samaj established a number of educational institutions in India particularly in the

North. Gurukulas and Swami Dayananda Saraswathi Kanya Gurukulas provide education
mostly on Sanskrit, the Vedas and Ayur Vedas. Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) Schools and
Colleges provide modern education in humanities and sciences. His followers Lala Lajpat
Rai, Lala Hansraj and Pandit Guru Dutt propagated the ideas of the Arya Samaj. Many
Indian national leaders like Bala Gangadhara Tilak and Gopala Krishna Gokhale were
deeply influenced by the philosophy and principles of the Arya Samaj. Swami Dayananda
was perhaps the first Indian to preach the gospal of ‘Swadesh‘ and ‘India for Indians‘. His
motto was ‗Satyam Eva Jayate‘, ‗Na Anritam‘ which means truth alone triumphs and not
untruth.
Theosophical Society – 1875: The word theosophy has been coined by combining
two Greek words Theos and Sophos. Theos means God and Sophos means wisdom.
Therefore theosophy means knowledge of God. In Sanskrit it is called Brahma Gyan. The
society was first established by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott in the United
States of America. They were inspired by Indian thought and culture. Then they shifted the
headquarters of the society to Adyar in Chennai.
The main principles of the Theosophical Society:

1. To form an organization of all people on the basis of fraternity,
2. To study ancient religion, philosophy and science and
3. To find out the laws of Nature and development of divine powers in man.
Mrs. Annie Besant, a prominent member of this Society came to India in 1893. She
became the President of this society. She devoted herself to the revival of Hindu religion. Her
activities in the field of education were more significant. She founded the Central Hindu
College at Varanasi which was ultimately merged with the Varanasi Hindu
University. Her paper ―New India‖ spread the theosophical ideas. Later she started
the Home Rule Movement to give momentum to the national movement in India.
Rama Krishna Mission – 1897: Another important reformer of the 19th century was Rama
Krishna Paramahamsa. He was a priest in a temple of Kali at Dakshineswar near Kolkata.
He had no formal education. However, he won the hearts of all who gathered around him by
his simplicity of character and homely wisdom. He had deep faith in the basic truth of all
religions. He preached the unity of all religions. He explained the principles contained in the
Vedas and Upanishads through simple stories, called parables. He stressed that every
individual is a part of God. Therefore, according to him ‖service to man means service to
God.‖
The credit of propagating his ideas goes to his great disciple, Swami Vivekananda.
Vivekananda‘s childhood name was Narendra Nath. He was educated in English schools
and graduated himself. He studied the works of the western philosophers. Once he went to
meet Ramakrishna in the Kali Temple. He was attracted by him. From that time onwards he
moved closer with Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. After the death of Ramakrishna, Vivekananda
carried the messages of his master all over India. His eloquence and personality endeared
both Princes and Peasants around him.
According to Vivekananda, ‖The best way to serve God is to serve the poor and the
downtrodden.‖ It became his motto. He participated in the World Religious
Congregation held at Chicago in the United States of America in 1893. He started his
speech by addressing the audience with the words, ‖Brothers and Sisters of this
universe.‖Vivekananda raised the prestige of Indian culture and religion in the eyes of the
world. His speeches at Chicago and other places in the United States of America and the
United Kingdom brought him fame and friends.
Ramakrishna Mission was established in 1897 by Swami Vivekananda at Belur near

Kolkata. It has branches all over India and the other parts of the world. The Missions‘ motto
is ‖Service to humanity‖. It serves for the education, upliftment of women, and removal of
poverty among the poor and downtrodden. The Mission has opened many schools, technical
institutions, Orphanages and hospitals. It also rendered service to the people in times of
distress caused by natural calamities like flood and famine. Swami Vivekananda made a solid
contribution towards Hindu religion, culture, society and Indian nationalism. The
Ramakrishna Mission, therefore, became a strong movement. It is still doing useful service to
the Indian Society.
Muslim Movements: For a long time, the Muslims remained outside the influence of
western education and the British rule. Reform movements among the Muslim community
began in the later half of the 19th century. They aimed at the spread of modern education and
removal of social abuses like the Purdha System and polygamy. In the beginning
Mohammeden Literary Society of Kolkata was founded in1863 by Nawab Abdul Latif. It
played an important role in the spread of education among the Muslims and started a number
of schools in Bengal.
Aligarh Movement: The most important movement for the spread of modern education and
social reforms among the Muslims was started by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. He had been in
the service of British Government as a judicial officer. He remained loyal to them during the
revolt of 1857. He insisted on the co-operation of the Muslims with the British Government.
So he opposed the Indian National Congress. He believed that the Muslims would be affected
if they started taking part in political agitation. Though Syed Ahmed Khan opposed the
Indian National Congress, he insisted the unity between the Hindus and Muslims. He viewed
that both the Hindus and the Muslims belong to the same country and the progress of the
country depend on their unity.
In 1864 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan started a school at Ghazipur.It was later called as
the Scientific Society. The Society translated many scientific works into Urdu and published
them. His greatest achievement was the establishment of the Mohammeden Anglo Oriental
College (MAO) at Aligarh in 1875. In course of time, this became the most important
educational institution of Indian Muslims. It later developed into the Aligarh Muslim
University.
The reform movement started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was called the Aligarh
Movement. He was in favour of the abolition of Purdah and education of women. He
propagated his views through his magazine called Tahzil-ud-Akhlaq (Reform of Morals). A
large number of societies were started for the service of the Muslim community.
Parsi Reform Movements : Dadabai Naoroji and Naoroji Furdoonjiwere the

pioneers of religious and social reform among the Parsi community. For the progress of
women and the spread of modern education they, together, started a journal Rast
Goftar. Another important social reformer in the Parsi community was Sorabji Bengali.
Sikh Reform Movements : Among the Sikhs, the movement for reform was started
by the Singh Sabhas. They were started at Amristar andLahore. The two Sabhas merged
together and played an important role in the spread of education. The Khalsa College was
founded at Amristar in 1892 and many schools were also started.
In the early decades of the 20th century, the Gurudwaras (the places of worship for
the Sikhs) were under the control of priests and Mahants. They treated them as their private
property. Both Shiromany Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee and the Akali Dal party
aimed at handing over the control of the Gurudwaras to the representative of the Sikh
community. The leaders of the freedom movement supported them. In 1925 a law was passed
which gave the right of managing the Gurudwaras to the Shiromany Gurudwara Prabandhak
Committee.
Effects of The Reform Movements:
1. The reform movements brought about remarkable changes in the society and religion.
Initially the great changes affected a small group of people, but gradually these ideas spread
among many sections of the people,
2. The reform movements strengthened the Hindu and Muslim religions and made efforts to
remove social evils among them,
3. The educated Indians started to think reasonably,
4. The reform movements helped in the revival of the past glory. They also helped in making
up of a modern India,
5. It led to the progress of literature in different regional languages,
6. The caste system began to lose its hold on the society,
7. There was a significant achievement in the field of emancipation of women. Some legal
measures were introduced to raise their status,
8. To travel abroad, which was considered as a sin before, was accepted,
9. The reform movements created the rise of a middle class which consisted of the teachers,
the doctors, the lawyers, the scientists, and the journalists who helped in the progress of India
in different fields, and
10. The reform movements also contributed for the growth of Indian Nationalism as the
reform activities united the people all over India and created a feeling of oneness.
THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

Undoubtedly Indian National Movement was one of the biggest movement for freedom
modern world ever seen. The medium of communication and representation was the poems,
slogans, folk songs & music, not only with the people who was illiterate but also with the
people who want to join you. It has more importance when you have to spread your thoughts
with the people of larger geographical expansion.
The role of music, songs, slogans and other literature in any revolution that they sharp the
idea and strategy of any revolution and national movement. This may be in form of political
slogans, patriotic song or essay, but this concept was not new for India and its people, who
was living in different geographical locations in India during the bhakti movement.
The literature promotes the revolutionary thinking and after every revolution a change in
society and its vision promote the literature. So in case of India there was a rich literature but
mostly in form of poems and hymns because it is a rhythmic literature.
So dissatisfaction in Indian minds was start from Bengal begun with the Battle of Plassey
1757, and company rule. During 1763 to 1856 more than 40 big out break happened and the
smaller are uncountable. Then the first mutiny of 1857 happened, the revolutionary controlled
the Delhi and make Bahadur shah as the emperor of India. But soon the Delhi gone back to
the control of British and the waistline of revolutionary movement rupture in 1858 and india
become under British imperialism &.it fails as revolution but it makes a path for the
Nationalist Movement The first slogan against the company rule was jo rakshak
wahi bhakshak. After 1857 a lot of uprising happened and the dissatisfaction start growing
and this dissatisfaction guided the Tribal Revolt, Farmers Revolts. The first success was in
form of Indigo Movement start from 1857 in Bengal company put pressure on farmers to
cultivate the indigo and in 1860 they successfully stopped the farming of indigo after fighting
with the goons of company. An English weekly shows very important role during this period
known as Hindoo Patriot, which have extremely important role to expose and criticize the
perforce cultivation of indigo. Another major role played by Dinabandhu Mitra‘s play Neel
Darpan in 1859 which was in Bangle and it work as last nail thump on indigo farming
in Bengal. This was the role of a magazine and a play but another important thing was what
we can see a unity between elite educated class, farmers and workers after 1857.Hindi poetry
begun with the Bharatendu Harishchandra and come in its new age, his Bharat
Durdasha (1875) play tells about the dissatisfaction in people, and how british
destroyed India. His another play Andher Nagri tells about the stupid kings of India.
Now everything Start with Vande Mataram a song by Bankim chandra chatterjee in his
book Anandamath (1882),which have a giant importance in the freedom and nationalist
movement of India but it playas more importance because at 1880 british force to sing God
Save The Queen in every office and bankim was himself an officer decline it. vande
mataram have an important role in the Congress Meetings and known as call of freedom
and a slogan for motherland .The first political occasion when it was sung was the 1896
session of the Indian National Congress. After that in 1906, Dadabhai Nauroji Call for a
slogan ―Swaraj‖ in 1906 just after the partition of bengal in 1905. ‖Swaraj‖ slogan become
close to everyone and after some time congress demanded for ”Purna Swaraj” in 26 january
1929 in lahore (now days pakistan) by congress president Jawaharlal Nehru.
Ekla Cholo Re a song and written by guru ravindranath tagore was released and it provided
voice to all the people who want to serve motherland and they have no support no answer, so
this song guided to walk alone not to afraid.After 1908 a young revolutionary from bengal
Khudiram Bose (18) was hanged by british a young man died and a song was written and
composed by a Bengali poet Pitambar Das the song was Ek Baar biday de ma ghure ashi.
All Bengali community and other indian community (deshwasi) sheds their eyes and youth of
bengal become more struggling against british in bengal.you can lision this song in a bengali
movie Shubhash chardra in lata mangeskars voice.
Now The tone of the revolution spread everywhere in india in Maratha Desh a marathi
poem Sagara Pran Talmalala and Sare Jahan se Accha Hindustan hamara (1904) plays
its important role in freedom struggle, mahatma gandhi sung it in yerwada jail hundreds of
times and after independence when rakesh sharma replied ex p.m indira gandhi‘s question –
How india look from space? And his reply was – Sare Jahan se
Accha Hindustan hamara.This was the Impression of music,songs and poems on indian
minds.
Sardar Ajit Singh was the leader of Pagdi Sambhal Jatta movement till 1907 and the song
become very popular from movie The Legend of Bhagat Singh (it is edited but have same
feel). Ajit singh was uncle of Sardar Bhagat singh. Mai rang de basanti chola was related to
bhagat singh as well, this song was on everyone‘s lips during freedom struggle.
An patriotic Urdu poetry was related with the Ram Prashad bismil, sarfaroshi ki tamanna ab
hamaare dil mein hai dekhna hai zor kitna baazu -e- qaatil mein hai which become extra -
ordinary for those revolutionaries who want to free india with the help of bullet ant
ballet.Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad was these type of revolutionaries. They
shouted the slogans like Inquilab Zindabad, Bhagat singh and his other friends killed
saunders who passed the orders of lathicharge on Lala Lajpat Rai in 1928 during Protest
against Simon Commission.
During the late 1800‘s, the various regions of India began to share a common purpose in
reacting to the British presence in their country. A nationalist movement gradually grew in
strength. This movement was the inspiration behind much Indian writing in the 1800‘s and
early 1900‘s. A common pattern exists in the modern literature of most Indian languages. The
spread of journalism helped the development of prose writing, with the short story becoming
especially popular.
Writers such as the Bengali Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838-1894) attacked colonialism
and created their own brand of nationalism. Bankim‘s historical novels achieved popularity
throughout the subcontinent and helped spread nationalism and patriotism. Rabindranath
Tagore (1861-1941), the greatest name in modern Indian literature, made federalism an
important part of his concept of national ideology. He said that the unity of India should be a
unity in diversity.
Patriotic writings grew almost simultaneously in different languages as part of the resistance
of a community to foreign rule. For example, Rangalal in Bengali, Mirza Ghalib (1797-1869)
in Urdu, and Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850-1885) in Hindi all expressed their opposition
to colonial rule and wrote about the glorification of India.
The Bengali writer Michael Madhusan Dutt (1824-1873) wrote the first modern epic in an
Indian language. Subramania Bharati (1882-1921) was a great Tamil poet who revolutionized
the poetic tradition in Tamil. Maithili Saran Gupta (1886-1964) and Bhai Vir Singh (1872-
1957), writing in Hindi and Punjabi respectively, took themes from mythology and history
for their patriotic epics.
The first Indian novels appeared in the late 1800‘s. Krishnamona Chetty‘s Sri Ranga Raja
(1872) was the first novel in Telugu; Samuel V. Pillai‘s Pratap Mudaliyar Charitram (1879)
was the first in Tamil; and Chandu Menon‘s Indu Lekha (1889) the first in Malayalam. These
novels questioned contemporary social practices and customs. Similarly, the Bengali novel
Phulmani O Karunar Bibaran (1852) by the English writer H. Catherine Mullens and the
Hindi novel Pariksha Guru (1882) by Lala Sriniwas Das examined social issues.
Historical novels were written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in Bengali and Hari Narayan
Apte in Marathi to describe the glorious past of India and instill nationalist sentiments in their
readers. Tagore wrote his novel Gora (1910) to challenge colonial rule and to give new
meaning to Indian nationalism.
Gandhi‘s influence: The ideas of Gandhi deeply affected India in the decades leading up to
independence in 1947. Gandhi, writing in Gujarati, English, and Hindi, used the language of
common people. He used the weapons of truth and nonviolence and spoke out in favour of
traditional values and against industrialization. Gandhi became a symbol of peace and
idealism. Writers of fiction and poetry in almost all the Indian languages adopted the
Gandhian figure as a theme of cultural nationalism.
Saratchandra Chattopadhyay (1876-1938) is one of the most popular Bengali novelists. A

Gandhian and a socialist, his influence spread throughout India with translations of his books
in various Indian languages. Premchand (1880-1936) wrote novels in Hindi. He wrote about
the plight of the poor in India. His greatest achievement, the novel Godan (The Gift of a Cow,
1936), tells the story of a debt-laden peasant and his struggle for survival
RISE OF THE INDIAN NOVEL
The novel appeared as a popular form of literature during the eighteenth century England. It
was the result of the gradual democratization in Great Britain. But the novel, as a form of
literature, is
new to India. An ardent love for novel in India began with the arrival of the English. It
increased with the spread of English education in the second half of the nineteenth century.
However, the early writers who began writing English novel were the writers whose mother
tongue was not English. Still they wrote novels in English for giving an expression to their
spirit of nationalism and to expose their social realities to the international community.
The novelists of the period dealt with social problems for bringing in rapid social awareness.
So here an effort is made to examine the birth and growth of Indian English fiction. The birth
of English novel in India is, to some extent, the result of historical, political, social and
cultural incidents. Especially, Indian struggle for independence, Gandhian movement and
partition are the three important incidents, which encouraged the birth and growth of English
novel.
Mahatma Gandhi was an iconic figure in the movement. He was a symbol of many things for
many people. He was seen variously as a great opponent of European imperialism and as a
champion of civil rights for racial, religious and other minorities. He was an important critic
of industrial system of production. His great quality lay in his ability to reach out to the poor
and oppressed.
The First Generation Novelists:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy‘s Precepts of Jesus (1820) shows his generosity of mind, mastery over
English and sincerity in treatment of Indian themes. Then came the Dutt family, especially
Toru Dutt and Romesh Chander Dutt as English writers contributing more to the literary
field. Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo and Bankimchandra Chatterjee got entrance to the
creative field later. They are considered the ‗Titans‘ in the field of Indian writing in English.
Really their contribution is unique. Equally great writers like Balgangadhar Tilak, Motilal
Nehru, Ranade, Gopalkrishna Gokhale and Sarojini Naidu follow them. Indian English
writing continued to grow with the genres of novel and short story. The novelists and short
story writers such as S. K Ghose, Manmohan Ghose, Michael Madusudan Dutt, S. M. Mitra,
Raj Laxmi Devi, Kshetrapal Chakrabarty, Lai Bhihari De, A. Mahadevaiah, Behramji, S. B.
Banerjee, Sardar Jogendra Singh, Balkrishna, Nagesh Vishvanath Pai, Sorabjee Cornelia, T.
Ram Krishna and K, S. Venkataramani were the writers who were experimenting to provide
recognition to Indian English fiction. They wrote social, historical and detective novels. Their
historical romances were popular. Novels with political and social themes dominated the field
during the period of 1860-1920.
Thereafter during the period 1920 to 1950, the next batch of Indian English writers like R. K.
Narayana, Mulk Raj Anand, Raja Rao, Bhabani Bhattacharya, Khushwant Singh and a host
of others were trying their art of fiction-writing with equal facility and felicity. They had
unlimited and unrestricted themes. The novels of Mulk Raj Anand and Bhabani Bhattacharya
deal with the themes of social criticism and political emancipation. They protest against
feudalism and imperialism of the period. The religious and mythical Indian traditions have
been successfully presented in the novels of R.K. Narayan and Raja Rao whereas in the
works of post-independence writers psychological and social tensions are exposed. The
novelists like R. K. Narayan, Ahmed Ali, Attia Hussain, Bal Krishna, A. Madhaviah and
Jogender Singh have derived their main characters from the urban middle class. There are
lively presentations of middle class manners and the conflict between tradition and
modernity.
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee wrote Rajmohun’s Wife (1864), and it is the first novel in
English. It is said that he wrote the novel, in order to attract the attention of the west. As the
first Indian novel in English it promised a rich growth. The novel is remarkable for Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee‘s narrative skill. He deftly uses the devices of accident, crime, thrill and
suspense. It is a realistic tale of sufferings of a typical Hindu wife Matangini. Matangini‘s
character is nicely portrayed. Her boundless capacity for tolerance, her human consideration
for Madhav, her selfless affection for her sister and her courage make her a bold Indian
woman. However, Matangini‘s husband Rajmohun is sketched as a villain who commits a
series of crimes.
Many other writers followed Bankim Chandra Chatterjee‘s example. Raj Lakshmi Devi
published her novel, The Hindu Wife in 1876. A Kerala Christian missionary Mrs Richard
Collins‘ novel The Slayer Slain appeared in 1877. Kali Krishna Lahiri‘s Rashinara came out
in 1881. H. Dutta published his Bijay Chand in 1888; and Kshetrapal Chakrabarti‘s Sarata
and Hingana appeared in 1895. Apart from these writers, Rabindra Nath Tagore, a Nobel
Laureate of English Gitanjali, is credited to have produced several novels primarily in
Bengali but later on, some of them brought into English. His novels are, The Home and the
World (1919) and The Wreck and Gora (1923). These are domestic and social novels. So
Indian English fiction acquired its place in India gradually.
Toru Dutt (1856-1877), an eminent poetess of the period wrote a novel called Bianca
(1878). She wrote it when she was just a teen-aged girl. It is said, Bianca is ―more a product
of imagination than of experience.‖12 Here Toru Dutt describes the sorrow of her heroine
Bianca and Bianca‘s father. Bianca‘s mother is sketched as a villain. The novel is artistically
rich. But, because of Toru Dutt‘s premature death it remained incomplete. Lai Bihari De
(1824-1894) is another Indian English novelist who wrote Bengal Peasant Life (1880). His is
a realistic novel, dealing with a Bengali peasant family of the Samantas living in Kanchanpur
village near Burdwan. The novel exposes various manifestations of exploitation caused by
landlords, corrupt officials and foreign planters. Its plot is compact. Its characters are real and
life-like. The novel is written in simple language. It is considered as one of the best Indian
English novels written in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Shoshee Chunder Dutt
(1824-86) was a prodigious writer whose collected works were published in six volumes. He
wrote two novels, The Young Zemindar (1883) and Shunkur (1885). His first novel deals with
Manohar, a young zemindar and his mentor Babajee Bissonath.
Manohar accepts the British presence, gradually admitting that ‗English rule‘ with all its
drawbacks, is better than what the Mohammedan rule was. In his short novel Shunkur, S. C.
Dutt deals with the social relationships and compromises of Indians with the newly arrived
British. Here the British officers like Bernard and Mackenzie rape Shunkur‘s wife who has
given them shelter. But the victim‘s husband Shunkur does not politicize the matter. He
suffers in loneliness. Shoshee Chander Dutt‘s novels deal with the burning issues of
contemporary society.
Krupabai Satthianadhan (1862-94) is a good woman novelist of the period who wrote two
novels, Kamala, A Story of Hindu Life (1894) and Saguna, A Story of Native Christian Life
(1895). Both the novels deal with a similar theme. The novelist has a remarkable skill for
story25
telling. Sagunn seems to be autobiographical. Saguna, the heroine is the daughter of a
Christian priest. She gets admission in a medical college and eventually meets a man who
could share her life as an equal. In the other novel, Kamala‘s life follows a different
trajectory. Here, she is the daughter of a learned Hindu sanyasi. She is brought up in a
sparsely populated hilly area, where she marries a young Hindu. Kamala does not understand
the behavioural patterns of her new world, and despite her best efforts, she remains a misfit.
Her happy moments are when her father-in-law allows her handle his books or when her
husband gives her lessons in reading and writing. But such joys are short-lived, as the joint
family system does not allow the things for long time. Soon afterwards her husband dies of
cholera. Finally her father‘s disciple marries her. Kamala accepts this, however. So the novel
ends with a happy note.
Krupabai Satthianadhan‘s novels are set in Nasik hills. Krupabai Satthianadhan is a rare
writer as these novels are not of mere archival interest. They offer a good deal of textual
pleasure representing some of the earliest feminist and cultural concerns. S. K. Ghose (1840-
1911) is considered one of the most talented English novelists of the period. His 1001 Indian
Nights (1905) and The Prince of Destiny (1909) are celebrated works of remarkable literary
interest. They deal with the theme of adventure, romance and suspense. 1001 Indian Nights
deals with the adventures of Narayan Lai, a royal juggler. The juggler marries a beautiful
princess Debala. Narayan Lai undergoes various risky trials to prove that he is a Rajput of
royal blood. The king tests him. Narayan Lai is portrayed as a brave man. It is a well told
romance, known for its skilled narration. The Prince of Destiny is a novel with a purpose. It is
known as the first socio-political novel of the twentieth century. Prince Barat of Baratpur
estate is considered to be the man of destiny and an emancipator of India from the British
rule. The prince is sent to England for higher education. In England he stays with Col.
Wingate and his niece Ellen, the Christian missionaries who had once lived in India. When he
comes back to India, he finds Vashista, who has become a British enemy. He offers Barat to
take charge of Indian army and starts a revolution against the British.
Vashista, the priest and teacher play a vital role. The novel is a fictional autobiography of S.
K. Ghose. The plot, though interesting, lacks an organic coherence. Ramkrishna Pillai
(1878-1916) was a south Indian writer. He wrote two novels, Padmini (1903) and The Dive
for Death (1912). His Padmini is a romantic story of Padmini and Srirangaraya. The Dive for
Death is a romance. The latter is the story of Devamani who marries Vijay, a youth of her
choice. Both the novels are conspicuous for their presentation of social life.
A. Madhaviah (1872-1925) was a prominent south Indian English writer. He wrote Clarinda
(1915), a historical novel and Thillai Govindan (1908), an autobiographical novel. Clarinda
is a feeble work, describing the marriage of an Indian widow with an English officer. A.
Madhaviah‘s other novel Thillai Govindan is a short work but artistically rich, dealing with
Thillai Govindan‘s life. The protagonist of the novel is a young hero, who raises his voice
against the gnawing evils in Hindu religion and society. He has the bearings of a social
reformer. The plot of the novel is coherent and well-knit. Jogender Singh was one of the
celebrated novelists of the period. He was a biography writer. He has written the biography of
Guru Nanak. His novels include Nur Jahan (1909), Nasrin (1915), Kamala (1925) and
Kamini (1931). Among them Nur Jahan is a historical novel and it is more popular. It deals
with the love story of Mughal prince Salim with Mihar, a beautiful daughter of Ghias Beg.
Mihar becomes Nur Jahan after her marriage. Nasrin attempts to expose the lives of Nawabs
and Zamindars. As a social novel, it describes the upper class life in the first decade of
twentieth century. The first two novels are about Muslims in India and the other two, Kamala
and Kamini deal with Hindu Rajas and Talukdars. Kamala is a romance of a hill girl of
Almora. The heroine Kamala is kidnapped and carried to the palace of a ruler in an estate.
The ruler Raja Jai Singh is corrupt but when he looks at Kamala, he is overwhelmed by her
behaviour and gives up his bad way of life. Ultimately Kamala marries Ratan Singh. The
intention of the novelist is to condemn the evils of Hindu society. He criticizes caste system,
child marriage and the miserable condition of widows. Jogendra Singh‘s next novel Kamini is
more realistic and convincing. Its heroin, Kamini is a beautiful lady. She is the daughter of a
village barber, Ramchandran. Her lustful admirers harass her. A Brahmin priest tries to
seduce her. Then a voluptuous Raja tries to molest her. So do the policemen and Thanedars.
Kamini escapes from her tormentors and takes shelter in the house of a Christian missionary,
Miss Greenwood. There, she starts taking education, becomes bold and self-confident. Later
she marries Ratan Nath. But she cannot enjoy her married life with him as she dies of brain
fever soon. Thus Kamini represents courage and determination. So Jogendra Singh has
brought social realism and humanism to Indian English fiction. He is a trendsetter in this
respect. But his novels are considered as cheap stories of amusement and they do not deserve
any serious critical attention.
K. S. Venkataramani was one of the earliest writers who wrote two realistic novels,
Murugan, the Tiller (1927) and Kandan, the Patriot (1932). His novels won immense
popularity and drew the attention of eminent critics in India and Europe. Murugan, the Tiller
is a novel with a purpose. Ramchandran, the hero of the novel is a camp clerk. He is a
dedicated and honest worker. His sincerity takes him to a higher position. He is elevated to a
higher rank and is deputed to disband a gang of dacoits operating in a district of Madras. In
course of time, he meets Murugan, his old and trusted tenant, who has been drawn to the fold
of dacoits due to poverty. With Murugan‘s help Ramachandran liquidates the gang of dacoits
and regenerates them as the tillers of soil in the village of Meenakshipuram. Like Tolstoy and
Mahatma Gandhi, Venkataramani disapproves industrial civilization and pleads for the return
to nature. Kandan, the Patriot is a superior novel. It is set against the background of Civil
Disobedience Movement of 1930s. Gandhian movement in Indian politics is its central
theme.
Venkataramani‘s place as a novelist is high and secure. As a pioneer of novel writing with a
purpose he influenced the future development of Indian English fiction. Murugan, the Tiller
is an example of rural novel and Kantian, the Patriot is that of political novel. The two novels
became enormously popular in the pre-independence literary panorama. Dhan Gopal
Mukherji has published many books in English in the early twentieth cenmry. He wrote two
important novels, describing Indian village life. His My Brother’s Face (1925) is a social
novel, dealing with an Indian settled down in America. It is a document on the change in
India in the early twentieth century. The novel is written in the first person singular.
Dhan Gopal Mukherji‘s The Secret Listeners of the East (1926) is a novel of mystery and
terror. The murder of General Gastry, the leader of scout movement in British India, creates
the feelings of terror. Nirmal Chatterji, a doctor, plays the role of a master detective with the
help of his adopted son, Virigu. So it is a detective novel with suspense and mystery. Some
vital political issues add a new dimension to it, making it more interesting. The plot is
compact and the characters are well portrayed.
A. S. P. Ayyar, a district and sessions judge was also a novelist. He wrote two historical
novels, Baladitya (1930) and Three Men of Destiny (1939). As a novelist he combines
historical facts with imagination. Like Sir Walter Scott, he deals with historical facts not as a
historian but as an
artist. In Baladitya, Ayyar aims at portraying social, religious, cultural and political
conditions of India towards the close of fifth century. As for the story, Baladitya kills
Bhumaka to save the life of Yashodharman, his intimate friend. Then he escapes to Kerala.
Yashodharman marries a daughter of Gunasagar, the king of Kalinga. Then Yashodharman,
with the help of other Indian kings drives away the Huns. A Toraman king is killed and
Mihiragula is defeated in the battle of Malwa in 533 A.D. So Baladitya, the Gupta ruler, gets
back his kingdom. The novel deals with a dynasty. A. S. P. Ayyar‘s Three Men of Destiny is
about Alexander, the great, who invaded India, and Chanakya who helped Candragupta
Maurya in establishing the Mauryan Empire. The novelist describes two stories related to
Alexander and Chandragupta Maurya. However the novel is loose in its structure, Ayyar‘s
efforts are praiseworthy.
D. F. Karaka (1911-1974), a novelist of the pre-independence period is not properly treated.

He has written three novels Just Flesh (1941), There Lay the City (1942) and We Never Die
(1944). But his novels do not show any seriousness of purpose. Still he is considered as, ―one
of the few very popular and widely read Indo-Anglian novelists.‖ His novels deal with the
British life in India. Just Flesh is an interesting story over the conflict between tradition and
modernity. Here the conflict manifests between a father and his son. Ronald, the father
believes in the sanctity of English tradition and conventional morality. His son John, who
belongs to new generation, differs from his father and disregards traditional norms. John‘s
outlook changes remarkably in the liberal, open and enlightened atmosphere of Oxford
University. He believes in socialism and feels pity for the poor. The gulf between the father
and son widens. John‘s father dies unreconciled. Later John falls in love with Phyllis. Even
he enjoys fame and prosperity. John‘s success symbolizes the victory of new generation.
There Lay the City is about the city of Bombay. It is a tragic tale of unfulfilled love of a poor
but beautiful English girl Judy. Her beauty and simplicity fascinate the narrator who knows
that she is a fallen woman. One day when the programme is over the narrator takes her to his
garret. As they sip whisky, Judy tells her past story of love-failure. Her woeful tale touches
the narrator‘s heart and he offers his hand to her. So she visits him. But one day she learns
that he has already married somebody. The plot of the novel is organic. The characters are
real and individualistic. Karaka‘s prose is journalistic and effective. Karaka‘s next novel We
Never Die is set in an Indian village. A stray picture of Indian freedom struggle is shown here
through the eyes of an ignorant villager. Karaka endeavoures to solve the problem of
communalism. Karaka has realistically depicted a simple story with the background of civil
disobedience and non-cooperation movement. Krishnaswamy Nagarajan was another South
Indian English writer. He wrote two novels Athawar House (1937) and Chronicles of
Kednram (1961). Athawar House is a domestic story, set in the pre-independence period. The
story is about a Maratha joint family living in a south Indian village. The family is called
Athawars. The novel covers the history of the family for a period of sixteen years. The
novelist has deftly combined personal and family perspectives in one single picture. He
describes freedom movement too. The Athawars get disturbed, when non-cooperation and
civil disobedience movements take place in the village. A clash takes place between
orthodoxy and modernity. Athawar House depicts the disintegration of joint family system in
India. There is a big list of neglected novelists. Some of them are important, for they have
written fine works. On the contrary, some of them are well-known just for their minor works.
Few of them are K. E. Ghamat, who wrote My Friend the Barrister (1908), a biographical
novel, and Bal Krishna who wrote a social novel Love of Kusuma (1910) in which Kusuma‘s
love and marriage with Mohan is the central theme. Other novels of the period are B. K.
Sarkar‘s Man of Letters (1911) (a social novel), R. P. De‘s Mother and Daughter (1923) (a
domestic novel) and Sir Hari Singh Gour‘s His Only Love (1930), (a satire on the blind
imitation of western ideals). Others include R. C. Chattopadhyaya, who wrote The Sorrows of
a Sub-Post Master (1932), N. C. Sen Gupta who wrote The Idiot’s Wife (1935), H. Kaveribai
who wrote Meenakshi’s Memories, A Novel of Christian Life in South India (1937), Shankar
Ram who wrote Love of Dust (1938), C. N. Zutshi who wrote Motherland (1944) and Manjeri
S. Isvaran, who wrote five volumes of short stories, Necked Shingles (1941), Shiva Ratri
(1943), Angry Dust (1944), Rikshazvwala (1946) and Fancy Tales (1947). Yet most of these
works are not serious.
The Second Generation Novelists:
The novels written by the second-generation writers are more modern and realistic, dealing
with the problems of men and women passing through several revolutionary changes. The
novels in the previous era were mainly concerned with the external aspects of society and
little with exteriorization of the inner landscape of human psyche.
R. K. Narayan (1906-2001), a south Indian started his career as a novelist in the year 1935
by publishing his first novel Swami and Friends. R. K. Narayan‘s first novel Swami and
Friends looks like a collection of essays about friendship and childhood enmities. It deals
with the story of a grand cricket tournament of South Indian boys, who were playing on a
strip of ground adjoining someone‘s bungalow. But the boys are driven out by the next batch
of intruders. Here Narayan immortalizes his school and college days. R. K. Narayan‘s novels
have a co-relation between life and art. This is the reason why he is not merely a writer of
childhood franks. He examines life in its bare details. He fills his novels with funny, sad,
absurd, tender, holy and eccentric emotions. His works depict life and death. Some of it is
autobiographical. R. K. Narayan‘s The Financial Expert (1952) is a tale of Margayya‘s
miserable life. It remains in the history of Indian English literature as an everlasting work of
art, because Narayan has shown a keen interest in his technique of individualizing and
personalizing the theme of ―Dubious alliance of money and affection.‖ Margayya‘s desire for
money and his ruthlessness in business are unforgettable. There are a lot of similarities
between The Financial Expert and The Vendor of Sweets (1967). The hero of the latter, Jagan
is like Margayya. Jagan is immensely practical and committed. But his son Mali, who goes
abroad to become a writer fails to understand his father. Here Narayan gives the picture of
father, son and daughter-in-law relationships. The novel is full of native humour.
R. K. Narayan‘s The Bachelor of Arts (1936) is the story of his personal experiences as an
English teacher. It depicts the life of an Indian youth during his college days. The hero of the
novel Chandran after completing his B. A. decides to go to England for a doctorate degree.
There he falls in love with a girl. But he does not marry her, as his parents do not agree.
Finally his frustration makes him a sanyasi. Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) is a classic. It
narrates the story of Gandhian influence on rural life in India. The novel bears a comparison
with Raja Rao‘s Kantapura (1936). The central idea is Gandhi‘s appeal for non-violence. R.
K. Narayan‘s The Dark Room (1935) is about the unhappy life of a woman Savitri, who has
three children. She is ill-treated by her husband. Savitri faces a number of problems in the
rigid society.
R. K. Narayan‘s The Guide (1958) is one of the popular novels. The novel is about the hero
Raju‘s elevation to sainthood. The Guide is a romantic novel, but the end of it has a
philosophic bearing. Narayan‘s The English Teacher (1945), Mr. Sampat (1949), My
Dateless Diary (1960),
The Man Eaters of Malgudi (1961), The Painter of Signs (1967), A Tiger of Malgudi (1983),
The World of Nagraj (1990) and others came later focusing upon various social aspects of
Indian life.
R. K. Narayan‘s characters are ordinary, stupid, queer and simple. However, with the touch
of irony and light humour, he immortalizes them. He is the writer of both the pre and post-
independence period. He is the only writer whose literary career has been spread over sixty
years from 1935 to 2001. Mulk Raj Anand (1905- 2004), R. K. Narayan and Raja Rao started
their career more or less in the same period. But they are different from each other as to their
literary approaches and objectives. Mulk Raj Anand is a humanist. He has a deep intellectual
concern for humanity.
Mulk Raj Anand has written more than thirty books, which include novels and books of
short stories. His major novels are Untouchable (1935), Coolie (1936), Two Leaves and a
Bud (1937), Village (1939), Across the Black Waters (1940), The Big Heart (1945), The
Seven Summers (1951) and Sword and Sickle (1955).
Mulk Raj Anand‘s Untouchable narrates one day in the life of Bakha, an introspective young
sweeper who lives in outcastes‘ colony in a small cantonment town in north India. In a way it
is a critique of society exposing social evils like hypocrisy, bigotry and casteism. Bakha, the
hero represents the downtrodden class of Indian society. In those days the upper caste Hindus
thought that sweepers were dirty. This reminds the lives of chimney sweepers of the
Victorian society. Bakha desires for education but his teachers do not like to teach the
outcastes. It is a popular belief that if an upper caste Hindu touches outcaste students, he will
be polluted. So socially Bakha is handicapped. In fact, thousands of Bakha-like characters
achieve nothing significant in their lives. They end their lives in ditch where they have been
born. Mulk Raj Anand presents Bhaka as a social victim. Though he is a saver of men, he is
seen as a killer. Anand‘s treatment of the downtrodden is realistic and the novel is considered
a powerful documentation of the downtrodden.
Anand‘s Coolie is about the inhuman exploitation of the poor. The novel has a multi-
dimensional philosophy. It ―relates a series of adventures in picturesque manner, only
the hero is no rogue, but himself the victim of the world‘s rogueries.‖ The novel focuses on
Munoo. Munoo‘s life is the life of India‘s millions of starving souls, who are beaten, insulted
and treated as beasts in several social occasions.
Mulk Raj Anand‘s Two Leaves and a Bud is again about oppression. It is the story of
Gangu, a Punjabi peasant. After his effort for work in Amritsar, Gangu goes to Assam‘s tea
estate as a labour. Still he fails there. His wife dies of cholera. Gangu requests the manager of
that estate for a loan for his wife‘s funeral. But the manager does not help him. Gangu‘s
daughter Laila becomes the victim of the Manager‘s lust. Thus Two Leaves and a Bud is a
story of the oppressors and the oppressed. For some time the novel was banned in India and
Britain. Mulk Raj Anand‘s The Village is about a Punjabi boy-hero Lai Singh. The hero has
studied till eighth standard and he is a defender of progressive elements. Across the Black
Waters is the second of a trilogy. The hero of the novel Lalu, a British soldier fights against
the Germans. The writer has depicted Lalu‘s observation of the farmers‘ progressive
agriculture and the role of co-operative banks in French society. Mulk Raj Anand‘s The
Sword and Sickle is a continuation of Lalu‘s story. As he returns home from battlefield Lalu
decides to work as a farmer. But everything is tipsy-turvy. His beloved mother is dead, his
property is auctioned and he has lost even his home. The novel ends in a note of despair.
Anand‘s The Big Heart shows his concern for a completely different problem. The novel
depicts the problems of working class people.
Raja Rao is one of the popular novelists‘ today. Of course, he is known more as a post-
independence novelist. He has written five novels Kantapura (1936), The Serpent and the
Rope (1960), Tlw Cat and Shakespeare (1965), Comrade Kirillov (1976) and Tlw
Chessmaster and his Moves (1988). Kantapura is his only pre-independence novel published
in 1936.
Raja Rao‘s first novel Kantapura is based on a folk tradition. It exploits the stream of
consciousness technique and dramatic monologue. The old grandmother goes on narrating
her experience of the freedom struggle of the 1930s and 40s. This is the story of Gandhian
era. She speaks of her village Kantapura in the old Mysore state. One can understand the
nature of Gandhi‘s influence on such a village then. The novel is compared with K. A.
Abbas‘s Inquilab (1949), where the readers are told of the Congress‘s major political
activities during freedom movement. The events like Dandi March, Civil Disobedience,
Satyagraha, Round Table Conferences and Nehru‘s social programmes are depicted.
Kantapura throws ample light upon the social structure of a preindependence Indian village.
Moorthy, the hero of the novel, is a young man of noble qualities. He has discontinued his
education for the national cause. The villagers worship Mahatma Gandhi as lord Krishna. For
the folks Moorthy is an incarnation of Gandhi. Moorthy is Kanthapura‘s Mahatma. He
launches the freedom campaign in the village by taking out a procession to toddy groves to
offer Satyagrah there. But the innocent, unarmed Satyagrahis become the victims of police
atrocity. The presentation of contemporary issues is so real in the novel that it could be called
a mirror of the age. In other words Kantapura is best known for its classic foreword, which
reads like a manifesto for the practice of Indian writing in English. Many critics have
appreciated the novel.
Bhabani Bhattacharya (1906-88) hails from Bihar. Like Raja Rao and K. A. Abbas, he is an
experimentalist. He has, in his writings, discussed the themes of fascism, casteism, famine
and freedom movement. Bhabani Bhattacharya started his writing when India was passing
through a momentous phase in her history. The whole of India was in the final phase of
freedom movement. But there was an unending hunger in Bengal. If physical hunger of
Bengal engulfed more than two million men, women and children, the emotional and political
hunger swallowed the whole nation. So these heart-breaking incidents moved the novelist
often provoking him to write. Bhabani Bhattacharya says, ―A novel must have a
social purpose. It must place before the
reader something from the society‘s point of view. Art is not necessarily for art‘s sake.
Purposeless art and literature that is much in vogue does not appear to me as some
judgment.‖28 Bhabani Bhattacharya‘s So Many Hungers! (1947) is a document on great
historical draught in the West Bengal. It is unfortunate that the Sahitya Academy did not
recognize the novelist of such remarkable achievement even after twenty years of its
publication. Bhabani Bhattacharya wrote many more novels like Music for Mohini (1952), He
Who Rides the Tiger (1954), A Goddess Named Gold (1960), Shadow from Ladakh, (1966)
and A Dream in Hawaii (1975). So Many Hunger is the story of Bengal famine where people
die in thousands. The theme of national movement and famine are vividly combined. The
World War Second, evils of urbanization and population explosion are successfully
delineated. The novel deals with two Bengali families —one of them extremely rich and the
other extremely poor. The irony is that these two families are related to each other by
matrimonial alliance. The novelist delves upon the story of a helpless peasant family. The
heroine Kajoli faces many hardships throughout her life. Kajoli‘s father and elder brother are
already in jail as a consequence of their participation in national movement. Kajoli is married
to a young man who for sometime stayed with her family. When the whole village is famine-
stricken, Kajoli‘s husband goes in search of a job. Unfortunately he is killed in a railway
accident. As the family members are unaware of the tragedy, they think that he is still alive
somewhere. When the young man left the house, Kajoli was five months pregnant. Now
Kajoli, her mother and a little brother leave for the city of Calcutta for the sake of earning a
living.
Khushwanth Sing is a popular journalist and a bilingual writer of modern India. He is

considered a novelist of ‗Partition theme.‘ Though his Train to Pakistan, (1956) is published
in the post-independence period, it deals with the theme of pre-independence era. The
novelist exposes the downfall of Indian values in it. Train to Pakistan is a poignant story of
the tragedy of Punjab happenings, when the people were seized by mad communal frenzy. It
is a kind of warning to the young that they must guard themselves against being engulfed by
the madness of communalism. His achievement lies in his detached way of narrating a story.
His Train to Pakistan besides being the story of partition is a story of Jugga‘s love for a
Muslim weaver‘s daughter Nooru. Though the man falls in love with the lady, he is not
destined to live with her. The catastrophe of partition does not allow them live together. The
novel is set in Mano Majra, a village in the Punjab. In fact, Mano Majra was the first title of
the book. The author‘s other novels include I Shall not Hear the Nightingale (1959), Delhi
(1990) and The Company of Women (1999).
Muslim Novelists:
The ‗Swadeshi‘ awareness that began with the event of Sipoy- Mutiny in 1857 went through
a number of phases like Hindu renaissance, Liberalism, Communal Riots, Terrorism, Non-
Cooperation, establishment of Muslim League, Satyagrah, Jalianwala Bag massacre, Dandi
March, Parliamentary elections, ultimately culminating in the achievement of complete
independence on 15th August 1947. In this regard, the contribution of Muslim political
leaders like Ali brothers, Siya Uddin, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, Prof. Ahmed Ali, Sajjad
Jhaheer, the ancestors of K.A. Abbas and several other Muslim intellectuals is of
considerable importance.
Muslim‘s urge for freedom, equality and brotherhood as reflected in their writings is
unquestionable. Except some political leaders like Jinnah, the question of partition was not at
all the question of the common folk. As we know most of these writers hail from the middle
class Muslim families. As far as the aims and objectives of their writings are concerned, they
do not differ much from the Hindu writers of pre-independence period. Really the Hindu
writers did not do any communal discrimination. Similarly Muslim writers have chosen their
themes and characters from both Hindu and Muslim circles. Although there were a few
novels in English by Indian Muslim writers before 1940; interestingly the year 1940 is
marked as the beginning of a new era in the history of Indian writing in English, for it saw the
flowering of English novel at the hands of a couple of Indian Muslim writers. The new era, in
fact, was marshaled by Ahmed Ali‘s magnum opus Twilight in Delhi (1940). James Trevor
remarks that Ahmed Ali ―laid the foundation for a new modest literary tradition in English
with his first novel Twilight in Delhi.” He further states that Ahmed Ali ―had shown the way
to new writers in English.‖33 Ahmed Ali was recognized as the first Muslim novelist and his
first novel was rated a classic in Indian English literature. As a pioneer novelist, he was able
to attract the attention of the English-reading public. Interestingly, M. K. Naik brought all the
Indian Muslim novelists under one category of which Ahmed Ali heads the list. He considers
the rise of Indian English Muslim writers after 1940, as ―an interesting literary phenomenon‖
and he calls it ―the rise of the ethnic novels.‖ The prominent Indian English Muslim novelists
of the preindependence period are Ahmed Ah, K. A. Abbas, Humayun Kabir, Aamir Ali,
Attia Hosain and Iqbalunnisa Hussain. Although India‘s partition culminated in the migration
of some of the Indian Muslim writers, they are still considered as Indians because they were
bom in India. Hence, the term, ‗Indian Muslims‘ means those Muslim writers who were born
in India and belong to the Muslim community. Interestingly, Ahmed Ali and Aamir Ali opted
for Pakistan as their home, after partition, and became Pakistani nationals. Whereas, the other
novelists lived in India. The present thesis attempts a detailed study of all the six prominent
Muslim novelists.
Ahmed Ali (1910-1994) was an Indian bom Pakistani nationalist. He was also the father of
modem Pakistani literature, an epoch making poet, critic, novelist and educationist. He
started his career as a poet and soon found his expression in short story and novel. He has
written three
novels Twilight in Delhi, Ocean of Night and Rats and Diplomats. Ahmed Ali lived for more
than eighty years and enriched both Indian and Pakistani English literature.
K.A. Abbas was a prolific journalist, novelist and film scriptwriter of the pre-and post-
independence Indian English literature. He was a contemporary of Ahmed Ah, Raja Rao and
Mulk Raj Anand. He started his career as a journalist but later on, he went through various
other channels of communication like film, theatre movement and public speeches. Abbas
was a great nationalist, orator and a close friend of Pandit Javaharlal Nehm. He lived as an
Indian and died in India. He was multilingual and wrote in Urdu, Hindi and English. He was
greatly influenced by O. Henry, Pearl Buck, Hemingway, Premchand and Mahatma Gandhi.
He was honoured by a number of awards like Padmashree (1985) and Indo-Soviet Award.
Humayun Kabir is a minor Muslim novelist with a major work of art. His writings deal with
the changes in the middle class Muslim society. For instance, his Men and Rivers is about the
political turmoil in East-Bengal.
Aamir Ali is a contemporary of Ahmed AH. He is one of the important Muslim novelists of
the pre-independence India. He too has written much about the Hindu world. For instance, his
novel Conflict is about a Hindu village boy Shankar who can be compared with Munoo of
Mulk Raj Anand‘s Coolie. Amir AH‘s other works are Via Geneva and Assignment in
Kashmir.
Attia Hosain is the first pre-independence Muslim woman writer in English. She was known
for her national pohtics. She criticized British Government for its poHcy of divide and rule.
This is seen in her novel Sunlight on a Broken Column. Her novel deals with the event of
partition and its evil impact. O. P. Mathur observes, ―Attia Hosain portrays national politics
as it affects family and divides it between those who go to Pakistan and those who stay on.‖
Iqbalunnisa Hussain is the last Indian English Muslim woman novelist of the pre-
independence period. She has written the novel Purdah and Polygamy, where she protests
against the Muslim tradition of wearing purdah. According to her it is an excuse for
suppressing women.
CASTE-CLASS
Every civilization whether it is ancient, medieval or modern restructures its society in a
particular pattern. In each civilization stratified society appeared in one form or the other for
example masters and slaves, feudal lords and serfs, capitalists and proletariats etc. Thus it
cannot be denied that the possibility of absence of any stratification in any society is almost
absent. Societies are stratified on the basis of caste, class, status, income groups etc. In India
one can find social stratification in the form of caste which is based on the birth of the
individual in a particular family belonging to a particular caste. The word ―Caste‖ originates
from the Spanish word ‗Casta‘ which means ‗breed, race, or kind.‘ The Portuguese used this
word to refer the different classes of people in India who are also known by the name of
‗jati‘. The English word ‗Caste‘ is an adjustment of the original term ‗Casta.‘
In Indian context, the first literary traces of the caste system could be found in Rigveda and
Pursasukta hymn. Bhagavad Gita, the sacred hindu religious scripture, justified the caste
system on the basis of the idea of Guna Karma (deed/actions) and Dharma (Religion). During
the age of Simritis and Sutras, the Indian society had been divided into various castes. Strict
principles regarding occupation, food conduct and marriage were framed. These castes
became so diversified that they could not meet together in course of time. The feeling of
untouchability also sprouted which led to emergence of higher caste and lower caste leading
to exploitation and suppression of lower caste by the higher. The term caste is used
interchangeably with other terms like such as Varna, Jati, biradri and samaj. However these
terms are entirely different from each other.
In Indian society, based on ritual purity each caste is given higher or lower rank in the caste
hierarchy. An important but peculiar feature of caste system is that there exist some sort of
relation between economic prosperity and ritual rank in caste hierarchy. It has been observed
that people belonging to higher castes tend to be more prosperous as compared to members of
lower castes as higher castes are allowed to pursue those occupation that are essential and
more profitable whereas as lower castes are allotted demeaning jobs like scavenging,
butchering, leatherworkers etc which are also low paid jobs. As a result, people belonging to
low caste live in abject poverty, misery and face many hardships.
In India from birth to death it is the caste which dominates every sphere of one‘s life whether
social, economic, political or religious. While interpreting the Indian society caste becomes
an important element which cannot be neglected. This caste system cannot be found in other
part of the world though there exist some social and racial differences in one or the other
form in other parts of the world, but the caste system in India is unique one. The uniqueness
lies in the features of caste system like the ritual purity, the concept of pollution, complexity
of castes, elaboration and rigidity.
CLASS
Class refers to a status group in a society. Here status indicates economic prosperity. Thus
Class is a person‘s economic position in a society. If an individual is having good education,
receiving handsome salary, owns palatial house and vehicle of a particular brand is regarded
as an elite class where as a person who neither has no land of his own, no earning source nor
owns any vehicle is regarded as lower class. Thus the economic prosperity defines a person‘s
class. The word Class has been defined in numerous ways— For Sociologist class is one of
the fundamental type social stratification. Individuals are grouped into classes according to
their economic positions and similar political interest with in the stratification. Most societies
have their own notion of social class. Marx defined class in term of social group having
control over the means of production. According to Marx society consisted of two classes
capitalist or bourgeois class (those who own means of production) and proletariat class (those
who don‘t own means of production or the labour class). In Max Weber‘s opinion class is not
merely a product of the economic relations in society there are other factors that influences
class like ‗status‘ (the differences between social groups in the social honour or prestige) and
‗party‘(a group of individuals who work together due to the fact that they have common
backgrounds, aims or interests) in society.
In societies where classes exist, a single class is determined by few factors like occupation,
education, income, wealth family background etc. According to VM Dandekar, there are five
major classes in India 1) Pre Capitalist (cultivator, agricultural labour, and household
industry) (2) Independent workers in capitalist society (3) Employers (4) white collar
employees (5) blue collar works. The main classes in India today can also be referred to as
(1) the agrarian classes (2) the industrial classes (3) the professional classes and (5) the
business and mercantile classes. Marx has talked about class antagonism but class harmony
and multiplicity of classes between haves and the have-nots are other important factors that
cannot be ignored. The existence of middle class has not attracted the attention of Marx5.
The rapid growth of Indian economy in the last few decades contributed to a large expansion
of India‘s middle class. The middle class refers to a large group who are neither rich nor poor
but having internal diversities in the form of occupation, income, caste, community and
region. This middle class played an important role in providing leadership to various sections
of the Indian society. The traditional leadership had been displaced by these middle class.
This middle class forms a large consumer base for the market-based economy. Some
important features of Indian middle classes are-they are globally mobile, dwell in urban
places, use the language of modernity and are active participate in the articulations of identity
politics of both the dominant ―majorities‖ and of the ―minorities.‖ Unlike the Western
context, the Indian middle class lacks autonomy. It remains dependent on patronage and
perpetuates the patronage culture6.
Besides the middle class, OBC or Other backward classes play another important role in
political realm. Originally the word ‗Backward Classes‘ was used around 1919 to refer to a
section of population which was backward in socio- economic sense. The term did not limit
itself to the matrix of caste, it encompassed the Depressed Classes, the aboriginal tribes as
well as the other backward classes. The Constitution of India does not clearly defines OBCs.
It only refers to ―socially and educationally backward classes‖. For their
upliftment Constitution has taken several steps. Under Article 340 of the Indian Constitution,
it is obligatory on the part of government to promote the welfare of the OBCs. In 1953, the
Backward Class Commission was appointed. Kaka Kalelkar became its Chairman. The
Commission was given the task of determining the criteria that was to be adopted for
providing concessions to ―socially and educationally backward classes‖. The
Commission was also asked to prepare a list of such socially and educationally backward
classes. The Commission prepared a list of about 2400 castes.
THE NEW INDIAN WOMAN

The names sound feminine enough. Then why does one only hear of men carrying those
double-barreled names? Legend has it that these double-barreled names are the outcome of a
―vardaan‖ from the Gods to two women, Sita and Radha: that their names would
always precede the man‘s. This was because their steadfast loyalty and pure love had raised
them head and shoulders above their communities, even their men, Ram and
Krishna,
respectively. For Krishna had dallied with dozens and married two, but Radha, a married
woman defied home, family and society, to abide by her steadfast love for her Lord.
Sita too proved her mettle, in banwas, in imprisonment, in the agnipariksha and ever after,
to place herself a cut above the Maryada Purushottam, against whose later days and
apparent lust for power, question marks still stand. Yet it was the men who were named
Radhakrishna, Radheshyam, Sitaram or Shivaramakrishna. The issue here is the usurpation,
by the male of the species, of the double-barreled name, which was the vardan of the Gods
for the females of the species.
In earlier times, and often in our times too, men were conscious of the threat of being out
shone by their women. Hence the girls are never christened Sitaram,
Radheshyam orRadhekrishna; only plain Sita or Rama, Radha or Krishna. It is the boys who
get the double appellation.
The oldest cultures saw the woman as the Life giver, the Nurturer. Hence the personification
of earth, nature and the rivers etc. as female deities and the matrilineal communities. At
some juncture, when a crisis erupted when the woman was going through her reproductive
cycle, the Man used his brute physical force to meet the crisis and to take over.
What proof is there that the Cave Woman did not accompany the Cave Man on his hunting
expeditions? Or that Cave Man actually slung Cave Woman over his shoulder to cut short
the wooing process? Except the buffoonery of some Western writers? Where brute force
takes the day. In the Orient, female deities held sway longer - in fact, almost until the
precursors of the Occident arrived, after the Occident had outgrown its own female deities
with the advent of Christianity.
The precursor of the ghunghat was the purdah of Islam, while ancient India celebrated its
women in the carvings of Mohenjadaro and Khajuraho. Now Hindutva choses to opt for
aping Christianity and Islam in imposing uniformity in organized religion, where rather than
reap souls, religious leaders prefer reap real estate riches from their devotees.
In recent times a new Indian woman has emerged. There are two ways of looking at it. The
New Indian woman can be termed a very nebulous creature populating the hyper active
mind of writers only; for there remain to this day millions upon millions of women who
might dress like the new Indian woman but mentally and physically remain steeped in the
post partition era and mentalities.
Or she can be a many splendored creature, super woman, ranging from the ‗done that, seen
that, type of person‘ to a well-rounded personality who combines profession with personal
admirably. It all depends on the spectrum of society you interact with.
The New Indian Woman is in fact a many splendored creature, more educated and aware
than her predecessor, although very large segments of the New Indian Woman seems to be
losing out on the massive store we have as heritage. This is because parents, more especially
mothers, push daughters towards careers so vigorously that earlier ‗feminine‘ arts such as
embroidery, knitting, cooking, more temperate housekeeping, even child and health care is
left by the wayside as women climb rapidly up the career ladder. Housekeeping becomes
cursory or relegated to a housekeeper who is also a professional, a career woman perhaps
lower down the ladder than the corporate executive whose house she looks after. But then,
the housekeeper too is a new Indian woman.
So it is, that you win some, you lose some for the New Indian Woman who scales new
heights, crashing through all the glass ceilings. More than the urban woman whose heights
were scaled even before Partition and regularly thereafter, in today‘s India, it is the rural
woman who is more deserving of the New Indian Woman categorization.
Statistics confirm that the number of families headed by women is rising dramatically,
especially in the rural areas. And thousands of women are making their mark in panchayats
and other local self-government bodies and organizations across the country working at the
grass roots levels, with startling results.
Another aspect is the New Indian woman depicted in media, especially electronic media and
films‘generally a more feather headed person than may be actually the case. In the current
crop of serials, the New Indian Woman comes across very sorry. Tulsi and Parvati are
hardly new Indian women, for all their glamorous homes, they are as hectoring as any old
time Nanador Sasuma, and as regressive.
But for all the hectoring and the ruling that the women do, they will still do the perfunctory
know-towing to the male and forgive them all their sins, although each and every single
digression of the woman becomes an earth shattering event for the entire joint family.
Rare is the woman in any of those popular soaps ever does anything except dress to kill;
even a supposedly professional like Prerna is never seen working as one, although she does
dare to take on issues as rapid-fire marriages and divorces and recently, rape and marital
differences. A symbol like Jassi, despite her hi-fi career and transformation remains a
creature of her father, and then family, rather than her own.
Unfortunately producers are still rather shy of translating literary works into films, serials or
plays. Heroine oriented, author backed roles are a rarity. I cannot recall a recent example,
beyond Parineeta. Before the K serials of the Ekta Kapoor‘s society women genre inundated
TV, there was a very interesting series that translated short stories into single episode short
TV plays. Some of them brought out the strengths of women much more powerfully than
any of the big names in the K soaps. But if I recall correctly, again most were nostalgic
rather than contemporary.
Feminism may be big headlines and page three chatter; but hard-core feminism where
women think like women, not like men, is still struggling for a voice.
Novels would undoubtedly make an impact, if they managed to get read in the first place.
Perhaps in the smaller towns and campuses, where reading has not yet gone out of fashion
novels are devoured with some appetite.
In elite circles, it is no longer fashionable to read. And if anyone does read, it is totally
incomprehensible for everyone why anyone should read an Indian author, except may be a
Shobha De or Jhumpa Lahiri?
Big-ticket authors find a wide readership. Those who come via an NRI tag enjoy an edge, no
doubt. But the impact is limited to much the same elite circles that produce that limited
edition of the New Indian woman who populates the soap operas on TV.
Who or what constructs this media image, or what are some of the factors that contributes to
this construction?
Unfortunately the construction of the New Indian Woman, who is publicly projected, has
been left more in the hands of persons who are out of touch with the reality of most of India.
Writers of plays and serials and films today, even the more popular pulp fiction which finds
publishers easily, are by and large persons from upper middles or plain wealthy homes,
whose exposure to the Other India outside their world of internet cafes, international rock
shows, malls, multiplexes and foreign holidays is very limited. That is why perhaps that
their characters act very out-of-character as women from homes other than those that are
super rich.
Hence even so-called middle class heroines wear designer outfits and make up and are very
rapidly propelled into the hundreds of crores category. Their concerns are rarely down to
earth at all. Has anyone seen any really good middle class serial in the mould of Humlog or
film like Chitchor or Gharonda in recent times? Has anyone seen a serial heroine dressed
like the ordinary woman on the street in any of our non-metropolis or if not actually working
professionally or at least keeping house like any normal ‗real life‘ woman?
Even writers, it is rather depressing to note, quickly hark back to early, post independence
eras for a middle class touch, while most recent writing is devoted to multiplex ma‘ams and
their counterparts from smaller towns.
Chhote ghar ke log or chhote gaon ke log are a subject of derision, rather than an
exploration of their emotions, problems, issues. Glamour, it is felt, sells and everyone goes
all out for that glamour, and literature be damned. Kal kisne dekha? Is the attitude. For the
big city slick writer, the new woman is a combination of the people he knows, is familiar
with, therefore easier to depict in words or pictures.
It is ironic that modern Indian English writers often write in the nostalgic mode. Should it be
interpreted that modern writers do not find too much worth writing about the modern miss.
Or that the modern miss is already nostalgic about the past when she was not a cutting edge,
gizmo driven DINK?
Apart from the nostalgia segment, we have an imitation of the west, whether it is post-
Harold Robbins sex driven novels or the Harry Potter imitations. Where is the New Indian
woman in these?
She scores, if at all, in the short story genre and in the regional languages. India is a vast
country with countless talents waiting to tell their tales. Whenever they get the chance, they
present a smorgasbord of the Indian woman‘s experience in all her harrowing variety.
Humor is usually in short supply.
Writing in English does give the writer a snob value when interacting with readers of
regional literature. Inversely, regional writers do often display an inverse snobbery when
meeting writers in English‘ were in touch with the real India, tum to angrez ki juthan ho;
sort of unspoken vibes are common.
In some ways, one may be tempted to accept the New Indian Woman is a political
construction, viewed from the point of view as politics being relationships of power at all
levels of society, and not just as government or party politics.
Writers sculpt this female political construction with an agenda dictated in very many cases,
through suitable veils, by the presiding deities in India today, the political parties and the
Sangh Parivar. Those who are aware of the nuances can recognize the guiding hand quite
easily.
The day has yet to come when Woman Power will be truly womanpower and not a creature
of its author. There are very few women who think like a woman and move forward. All too
frequently, they succumb to that admonish ‗ think like a man‘. Remember that famous quip
about Indira Gandhi being the only Man in her cabinet. If women continue down that path
already beaten by men, how will they ever bring the world back from the brinks that Men
have brought it to?
I realized that at times the literary world tends to get so heavily dominated by male voices
that it is easy to neglect female voices that inhabit it. And while this felt true for the entire
world over, the reality cut a little too close for comfort when I thought about female Indian
authors.
This neglect still exists today and is worrying, not only because it distorts our sense of India‘s
critical literary landscape, but also because it deprives us of the rich range of work by women
authors that exists out there, impoverishing our literary appetites. It has a real impact on
women‘s lives too – in the way women‘s stories are silenced by a popular culture that
prioritizes male narratives. This silencing obviously sends out a message, a message that says
women‘s stories aren‘t as worthwhile. Male stories are the norm. Women‘s stories are the
other.
This list is an attempt to disrupt this status quo. Here‘s an exhaustive list of Indian women
writers, in no particular order of preference or genre who have contributed immensely to the
country‘s literary scene, and who deserve to be recognized for their vision, their fearlessness,
their originality, and the barriers they broke in the literary world and beyond. Some of the
famous Indian writers:
Anita Desai
Arundhati Roy
Shashi Deshpande
Kiran Desai
Shobhaa De
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni
Jhumpa Lahiri
Manju Kapur
Nayantara Sahgal
Kamala Markandaya
UNIT –II POETRY
THE HARP OF INDIA

-HENRY DEROZIO
Why hang‘st thou lonely on yon withered bough?

Unstrung forever, must thou there remain;
Thy music once was sweet - who hears it now?
Why doth the breeze sigh over thee in vain?
Silence hath bound thee with her fatal chain;
Neglected, mute, and desolate art thou,
Like ruined monument on desert plain:
O! Many a hand more worthy far than mine
Once thy harmonious chords to sweetness gave,
And many a wreath for them did Fame entwine
Of flowers still blooming on the minstrel‘s grave:
Those hands are cold - but if thy notes divine
May be by mortal wakened once again,
Harp of my country, let me strike the strain!
Summary:
This is one of the most iconic poems of Derozio. In the first glance it might be just read as
any other fourteen line poem, but the inclusion of the words ‗Harp‘ and ‗India‘ stimulate us
to delve deeper into the contents of the poem. ‗Harp‘ is a musical instrument mostly endemic
to Ireland in the past two or three centuries, so how does it relate with a colonized country (in
Derozio‘s time) like India? Also, the inclusion of the word ‗India‘ as a seemingly separate
independent unit in pre-independent era is indicative of much more than what is visible or
apparently comprehensible. It also must be taken into account here that Derozio was of Indo-
Portuguese origin, and the usage of ‗India‘ in such a prominent manner can only indicate that
not only did Derozio take India as his home country but was also concerned about the
shackled state of India under the dominion of the British and along with it the hope that the
music of India be restored and her dignity and glory be strung again.
In India, the ‗Harp‘ was the first musical instrument played by the Tamil people around 200
BC, as documented by the Sangam Literature. Bearing this strain of thought we might also
relate that Derozio has used ‗Harp‘ as a means to portray the rich and varied culture and
traditions that India possessed and which were now being supressed by the British raj. The
poet seems to echo the reverberations likewise in the 3rd line ―Thy music once was sweet-
who hears it now?‖, implying that the rule of the British was actually a foil to India‘s own
native heritage and the rhythm and music of such a rich tradition has been subdued if not
completely erased.
There can be other speculations as to why Derozio has used ‗Harp‘ and not any other
instrument in its place. Bengal itself had a very interesting ‗harp‘ culture in its past. There are
numerous instances of carved harps in the temple reliefs of Bengal dating back to before A.D.
500, but then the questions as to whether Derozio was privy about this or not. This is left to
speculation itself.
‗Harp‘ was one of the most important musical instruments of Derozio‘s country of origin.
The Arpa Juan Lopez harp played an important role in Portugal from the 16th - 18th century.
This harp was used in the churches for religious ceremonies and discourse related events.
Since Derozio himself was partly of Portugese origin, can the ‗harp‘ mean a projection of his
origin?
This poem can be read as a Sonnet but it errs from the conventional sonnets with a rhyme
skeme of ‗a-b-a-b-b-a-b-c-d-c-d-c-b-b‘ (we will come back to this later in the analysis) and
the poem begins with a question ―Why hang‘st thou lonely on yon withered bough?‖,
but why does the poet begin with a question? During Derozio‘s times the British had
completely colonised not only the physical being of the Indians but also the mental
capabilities of the Indian natives were kept in shackles. This situation is adequately portrayed
by Derozio in this opening line as questions were oft thought of but never expressed due to
the fear of the Britishers. This single line portrays the psyche of a native Indian who has been
both physically and mentally colonised by the Britishers and Derozio at the same time is
questioning through the same confines of the same line as to the causes for such a mental
colonization too.
In the question ―Why hang‘st thou lonely on yon withered bough?‖ - ‗thou‘ can be
interpreted in a dual version, if we relate it with the title of the poem it seems that ‗thou‘ is
being referred to a harp which is hanging from a shrivelled tree branch. This ‗thou‘ can also
be interpreted as a personification of the Indian natives who are being ‗hang‘st‘ by the British
in ‗withered‘ India.
The entire constitution of the poem is an evolutionary process from being listless and gloomy
to a gradual forceful build-up of yanking the causes of gloom away and replacing it by
fervour and optimism for making things better. The usage of the words ‗lonely‘, ‗withered‘,
‗unstrung forever‘; indicate a gloomy opening as the poet engages us to visualise an image of
a neglected harp hanging on an almost dead tree branch. We are forced to consider and
ponder the future of this listless harp ―Why is this harp left unstrung? Can this
abandoned harp sing again?
We can almost feel a sense of opprobrium emanating from the poet as he visualizes this
hang‘st harp and it seems that the poet has hung his head in dismay and states
―unstrung forever, must thou there remain.‖ He continues through his reproachful broodings
and conveys to us that this instrument was a harbinger of sweet melodies but, now that
it is
‗unstrung‘ the melodies are dormant; even the breeze soughs over it unable to wake the harp
from its stupor. One can easily imagine a young lad of age twenty approximately staring up a
gulmohar and seeing the rusted old unstrung harp on the upper boughs and longing for its
music to echo in the meandering passages of the oreille. There is a sense of concern while at
the next instance there is a strong sense of ire in the poet when he says ―who hears it now‖.
The poet in order to convey both these contrasting emotions in a justifiable manner has used a
hyphen. The shift from concern to ire is through the hyphen.
In lines 5th ―7th line there is a shift in setting of the poem and the poet has used imagery
modifications and metaphor depictions and personification technique to emphasis the
continuation of the thought that he wants to project. ―Silence hath bound thee with her
fatal
chain;‖ The ‗thee‘ in this line is obviously a continuation of the ‗thou´ of the 1st line and it
points to the same harp, but the point of interest here is the ‗Silence‘ and ‗her‘ words.
‗Silence‘ is definitely a personification if we consider collaborating the meaning of ‗her‘ in
the same line. The poet has intended to show that ‗Silence‘ is a female entity (due to the
personal pronoun of ‗her‘ being used) binding the harp to almost its death. It can also be
stated that Derozio could easily have used the word ‗Death‘ instead of using ‗Silence‘ as the
way he projects the harp in the previous lines seems that the Harp is dead but the usage of the
‗silence‘ has changed the perspective that the harp is just not making its presence felt instead
of completely being non-existent. The feelings of a small amount of stirring hope can be seen
in Derozio through the mere utterance of this word. The death-like silence has neglected and
muted the harp (6th line) and made it as useless as a ―ruined monument‖ (7th line) in a
desert. This imagery of the harp being in a similar state to ruins in a desert has three
inferences regarding its past, present, and future states. Derozio seems to indicate that there
was a loss of a glorious past (―ruins‖), a miserable present, and an uncertain future.
From the 8th line onwards we find a shift in the focal point of the poem; it has now shifted
from the ‗unstrung‘ harp to the strummers and singers of the harp. There is also a shift in the
poet‘s attitude as well. The poet seems conscious of a difference. For the harp, not for the
ruin, however, there is a future as there is a strong possibility of the mute instrument‘s
regaining its power once able hands touch its strings. And Derozio waits eagerly for the
arrival of poets empowered to sing the song of India. Few readers will miss the poet‘s real
purpose. The harp that he directs our attention to is the immediate and the particular but more
important than the single ―lonely‖ harp is the miserable state of India bent double under
the burden of slavery. In the first seven lines of his sonnet, Derozio underscores his
unhappiness and displeasure and he, in a way, rebukes all Indians who have accepted their lot
meekly and forgotten the past glory of their motherland, but from the 8th line onwards there
is complete note of optimism in d poem.
Derozio laments that the fact the in the desolate times of India, there is no significant poet to
ignite the zeal and positivity to the native Indians. The poet shifts from the instrument to the
strummers i.e. the great poets who once transfixed the listeners with their poetic brilliance.
Their hands ―more worthy far‖ than his own, says Derozio, modestly, had struck at
the
―harmonious chords‖ in the past and the harp had then produced notes powerful enough to
both enliven listeners and confer on the poets a kind of immortality.
In colonized India, there was great requirement to instill the confidence in the natives against
the British rulers. The poets of the past were all departed but if there was any chance that the
harp could again be restrung and the musical notes could again be played then Derozio
himself wants to take up the onus for such a revival. Never once in this poem does he say that
he is specially gifted for such a revival but nonetheless he wants to strike the strain again.
There is almost a great urgency portrayed by the poet to ignite this revival and the poet seems
impatient to release India from its bound form. This is shown from the use of the exclamation
after the end line. Therefore we find a plethora of emotions and aspirations that the poet has
portrayed through the medium of the words used and the case markings used. Just as the
thoughts in our brains seem to jump to the next, Derozio has also carefully aligned to the
same by overlapping two similar image settings having the same strain of gloomy thought
â€‖ firstly, the unstrung harp on a withered bough and secondly, the desert ruins.
The analogy of the workings a determined brain can be read from the mere reading of the
poem (and not due to the established fact that the poem is a sonnet whose basic
characteristics are raising the issue in the first part of the poem and presenting the solution in
the second half). Derozio was responsible for the Young Bengal Movement which published
journals to ignite the Bengal Renaissance. This movement established a band of free radical
thinkers (known as Derozians). The Young Bengals were inspired and excited by the spirit of
free thought and revolt against the existing social and religious structure of Hindu society. A
number of Derozians were attracted to the Brahmo Samaj movement much later in life when
they had lost their youthful fire and excitement. The poem completely iterates the ideals of
this movement and likewise iterates the determination that Derozio sought to abolish the
mental subjugation of the natives.
There are two parallel portrayals of the same thought projected in this poem as is quite
evident through the lines. The first portrayal is of loss of culture and heritage of India under
the British rule as a result of which the native Indians have lost their existence and
surrendered both mentally and physically to their colonial masters and the need of a leader to
reinstate the belief in the Indians, therefore we find political overtones. The second portrayal
is of the loss of passionate and determined poets who could ignite the readers in action
through their fiery words, therefore we find overtones of the lack of creativeness that has
engulfed India in the era of suppression. Collectiveness of both these overtones converges
and leads us to belief that the purpose of Derozio writing this poem was not merely for
publication status; instead he was in search of greater and lofty conclusions.
The poem is in a sonnet form with the rhyme skeme of ‗a-b-a-b-b-a-b-c-d-c-d-c-b-b‘. This
rhyming scheme differs from both the Shakespearean sonnet form as well as the Petrarchan
sonnet form. Dante‘s sonnet form and even the Occitan Sonnet and the Spenserian Sonnet
forms bears little or no resemble to the rhyming scheme that Derozio has introduced in this
sonnet. Another very striking feature that one can decipher in this poem is that he
conventional sonnet divisions of octave and sestet (Petrarchan Sonnets) or the couplet
(Shakespearean Sonnet) is not been attuned to. Instead Derozio seems to have divided this
poem into two parts of seven lines each. Though the intention of projecting the problem and
then giving the solution in the second part is identical to that of a Petrarchan sonnet; the
difference lies in the number of lines devoted to each. Therefore, is it culpable to suggest that
this sonnet was has been founded and propounded by Derozio himself?
While Derozeo‘s language is reminiscent of Byron and Moore, his ardent love for his
country, his passion for social reform and his tender and courageous humanity, are
inventively his own. Even on his death bed, he did not lose either his equanimity of his brave
faith. Like Donne, Derozio faces the awful mystery of death challengingly, triumphantly:
―But man‘s eternal energies can make an atmosphere around him, and so take good out
of evil, like the yellow bell That sucks from flowers malignant a sweet treasure tyrant fate!
Thus shall I vanquish thee For out of suffering shall I gather pleasure.‖
The intensity of feeling expressed in The Harp Of India and the poet‘s firm conviction that
his India will one day regain her past glory, leave readers in no doubt that there was nothing
foreign about the poet Henry Louis Vivian Derozio except his name, over which,
unfortunately, he had no control.
TO MY NATIVE LAND
-HENRY DEROZIO
To India - My Native Land is a poem composed by Indian poet Henry Derozio in 1828. It is
one of the most notable works by the Indian poet. The poet was very pained at the fact that
India was under British rule and laments that fact in this poem.
The poet expresses a sense of personal loss in the downfall of his country, India. Addressing
India, the poet says that in the old days, India was worshipped like a deity. Poet wonders
where that glory and splendour have disappeared and regrets the fact that his motherland has
now been reduced to the position of a slave of the British Empire. The author also mentions
that the country has been humiliated and ashamed of herself grovelling in the dust. There was
time when the country soared like an eagle in the skies but now the wings of that great bird
have been clipped and it is chained. The poet has no wreath of flowers to offer the country
but instead, he will dig into the past and will try to sing of some parts of that great history
which is no longer available to the younger generation. The only reward author wants for his
effort is that the country should have a kind wish for the author and the countrymen should
love him
SITA
-TORU DUTT
Three happy children in a darkened room!

What do they gaze on with wide-open eyes?
A dense, dense forest, where no sunbeam pries,
And in its centre a cleared spot.--There bloom
Gigantic flowers on creepers that embrace
Tall trees; there, in a quiet lucid lake
The white swans glide; there, ―whirring from the brake,‖
The peacock springs; there, herds of wild deer race;
There, patches gleam with yellow waving grain;
There, blue smoke from strange altars rises light,
There, dwells in peace, the poet-anchorite.
But who is this fair lady? Not in vain
She weeps,--for lo! at every tear she sheds
Tears from three pairs of young eyes fall
amain,
And bowed in sorrow are the three young heads.
It is an old, old story, and the lay
Which has evoked sad Sîta from the past
Is by a mother sung....‗Tis hushed at
last
And melts the picture from their sight away,
Yet shall they dream of it until the day!
When shall those children by their mother‘s side

Gather, ah me! as erst at eventide?
Summary:
―Sita‖ is a poem told from the perspective of the wife of Rama, hero of the Ramayana,
during one of the many exiles she is forced to endure. From the presence of her children and
the lack of lecherous demon kings, one can assume that this is the second exile, after Rama
has been restored to the throne and relieved of any sort of marital devotion. Though it was
mentioned briefly, in terms of falling in line with the general sense that Dutt‘s work had an
unmistakably British cast to their handling even as she expects her audience to be familiar
with long poems such as the Ramayana
OUR CASUARINA TREE
-TORU DUTT
LIKE a huge Python, winding round and round
The rugged trunk, indented deep with scars,
Up to its very summit near the stars,
A creeper climbs, in whose embraces bound
No other tree could live. But gallantly
The giant wears the scarf, and flowers are hung
In crimson clusters all the boughs among,
Whereon all day are gathered bird and bee;
And oft at nights the garden overflows
With one sweet song that seems to have no close,
Sung darkling from our tree, while men repose.
When first my casement is wide open thrown

At dawn, my eyes delighted on it rest;
Sometimes, and most in winter,—on its crest
A gray baboon sits statue-like alone
Watching the sunrise; while on lower boughs
His puny offspring leap about and play;
And far and near kokilas hail the day;
And to their pastures wend our sleepy cows;
And in the shadow, on the broad tank cast
By that hoar tree, so beautiful and vast,
The water-lilies spring, like snow enmassed.
But not because of its magnificence

Dear is the Casuarina to my soul:
Beneath it we have played; though years may roll,
O sweet companions, loved with love intense,
For your sakes, shall the tree be ever dear.
Blent with your images, it shall arise
In memory, till the hot tears blind mine eyes!
What is that dirge-like murmur that I hear

Like the sea breaking on a shingle-beach?
It is the tree‘s lament, an eerie speech,
That haply to the unknown land may
reach.
Unknown, yet well-known to the eye of faith!

Ah, I have heard that wail far, far away
In distant lands, by many a sheltered bay,
When slumbered in his cave the water-wraith
And the waves gently kissed the classic shore
Of France or Italy, beneath the moon,
When earth lay trancèd in a dreamless swoon:
And every time the music rose,—before
Mine inner vision rose a form sublime,
Thy form, O Tree, as in my happy prime
I saw thee, in my own loved native clime.
Therefore I fain would consecrate a lay

Unto thy honor, Tree, beloved of those
Who now in blessed sleep for aye repose,
— Dearer than life to me, alas, were they!
Mayst thou be numbered when my days are done
With deathless trees—like those in Borrowdale,
Under whose awful branches lingered pale
―Fear, trembling Hope, and Death, the skeleton,
And Time the shadow;‖ and though weak the verse
That would thy beauty fain, oh, fain rehearse,
May Love defend thee from Oblivion‘s curse.
Summary:
The poem begins with the description of the tree. The poet says that the creeper has wound
itself round the rugged trunk of the Casuarina Tree, like a huge Python. The creeper has left
deep marks on the trunk of the tree. The tree is so strong that it bears the tight hold of the
creeper. The tree is described as being gallant, and possibly brave, as very few trees could
survive in the strangle-hold of this creeper. The poet then goes on to describe the life that
thrives amidst every facet of the tree. The tree is metaphorical said as a giant due to its huge
size, strength and boldness. The Casuarina Tree is covered with creeper which bears red
crimson flowers which appear as though the tree is wearing a colorful scarf. Often at night,
the garden echoes and it seems to be jubilant and the song (of a nightingale) has no end; it
continues till dawn. At dawn when the poet opens her window she is delighted to see the
Casuarina Tree. Mostly in winters a gray baboon is seen sitting on the crest of the tree seeing
the sunrise with her younger ones leaping and playing in the tree‘s boughs. The shadow of
the tree appears to fall on the huge water tank. Toru Dutt says that it is not because of the
majestic appearance of the Casuarina Tree that it is dear to her heart and soul, but also that
she along with her siblings spent happy moments under it. Toru Dutt has brought out the
theme of nature as something that shares feeling with humans, that lightens the burden on the
heart. The poet continues with a description of how strong the image of the tree is, even when
in lands far away. Even in France and Italy (where the poet studied), she can hear the tree‘s
lament. The poet wishes to consecrate the tree‘s memory and importance for the sake of those
who are now dead - and looks ahead to her own death, hoping that the tree be spared
obscurity (or that no-one will remember it). She immortalizes the tree through this poem like
how Wordsworth sanctified the Yew trees of Borrowdale. She says ―May love defend thee
from Oblivion‘s curse‘‖- by which she means that she is glad that her love for the Casuarina
will protect it from the curse of being forgotten.
MY VOCATION
-TORU DUTT
A waif on this earth,
Sick, ugly and small,
Contemned from my birth
And rejected by all,
From my lips broke a cry,
Such as anguish may wring,
Sing, — said God in reply,
Chant poor little thing.
By Wealth‘s coach besmeared

With dirt in a shower,
Insulted and jeered
By the minions of power,
Where — oh where shall I fly?
Who comfort will bring?
Sing, — said God in reply,
Life struck me with fright —

Full of chances and pain,
So I hugged with delight
The drudge‘s hard chain;
One must eat, — yet I
die,
Like a bird with clipped wing,
Sing — said God in reply,
Love cheered for a while

My morn with his ray,
But like a ripple or smile
My youth passed away.
Now near Beauty I sigh,
But fled is the spring!
Sing — said God in reply,
All men have a task,

And to sing is my lot —
No meed from men I
ask But one kindly
thought. My vocation is
high —
‗Mid the glasses that ring,
Still — still comes that reply,
Summary:
Within this passage from My Vocation, Toru Dutt emphasizes her belief that spirituality
should be valued more than earthly gain. Dutt exhibits this belief through the use of an
alternate persona within her piece, who rejects the value of a material form of aestheticism in
order to achieve their religious calling. The narrator not only accepts the ―task‖ God
has given them, but also appreciates the ―task‖ they have been given (Line 33). Dutt
shows the narrator appreciates their ―task‖ by the statement; ―my vocation is high,‖
which illustrates Dutt‘s belief in spiritual gain over an earthly one (Line 33, 37). By
describing it as ―high,‖ Dutt increases the level of importance of the narrator‘s task, while
earthly gain is de-valued (Line 37). When Dutt‘s narrator states, ―no meed for men I ask,‖
Dutt de-values earthly gain because the narrator does not ask for a reward for their vocation
to God (Line 35). Instead, the narrator views the vocation itself as more important then any
reward gained from it. Therefore, Dutt uses an alternate persona to show her belief in valuing
spirituality form of aestheticism, instead of a material one. Another aspect of Dutt‘s piece that
emphasizes the importance of spiritual aestheticism over a material one is God‘s
command to ―sing‖ even when the narrator believes their lack of beauty will conflict with
their happiness.
Dutt uses her narrator‘s desire for beauty as an example of how unimportant earthly gain is in
relation to a spiritual form of aestheticism. Dutt shows the un-importance of earthly gain by
de-valuing the material world, using the concept of beauty as an example of an earthly gain,
since it deals with the physical instead of the spiritual. When God commands the narrator to
―sing,‖ regardless of how hopeless the narrator feels due to their lack of beauty, Dutt is
de- valuing the importance of relating aestheticism to the material world (Line 31). It is
imperative to note that God commands the narrator to sing before the narrator says,
―my youth is passed‖ and ―but fled in the spring‖ (Line 28, 30). Here, Dutt is using nature
as an example of aestheticism, as the narrator says, ―but fled in the spring‖ to describe their
youth passing (Line 38). Therefore, the narrator‘s concern with beauty shows Dutt‘s belief
that a materialistic form of aestheticism is related to earthly gain instead of achieving spiritual
wholeness. In addition to beauty, love is also used as an example of earthly gain because it
evokes a physical feeling, which Dutt gives less importance to over God‘s commands to the
narrator.
Dutt illustrates the concept of love as having less value than God‘s commands, by using it as
another example of a material form of aestheticism. This then emphasizes her argument that
adhering to one‘s spiritual calling is most valued. It is imperative to note that the narrator
says love ―cheered for a while,‖ a shorter time frame, then God‘s command for the narrator to
sing (Line 25). Dutt expresses God‘s commands for the narrator to sing as having a longer
time frame when the narrator says, ―still—still comes that reply‖ (Lines 33-34). Dutt
then expresses the futile nature of the natural form of aestheticism by using a shorter time
frame for the narrators desire for love, another example Dutt uses as an earthly gain.
Therefore, by using two physical examples of earthly gain, attaining love and beauty, Dutt
shows her preference of religious gain over a material one.
SILENCE IS ALL
-SRI AUROBINDO
Silence is all, say the sages.
Silence watches the work of the ages;
In the book of Silence the cosmic Scribe has written his cosmic pages;
Silence is all, say the sages.
What then of the word, O speaker?
What then of the thought, O thinker?
Thought is the wine of the soul and the word is the beaker;
Life is the banquet-table – the soul of the sage is the drinker.
What of the wine, O mortal?
I am drunk with the wine as I sit at Wisdom‘s portal,
Waiting for the Light beyond thought and the Word immortal.
Long I sit in vain at Wisdom‘s portal.
How shalt thou know the Word when it comes, O seeker?
How shalt thou know the Light when it breaks, O witness?
I shall hear the voice of the God within me and grow wiser and meeker;
I shall be the tree that takes in the light as its food, I shall drink its nectar of sweetness.
IS THIS THE END?
-SRI AUROBINDO
Is this the end of all that we have been,

And all we did or dreamed,–
A name unremembered and a form undone,–
Is this the end?
A body rotting under a slab of stone
Or turned to ash in fire,
A mind dissolved, lost its forgotten thoughts,–
Is this the end?
Our little hours that were and are no more,
Our passions once so high
Being mocked by the still earth and calm sunshine,–
Is this the end?
Our yearnings for the human Godward climb
Passing to other hearts
Deceived, while smiles towards death and hell the world,–

Is this the end?
Fallen is the harp; shattered it lies and mute;
Is the unseen player dead?
Because the tree is felled where the bird sang,
Must the song too hush?
One in the mind who planned and willed and thought,
Worked to reshape earth‘s fate,
One in the heart who loved and yearned and hoped,
Does he too end?
The Immortal in the mortal is his Name;
An artist Godhead here
Ever remoulds himself in diviner shapes,
Unwilling to cease
Till all is done for which the stars were made,
Till the heart discovers God
And the soul knows itself. And even then
There is no end.
THE DUAL BEING

-SRI AUROBINDO
There are two beings in my single self.

A Godhead watches Nature from
behind
At play in front with a brilliant surface elf,
A time-born creature with a human mind.
Tranquil and boundless like a sea or sky,
The Godhead knows himself Eternity‘s son.
Radiant his mind and vast, his heart as free;
His will is a sceptre of dominion.
The smaller self by Nature‘s passions driven,
Thoughtful and erring learns his human task;
All must be known and to that Greatness given
This mind and life, the mirror and the mask.
As with the figure of a symbol dance
The screened Omniscient plays at Ignorance.
THE PARDAH NASHIN

-SAROJINI NAIDU
HER life is a revolving dream

Of languid and sequestered
ease; Her girdles and her fillets
gleam
Like changing fires on sunset seas;
Her raiment is like morning mist,

Shot opal, gold and amethyst.
From thieving light of eyes impure,

From coveting sun or wind‘s caress,
Her days are guarded and secure
Behind her carven lattices,
Like jewels in a turbaned crest,
Like secrets in a lover‘s breast.
But though no hand unsanctioned

dares Unveil the mysteries of her
grace, Time lifts the curtain unawares,
And Sorrow looks into her face
Who shall prevent the subtle years,
Or shield a woman‘s eyes from tears?
Summary:
For the Muslim ladies who always cover their faces with veil. She comments on their way of
living. She does not want to hurt their religion .As she always support Muslim league and
respect their religion and tradition. She was a little upset about the fact that the Muslim
women have to cover their faces every time. She praised the honest thought of their religion
of protecting their women by the meant of veil cover their face which will not allowed other
men to see their faces, they might believe that there women are secure in that way. But what
is life if there is no freedom. if they think purdah is the correct way to protect their women
then they are killing the freedom of one individual. There is no air their women can breathe
freely, there is always the net which comes before them .they cannot open their naked eyes to
reality; everything is organized and decorated by their authority (men). They might be
protected and they might be decorated by the shiny and blinging jeweleries to make them a
complete lady but their soul cannot shine like them. Their life they are brought up by the men
their father and brother and when they grow up and got married the other men of the house,
his husband will take over their father and brother place. They are always in the hand of men.
They are always under the male domination, their beauty; their talent is always hidden just
like the purdah.
GHANASHYAM
-SAROJINI NAIDU
Thou givest to the shadows on the mountains

The colours of thy glory, Ghanashyam,
Thy laughter to high secret snow-fed fountains,
To forest pines thy healing breath of balm.
Thou lendest to the storm‘s unbridled tresses
The beauty and the blackness of thy hair,
And scatterest the joy of thy caresses
In lustrous rain upon the limpid air.

Thou dost vouchsafe to pilgrim-hearted ages
The music of thy mercy, Ghanashyam,
And grantest to thy seekers and thy sages
Mystic sanctuaries of transcendent calm.
O take my yearning soul for thine
oblation, Life of all myriad lives that dwell
in thee. Let me be lost, a lamp of
adoration,
In thine unfathomed waves of ecstasy.
THE GIFT OF INDIA
-SAROJINI NAIDU
Is there ought you need that my hands withhold,

Rich gifts of raiment or grain or gold?
Lo! I have flung to the East and West
Priceless treasures torn from my breast,
And yielded the sons of my stricken womb
To the drum-beats of duty, the sabers of doom.
Gathered like pearls in their alien graves

Silent they sleep by the Persian waves,
Scattered like shells on Egyptian sands,
They lie with pale brows and brave, broken hands,
They are strewn like blossoms mown down by chance
On the blood-brown meadows of Flanders and France.
Can ye measure the grief of the tears I weep

Or compass the woe of the watch I keep?
Or the pride that thrills thro‘ my heart‘s despair
And the hope that comforts the anguish of prayer?
And the far sad glorious vision I see
Of the torn red banners of Victory?
When the terror and the tumult of hate shall cease

And life be refashioned on anvils of peace,
And your love shall offer memorial thanks
To the comrades who fought in your dauntless ranks,
And you honour the deeds of the deathless ones,
Remember the blood of thy martyred sons!
Summary:
The Gift of India is a poem written in 1915 by the Indian poet, freedom fighter and politician
Sarojini Naidu. The poem is a tribute to the contribution of Indian soldiers in World War I.
The first stanza begins with Mother India asking if there are any more sacrifices left for her
to make. She has given the world rich gifts of cloth, food grains, and precious things like
gold. India has flung priceless treasures of her land to the countries of the East and the West.
Moreover, she has sent her sons, that is, the youth of her land in distant battlegrounds to fight
someone else‘s war. She questions what more can the nations of the world expect her to give
them.
In order to understand these lines, we must look at India‘s history — especially the time
around which this poem was written. It was 1915, in the middle of World War I, when India
was still under the British rule. A lot of Indian soldiers employed in the British forces fought
in the World War for the allies. The poem can be seen as the poet‘s homage for these
soldiers. Under the British rule, India was exploited for its riches and resources. Here, the
poet acknowledges this fact. The very first line of the poem shows India‘s sentiment of anger
and the question ‗Is it not enough that I have given everything?‘
The words ‗sabers of doom‘ especially catch our attention. They represent the nature of the
war and the devastation it leaves in its wake.
In the second stanza of The Gift of India, the speaker, Mother India, shows the sacrifice of
the Indian soldiers from a different angle. These brave soldiers who fought and gave up their
lives are buried in mass graves in the foreign countries where they died. They were away
from their homeland, and even their bodies did not get the comfort of finally resting in their
own motherland. The speaker says that ―they sleep by the Persian waves, and scattered like
shells on Egyptian sands‖.
The speaker says that these dead soldiers ―lie with pale brows and brave, broken
hands‖, further intensifying the image of death and devastation. The bodies are scattered like
carelessly trimmed flowers (blossoms mown down by chance) in the battlefields of Flanders
and France. The poet‘s use of the words ‗by chance‘ speaks that in her eye, the soldiers did
not deserve to die. Also, the comparison (a simile here) of the warriors to ‗blossoms‘
signifies how the motherland sees them as valuable human resource. ‗Blood-brown
meadows‘ expresses the horrors of war and warfronts in a rich poetic language. Though
completely contrasting with the subject, it poses as an apt metaphor.
In the third stanza of The Gift of India, the speaker talks to the foreign countries. She asks
them if they can measure her grief and her tears or know her woe, her sufferings when she
watches all these. She says that they can never fathom the pride that thrills through her heart,
in spite of her despair. The poet suggests that the speaker, despite her sadness and deep
rooted anguish, is proud of her sons who have fought bravely and brought victory. She gives
expression to the voices of countless Indian mothers whose sons have fought in the war. The
poet says that the people of the warring nations can never comprehend the small hope that
comforts these mothers from the pain of praying for their sons‘ safety. She asks if they can
understand the vision of glory she sees. It is a sad one, because she has lost her sons for it.
The torn red banner of victory, which has come at the expense of so much blood, is sad and
meaningless for her.
In the last stanza of the poem, the speaker talks about the ensuing peace after the war and
the martyrdom of the countless soldiers. The terror and tumult of hate which has created the
war shall end and there will be peace. Life will be refashioned, it will go back to normal with
drastic new changes. People will pay their respects to the dead who fought in the war, the
comrades in many ranks who gave their life. They will honour the deeds of those soldiers,
who will never be forgotten. When such a time of peace comes, the speaker asks that the
blood of her martyred sons be remembered as well, that they be honoured as well.
What is curious here is the poet‘s use of phrase ‗on anvils of peace‘. This implies that the
process of getting life back to normal will not be an easy one. It comments on the aftereffects
of wars in general. The poem ‗The gift of India‘ started as a celebration of India‘s
contribution to the causes of others. But it ends up as a strong war poem, concentrating both
on the evils of destruction wars bring, and the mourning, as well as the courage, honour and
recognition of the heroes who fight in it. As always, Naidu‘s poem arouses a sense of pride
and patriotism in the hearts of his countrymen.
UNIT III
FICTION
RAJMOHAN’S WIFE
-BANKIM CHANDRA CHATTERJEE

Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay is one of the leading names in Bengali Classical literary
stage and this novel ‗Rajmohan‘s Wife‘ is his only work in English. There are quite a lot of
debates about why he didn‘t continue writing in English choosing instead to write only in his
mother tongue, Bengali. Let‘s leave the debate for others and get into knowing about this
much-acclaimed work of his.
Matangini, the character that lends the title to the book, is the wife of Rajmohan, a good-for-
nothing brute, incapable of earning a living in honest and proper ways. Matangini, being a
woman of virtues, bears his oppressive nature silently. Madhav Ghose, the heir of a rich
family, is the husband of Matangini‘s sister Hemangini. Caring for Matangini‘s family, he
takes them with him to his native place where he offers a job to Rajmohan, thus providing for
his family. Rajmohan is paranoid, unethical, and of the nature that can bite the very hands
that feed him. One day when Rajmohan conspires against Madhav, joining with some other
forces that want to grab the wealth of Madhav, Matangini makes an uncharacteristic journey
alone in the dark and dangerous night to Madhav‘s place to warn him, thus warding off the
calamity that could have befallen Madhav. It turns out also to be the night when her love and
pent up passions for her brother-in-law Madhav are expressed for the first time. What
happens after these two events is what the novel is all about.
As for the quality of writing, there was never a dull moment in the book. Starting from the
portrayal of the characters to the climax, it is an absolute roller-coaster of a book. Emotions,
virtues, melodrama, peeks into the culture of bygone days, thrill, humor, sarcasm – it is all
there in this book. But there are some occasional grammatical errors, which, when pointed
out by English readers, could have been a cause in Bankim‘s dropping his attempts to write in
English. Remember, this book was written in 1864, more than 150 years ago, when it was a
thing of astonishment to see an Indian using the language of his rulers to express his ideas
and opinions, let alone attempt a full-length novel.
There are some negative points though. This is not a ‗full-length‘ novel, in fact. For all his
vivid ways of depicting characters, building up the tempo and portrayal of the emotions,
Bankim ends the novel in an abrupt fashion. Just as you start warming up for a more delicious
feast, the climax is brought up, as if somebody waved the checkered flag just on the tenth lap
of a Formula One race. He finishes the book in a hurry, noting down the fate of the characters
in a line or two. Just imagine! Having the chance to dwell on the emotional high-drama of the
pure love between Madhav and Matangini, the possibility of setting an example for the
womenfolk of those days by letting us know the decision of Matangini about her relationship
with the villainous Rajmohan, are just two reasons that could have added at least another
couple of interesting chapters to the book.
But the book having come at a time it did, it wouldn‘t have been possible for Bankim to
portray the heroine as anything less than the highly noble and virtuous female that she is. Not
just Matangini, some of the other characters in the book, Kanak and Tara, are also portrayed
to be women of virtue and moral courage, who nevertheless abide by the customs of the time,
leading silent and submissive lives in the shadows of their unworthy husbands. Also, the way
in which the author finishes off his note on the life and future of our lovable Matangini,
proves that this was not a book that intended to break a new path for the women of high
character stuck in a moral dilemma, but a book that wanted to glorify the oft-praised qualities
of women – sacrifice and chastity
KAMALA: A STORY OF HINDU LIFE
-KRUPABAI SATTHIANADHAN
First published in 1894, the poignant story of Kamala's experiences as a child-wife, mother,
and widow is one of the earliest instances, in women's fiction in English, of the Indian
woman as the protagonist.
The power of Kamala lies in the emotional realism the author brings to her depiction of
Kamal's character and mental state. As the first full-fledged novel in English by an Indian
woman, it more than amply fills its unique place.
Kamala was first published serially in the Madras Christian College Magazine in 1894. It was
published posthumously as a book in the same year. Although it has been inaccessible to the
reading public for over a century, Kamala was extremely well received, when first published,
by both Indian and British readers. It was translated into Tamil in 1896. The original title,
'Kamala: A Story of Hindu Life' has been altered slightly to Kamala: The Story of a Hindu
Child-Wife'.
Kamala, A Story of Hindu Life (1894) describes how her heroine, only child of a Brahman
sannayasi and recluse and a runaway Brahman heiress, gradually realizes that the sudra girls
minding the cattle on the mountainside where she grows up are different from her, and yet as
she treats them kindly, they can all play together and help each other. (1)
A very different world confronts her when she goes as a child bride to the Brahman quarter of
the local town. In fact the novel turns around the conversations she and the other unhappy
girls have around the Brahmans‘ well. Temple festivals and pilgrimages provide the only
escape, until her cousin Ramchander acquaints her with her true circumstances following her
father‘s death, her estranged husband dies shortly after her infant daughter‘s death, and she
can devote herself to ‗unselfish works of charity‘. (2) There is more than an echo of George
Eliot in the story, not surprisingly since Krupabai studied and admired her works, including,
presumably, Middlemarch. She also writes from the perspective of a teenage idealist who,
like Krupabai herself, is intensely patriotic but achieves far more, in practical terms, than
Dorothea Brooke. Unlike Eliot‘s heroine, Kamala cannot bring herself to defy convention
when she is widowed. Like any respectable woman from the ‗twice-born‘ castes, her life is
forever bound up in her husband‘s dharma, according to the Laws of Manu, and she cannot
accept Ramchander‘s offer of marriage and live ‗happily ever after.‘(3) Interestingly Sai, the
woman who might be cast as the principal villain of the story if that role does not belong to
Kamala‘s abusive mother-inlaw, since it was Sai who alienated her husband‘s affections, is
pitied for allowing her western education to corrupt her. Their unconsummated arranged
marriage rejected by Ramchander when he adopted ascetic life, Sai turns to a life of
blackmail and crime. Yet she is given a ‗keynote‘ fighting speech defending the tribal
people, Bheels and Gonds, who are now her clients and henchmen.(4) As in Middlemarch,
the old world is passing away, but it is far from clear what will replace it. Likewise in Kamala
Satthianadhan‘s stories (5), anxiety is expressed that traditional Sanskrit learning will
disappear, and with it moral values and even Indian culture itself. George Eliot wrote
Middlemarch in order to explore how a modern Teresa of Avila would react to the England of
the Great Reform Act (1832).
Krupabai‘s heroine derives little comfort from trying to emulate Sita or Savitri.(6) Her
suffering is located as much in self doubt and low self esteem as in her husband‘s ill-
treatment of her. Though all too well aware of his weak character and laziness, bound by the
convention of the Dharmasutras she treats him as a god and blames herself for his infidelity.
(7) Unlike Sita, she cannot literally become a sati, (8) but rejecting Ramchander‘s offer is,
she declares, self-immolation, and like Sita her integrity is vindicated. Like the version of the
Ramayana where Sita is swallowed up by her mother earth, justice for the heroine does not
bring a happy ending. The epic hero Ram and the fictional Ramchander respectively fulfill
their dharma. The latter, having oscillated for years between life as an ascetic practicing
herbal medicine and his obligations as manager of the family estates, finally decides where
his duty lies. (9) In the 1998 edition of Kamala, A Story of Hindu Life, the editor, Chandani
Lokuge applies a modern feminist perspective, and signals the importance of the book for
producing a genuine Indian heroine and for thus pioneering a genre. However, it is equally
possible to see the book as a Dickens type exposure of social conditions, an indictment of
Brahmanical culture and caste, a lament for unfulfilled lives: Kamala‘s father‘s search for
enlightenment ended only by death, her mother who dies when Kamala is two because they
are far from a doctor when she is suddenly taken ill, her husband, Ganesh who does no more
than procure a dead end office job with his western education, Sai the courtesan, who
longed for children and respectability despite her cherished
‗independence‘, her mother-in-law who loses her son despite all her machinations, the ill-
treated child brides slaving for their in-laws and yet growing up like their mothers-in-law and
so on. Kamala and Ramchander pay a terrible price in suffering before they find serenity and
meaning in life. At one point Kamala‘s position as a rejected wife seems so impossible that
she contemplates suicide, but then she spots her baby daughter gurgling and reaching out for
the stars on a beautiful moonlit night. The sight gives her hope and strength, not to flee to her
father, as tradition required, but to go and confront her father-in-law concerning his erring
son and shame him into righteousness as it were. Only to her deepest regret, Ganesh dies
before there can be a reconciliation, victim of that great scourge, cholera. Even then, she
blames herself and the author allows no hint of just deserts for his relationship with Sai. Caste
and culture are inextricably linked in the story, which is why I have begun there, making it a
kind of case study. However, Krupabai, telling a story in which the heroine shares some traits
with her own mother, a Marathi Brahman convert, and when losing her child, relives
Krupabai‘s own anguish, nevertheless does not resolve the characters‘ dilemmas by
conversion. The redemptive feature is rather her beloved India. For Krupabai‘s most exquisite
writing is devoted to describing the glories of the Deccan countryside, the changing seasons,
the breath-taking scenery of the western ghats, and even the beauty of the people themselves,
whatever their caste. Chandani Lokuge attributes it to the influence of Tennyson, (10) but I
think her imagery and emotion resemble rather the writings of her contemporary, the Marathi
Brahman Christian poet, Narayan Vadam Tilak and his wife Lakshmibai (11) or the greatest
poet of the 19th century Bengal, Michael Madhusadhan Seal.(12) Not English romanticism
transposed to India but love of Bharatma! When wracked by doubt and anxiety about God
(13) and their dharma, a concept Krupabai uses frequently, the characters sense the numinous
in nature. The Lord is not Krishna the charioteer on the battlefield, revealing eternal truths to
them as to Arjuna in the Bhagavadgita, but is a voice within. They turn to the Divine within
the parameters of Hindu philosophical traditions, but there is always an unresolved tension
between renouncing worldly materialistic values for this spiritual quest and the felt value of
good works and kindly deeds. Kamala has a transcendent quality about her, a Christ-like
nobility in suffering, but her all too human craving for love, chronic abuse-induced lack of
self esteem and naivety preclude too close a comparison. Lokuge criticises Krupabai for her
occasional Evangelical use of a derogatory epithet, but some Brahmans criticise ‗idol
worship‘, more in the tradition of Ram Mohun Roy than Carey, Marshman and Ward.(14) In
fact when Kamala first appeared critics in Madras questioned whether a second generation
Indian Christian, married into a distinguished church leader‘s family, would accurately
describe Hindu life. Those who actually read the story without dissent acclaimed not only her
powers of social observation, but her depiction of how Hindus feel. (15) A hundred years
later, my own reading and field observation would suggest accuracy, but the point I am trying
to make is that the book perfectly illustrates the integration of caste and culture in the Hindu
dharma. Understanding this integrated perspective on life is essential if we are to locate the
third component of our alliterative title, conversion. For it is important to remember that
Hindus do not practise their religion in the way that Catholics are held to do in popular
discourse, but simply by ‗having their being‘ (in the immortal phrase addressed to James
Cameron) are Hindu, the embodiment of their caste and culture. Characters in Satthianadhan
fiction not surprisingly therefore, are conscious that this eternal dharma governs their whole
outlook on life, every action in every single day, and their eternal destiny, and distinguish
their approach from that of the poor misguided Christians they encounter. Conversion is
therefore seen as a total disaster, a family pollution, an aberration which may mean an
individual‘s doom but certainly involves cultural alienation. For this reason also conversion
to Christianity may involve intellectual conviction, or Quaker-type convincement, but for the
convert it is primarily a bhakti experience, involving the experience of the love of God and
devotion to Jesus, come what may.(16) If Hindus belong to a world faith community which
derives from the Indian religious traditions and is held together by culture, language and
shared values based on a common understanding of revelation and spiritual experience, the
sense of belonging to a local community is still a core experience, be it the extended family,
the jati (sub-caste) or the village (17) not least because it is these groups who by their ability
to inflict sanctions on the dissident, enforce orthopraxy. Typically, in the Satthianadhan
stories, characters identify themselves or are identified by their jati and devotional tradition,
Saivite or Vaishnavite, as they themselves do in their autobiographical writings. This sense of
identity is re-inforced by knowledge of the Vedas. It should be noted that in the case of the
Satthianadhans, W.T., who was the convert formerly known as Thiruvengadam, his son
Samuel, and his daughters in law, Krupabai and Kamala Satthianadhan were knowledgeable
in the Sanskrit scripture, while Annal Arokium, his wife, clearly had access to Tamil sacred
writings. Like many missionary writers they refer vaguely to ‗the Hindu sastras‘ as defining
revelation even when this is from the context of the reference, more likely to be the Laws of
Manu or Sankara‘s commentaries. The education of Hindu women, classical and modern, is a
sub-text in their writings as well as the professional occupation of generation after generation
of Satthianadhan women.(18) Padmini Sen Gupta (nee Satthianadhan) even wrote a
biography of the reformer, Pandita Ramabai.(19) The Satthianadhan family are an
exceptionally distinguished dynasty, in terms of their contribution to the growth of the
Anglican church in South India, to the history of the ecumenical movement and the Church of
South India, to the development of education in India, especially for women, to literature and
to the policy making of the Indian National Congress and the first governments after
independence.(20)
There is a triangular love plot in Kamala. Kamala's husband Ganesh is enticed by Sai,
the wife of Ramchunder. She was motivated by her vengeance towards her estranged husband
and towards Kamala whom he adored. Sai succeeds in making Ganesh suspicious of the
fidelity of Kamala. He is led to believe that Kamala and Ramchunder love each other
secretly. He drives her out of his home. He even goes to the extent of saying that the child is
not his. In such a situation also Kamala's sense of judgement does not fail her. She quietly
walks out of her home. She advises her husband that ―if anybody asked about her, he was to
say she had gone to see her father who was ill‖ (Kamala 416). She becomes a victim of self-
pity but she would not commit suicide because that might bring Ganesh into trouble. Even at
a such a moment of emotional pressure, she can say, ―God will reveal the truth; but I will not
stay here anymore‖ (Kamala 416).
Like Nora in Ibsen's A Doll's House (1879), she walks out on her husband but her
Hindu upbringing has trained her to find the solution to her problem in the very framework of
the va1ue-based socio-cultura1 institutions. Moreover, she had ―a highly cultured father and
a learned mother; and she had herself learnt to feel and think‖ (Kamala 418).
Kamala takes an extraordinary decision. She decides to go to her father-in-law's
ancestral house. She cannot go to Ajnighar, her ―child-home‖. Her parents-in-law's
family had been ―cruel and heartless‖ to her. She has a momentary hesitation before
knocking at the door; but she again gathers courage from her undaunted character:
―No, I must not be daunted, my life-work is here‖ (Kamala 537).
ZOHRA
-ZEENUTH FUTEHALLY
The progressive and reformistic attitude of the Muslim novelists is also seen in their depiction
of Muslim women characters. Zeenuth Futehally‘s Zohra protests against patriarchal
domination,. Though she does not break the conventions of her Nawabi family even then in
her love for Hameed, her husband‘s brother, there is an attack on the convention of arranged
marriages and her silent self-sacrifice is, no doubt, a protest against the society that gives no
choice to a woman even in matters related to her life.
In Mumtaz Shah Nawaz‘ The Heart Divided the hopes of Zohra, the protagonist, of
representing her college at the Inter-university debate are dashed, with her grandfather
putting his foot down: ―I will not have any daughter of my house going about in public with
her face uncovered [...]. The purdah of our women is sacred. I tell you, no woman of our
family shall break it, while I live‖ (HD 73-74). The novelists highlight the crucial role
mothers play in the orientation of the girl child to her destined roles as wife and mother.
Mothers disapprove of higher education for girls as it reduces their chances of a ‗decent‘
marriage. In Zeenut Futehally‘s Zohra elder women frown at the benevolent Nawab‘s
attempts at educating his daughter.
Kalpana Bardhan observes that the status accorded to women in India and the behaviour
expected of them vary within the family by age, marital and filial relations (167). As a wife,
the woman is under the control of her conjugal family, ideally self-effacing and obedient. The
older women, on the other hand, enjoy greater power and authority though not autonomy.
They have a say in their children‘s marriage. It has to be emphasized here that Indian
feminism does not identify the male as the principal oppressor. The novelists portray elder
women – mothers and mothers-in-law as rigidly enforcing the patriarchal principle of female
subservience, advocating a life of seclusion for the young woman and depriving her of
education, opportunity for social life and even access to health and medical facilities. In
Mumtaz Shah Nawaz‘ novel, the mother-in-law, jealous of the attention her son lavishes on
his wife, refuses to fetch the service of the nurse when her grandson falls ill, despising it as a
new fangled notion.
As an antidote to frustrations and misgivings that thinking female feels within the confines of
her limited space, stand the uncritical love, supportiveness and emotional richness that
characterize the network of female relationships within the zenana. In this configuration of
the zenana as a site of female society, not just as an all-imprisoning enclosure, can be
witnessed a divergent pattern of Muslim feminism. It is the comforting company of women
like Aunt Abida and Hakiman Bua that Attia Hosain‘s protagonist Laila seeks, when
tormented by the conflicting values around her. We see how Ashiana is not just an
intimidating fortress, which seals its women from contact with the outside world, but a
comforting cocoon of love, loyalty, understanding and warmth. The celebration of the female
space as cohesive, life-furthering and productive marks a departure from the recurrent
representations of Muslim female spaces like the harem and the zenana as brothel or prison
like. However, such representations of zenana life are rare in portrayals of Muslim life in
Indian fiction in English. Attia Hosain herself presents a contrasting picture of zenana life,
vitiated by rankling sexual jealousies, a preoccupation with sexuality and the neglect of
emotional and intellectual development.
Through such contrasting pictures Hosain suggests how zenana life can be occasionally
constructive but mostly detrimental in the shaping of a woman‘s destiny. Other women
novelists too mostly replicate the negative picture of zenana life. It is negotiations for the
marriage of the daughters, the festivities associated with marriage and childbirth and
observance of superstitious beliefs and customs that constitute the major preoccupations of
the zenana women. Reduced to mere contenders for male affection, the zenana women devise
wily stratagems to gain advantage over one another, as illustrated by Mumtaz Shah Nawaz.
Polygamy compounds the misery of a life of seclusion. As a woman, Zeenut Futehally is
sensitive enough to discern that the frustrations of being a wife in a polygamous relationship
could be behind a woman‘s quarrelsome and domineering ways.
UNIT IV
FICTION
UNTOUCHABLE
-MULK RAJ ANAND

Characters List:
Bakha, son of Lakha: An 18-year-old Indian youth, Bakha is a sweeper and the protagonist
of Untouchable. Strong and able-bodied, he is fascinated by the life and ways of
India‘s English colonizers. His position as an untouchable has resulted in high levels of self-
deprecation and depression. Bakha can be judgmental and at times helps perpetuate the very
system that keeps him oppressed. Paradoxically, he still questions the status quo and
challenges a caste system that is supposedly ―set in stone.‖
Chota: The son of a leather-worker, Chota is one of Bakha‘s best friends. Though they are of
the outcaste class, Chota is higher than Bakha in the caste system‘s hierarchy. Like Bakha, he
is also obsessed with the English.
Ram Charan: Ram Charan is the washer‘s son and Bakha‘s other best friend. He is also
higher in the hierarchy than Bakha because his family only washes other people‘s clothes (an
act deemed cleaner than clearing refuse).
Lakha, Jemadar of the sweepers: Bakha‘s father. A lazy, abusive man that takes advantage
of his children. He resents Bakha‘s obsession with the English and urges Bakha to be
satisfied with their family‘s lot in life as untouchables and sweepers.
Rakha: Bakha‘s younger brother. Somewhat of a foil to Bakha‘s character, he is described as

―a true child of the outcaste colony.‖
Sohini: Bakha‘s younger sister, Sohini is described as nubile and beautiful. Patient and
resilient, she bears the brunt of her family‘s frustrations. Her altercation with a member of the
high caste is one cause of Bakha‘s existentialist woe.
Havildar Charat Singh: One of Bakha‘s heroes, Singh is a famous hockey player. His
personality is jocular, his mood extremely changeable. At the beginning of the novel he
harangues Bakha to clean the latrines but later on he gives Bakha a brand new hockey stick.
His willingness to share his afternoon tea with Bakha illustrates his lack of belief in
untouchability.
Ali: A young man of Bakha‘s age group, Ali is the son of a regimental bandsman and
Muslim. Bakha asks him questions about Islamic practices and is accused of insulting the
religion.
Ramanand: Described by Bakha as a ―peevish old black moneylender,‖ Ramanand is of a

higher class than Bakha. He interrupts Bakha‘s morning musings by shouting at him to clean
the latrines.
Gulabo: A washer woman, Gulabo is Ram Charan‘s mother. She has a superiority complex
because she has a high place in the hierarchy of the low castes/outcastes. She resents Bakha‘s
friendship with her sons and hates Sohini.
Waziro: Waziro is the weaver‘s wife and prevents Gulabo from hitting Sohini.
Pundit Kali Nath: He is one of the priests in charge of the temple in Bulashah, the town
Bakha and his family live outside of. He sexually assaults Sohini and then accuses her of
defiling him.
Lachman: A Hindu water-carrier, he is 26 years old and attracted to Sohini.
Hakim Bhagawan Das: A local doctor, Hakim Bhagawan saved Bakha‘s life when he was a
small child.
Ram Charan‘s sister: Bakha‘s childhood crush, Ram Charan‘s sister is a symbol of the
things Bakha is barred from because of his low status in the caste system.
Colonel Hutchinson: The chief of the local Salvation Army, Hutchinson is a Christian
missionary tasked with converting Hindus to Christianity. The face of the Christian religion
in the novel, he symbolizes one facet of England‘s colonization of India.
Mary Hutchinson: Mary is the Colonel‘s irreligious wife. Miserable about their life in India,
she constantly demeans and disparages her husband‘s work amongst Indian peoples, who she
refers to as ―blackies.‖
Mahatma Gandhi: One of several real-life people alluded to/featured in Untouchable,
Gandhi was one of the leaders of India‘s independence movement. In the novel his purpose is
to offer a religious, moral, and political denunciation of untouchability.
Kasturabai Gandhi: The wife of Mahatma Gandi. Like her husband, Kasturabai was heavily
involved with India‘s independence movement. In the novel she accompanies Gandhi during
his visit to Bakha‘s town.
Miraben Slade: Another real-life person that makes an appearance in the novel, Miraben
was the daughter of a British admiral. She left Britain to work at Gandhi‘s side for India‘s
independence in 1925. In the novel, she also accompanies Gandhi during his visit to Bakha‘s
town.
Iqbal Nath Sarshar: A young poet who defends Gandhi despite his misgivings about the
revolutionary‘s political and economic views. Sarshar offers up a Marxist interpretation of
the plight of the untouchables and suggests a Marxist solution.
R. N. Bashir: An Indian lawyer that studied at Oxford. Bashir is highly critical of Gandhi
and the Marxist solution suggested by Sarshar.
Plot:
Set in the fictional Indian town of Bulashah, Untouchable is a day in the life of a young
Indian sweeper named Bakha. The son of Lakha, head of all of Bulashah‘s sweepers, Bakha
is intelligent but naïve, humble yet vain. Over the course of Bakha‘s day various major and
minor tragedies occur, causing him to mature and turn his gaze inward. By the end of the
novel Mulk Raj Anand, the author, has made a compelling case for the end of untouchability
on the grounds that it is an inhumane, unjust system of oppression. He uses Bakha and the
people populating the young man‘s world to craft his argument.
Bakha‘s day starts with his father yelling at him to get out of bed and clean the latrines. The
relationship between the father and son is strained, in part due to Bakha‘s obsession with the
British, in part because of Lakha‘s laziness. Bakha ignores his father but eventually gets up to
answer the demands of a high-caste man that wants to use the bathroom. This man is C harat
Singh, a famous hockey player. At first Singh also yells at Bakha for neglecting his cleaning
duties. The man has a changeable personality however. It isn‘t long before he instructs Bakha
to come see him later in the day so he can gift the young sweeper with a prized hockey stick.
An overjoyed Bakha agrees.
High on his good fortune he quickly finishes his morning shift and hurries home, dying of
thirst. Unfortunately there is no water in the house. His sister Sohini offers to go fill the water
bucket. At the well Sohini must wait behind several other outcastes also queued up. Also
waiting for water is Gulabo, mother of one of Bakha‘s friends and a jealous woman. She
hates Sohini and is just barely stopped from striking the young woman. A priest from the
town temple named Pundit Kali Nath comes along and helps Sohini get water. He instructs
her to come clean the temple later in the day. Sohini agrees and hurries home with the water.
Back at home Lakha fakes an illness and instructs Bakha to clean the town square and the
temple courtyard in his stead. Bakha is wise to the wily ways of his father but cannot protest.
He takes up his cleaning supplies and goes into town. His sweeping duties usually keep him
too busy to go into town, and so he takes advantage of the situation by buying cigarettes and
candies.
As Bakha eats his candies, a high-caste man brushes up against him. The touched man did not
see Bakha because the sweeper forgot to give the untouchable‘s call. The man is furious. His
yelling attracts a large crowd that joins in on Bakha‘s public shaming. A traveling Muslim
vendor in a horse and buggy comes along and disperses the crowd. Before the touched man
leaves he slaps Bakha across the face for his impudence, and scurries away. A shocked Bakha
cries in the streets before gathering his things and hurrying off to the temple. This time, he
does not forget the untouchable‘s call.
At the temple, a service is in full swing. It intrigues Bakha, who eventually musters up the
courage to climb up the stairs to the temple door and peer inside. He‘s only standing there for
a few moments before a loud commotion comes from behind him. It‘s Sohini and Pundit Kali
Nath, who is accusing Sohini of polluting him. As a crowd gathers around, Bakha pulls his
sister away. Crying, she tells him that the priest sexually assaulted her. A furious Bakha tries
to go back to confront the priest, but an embarrassed and ashamed Sohini forces him to leave.
Bakha sends his sister home, saying he will take over her duties in town for the rest of the
day.
Distraught over the day‘s events, Bakha wanders listlessly before going to a set of homes to
beg for his family‘s daily bread. No one is home, so he curls up in front of a house and falls
asleep. A sadhu also begging for food comes and wakes him. The owner of the house Bakha
slept in front of comes out with food for the sadhu. Seeing Bakha, she screams at him and at
first refuses to give him food. She finally agrees to give him some bread in exchange for him
sweeping the area in front of her house. As Bakha sweeps, the woman tells her young son to
relieve himself in the gutter where Bakha is cleaning so he can sweep that up too. A disgusted
Bakha throws down the broom and leaves for his house in the outcastes‘ colony.
Back at home, it‘s only Lakha and Sohini. Rakha, Bakha‘s younger brother, is still out
collecting food. Bakha tells his father that a high-caste man slapped him in the streets.
Sensing his son‘s anger, Lakha tells him a story about the kindness of a high-caste doctor that
once saved Bakha‘s life. Bakha is deeply moved by the story but remains upset. Soon after
story time, Rakha comes back with food. A ravenous Bakha starts to eat, but then is disgusted
by the idea of eating the leavings of the high-caste people. He jumps up and says he‘s going
to the wedding of his friend Ram Charan‘s sister.
At Ram Charan‗s house, Bakha sees his other friend, Chota. The two boys wait for Ram
Charan to see them through the thicket of wedding revelers. Ram Charan eventually sees his
friends and runs off with them despite his mother‘s protestations. Alone, Chota and Ram
Charan sense something is wrong with their friend. They coax Bakha to tell them what‘s
wrong. Bakha breaks down and tells them about the slap and Sohini‘s assault. Ram Charan is
quiet and embarrassed by Bakha‘s tale, but Chota is indignant. He asks Bakha if he wants to
get revenge. Bakha does but realizes revenge would be a dangerous and futile endeavor. A
melancholic atmosphere falls over the group. Chota attempts to cheer Bakha up by reminding
him of the hockey game they will play later in the day. This reminds Bakha that he must go
and get his gift from Charat Singh.
Bakha goes to Charat Singh‘s house in the barracks, but cannot tell if the man is home.
Reluctant to disturb him or the other inhabitants, Bakha settles under a tree to wait. Before
long, Singh comes outside. He invites Bakha to drink tea with him and allows the
untouchable to handle his personal items. Singh‘s disregard for Bakha‘s supposed polluting
presence thrills Bakha‘s heart. Thus he is overjoyed when Singh gives him a brand-new
hockey stick.
Ecstatic about this upswing to his terrible day, Bakha goes into the hockey game on fire. He
scores the first goal. The goalie of the opposite team is angry over Bakha‘s success and hits
him. This starts an all-out brawl between the two teams that ends when a player‘s younger
brother gets hurt. Bakha picks up the young boy and rushes him home, only to have the boy‘s
mother accuse him of killing her son. Good mood completely destroyed Bakha trudges home,
where his father screams at him for being gone all afternoon. He banishes Bakha from home,
saying his son must never return.
Bakha runs away and takes shelter under a tree far from home. The chief of the local
Salvation Army, a British man named Colonel Hutchinson, comes up to him. He sees
Bakha‘s distress and convinces the sweeper to follow him to the church. Flattered by the
white man‘s attention, Bakha agrees, but the Colonel‘s constant hymn singing quickly bores
him. Before the two can enter the church the Colonel‘s wife comes to find him. Disgusted at
the sight of her husband with another ―blackie,‖ she begins to scream and shout. Bakha feels
her anger acutely and runs off again.
This time Bakha runs towards town and ends up at the train station. He overhears some
people discussing the appearance of Mahatma Gandhi in Bulashah. He joins the tide of
people rushing to hear the Mahatma speak. Just as Bakha settles in to listen, Gandhi arrives
and begins his speech. He talks about the plight of the untouchable and how it is his life‘s
mission to see them emancipated. He ends his speech by beseeching those present to spread
his message of ending untouchability. After the Mahatma departs a pair of educated Indian
men has a lively discussion about the content of the speech. One man, a lawyer named
Bashir, soundly critiques most of Gandhi‘s opinions and ideas. The other, a poet named
Sarshar, defends the Mahatma passionately and convincingly. Much of what they say goes
above Bakha‘s head, so elevated are their vocabulary and ideas. However, he does understand
when Sarshar mentions the imminent arrival of the flushing toilet in India, a machine that
eradicates the need for humans to handle refuse. This machine could mean the end of
untouchability. With this piece of hope Bakha hurries home to share news of the Mahatma‘s
speech with his father.
KANTHAPURA
-RAJA RAO
Characters List:
Achakka: the open-minded Brahmin female narrator, who recounts the rise of Gandhian
resistance to British colonial rule. Weaving Kanthapura legends and Hindu myths into her
story, she documents the wisdom and daily routines of village life while recalling her own
conversion to Mohandas K. (Mahatma) Gandhi‘s philosophy. Although she is a grandmother
who survives by subsistence farming, she seems ageless in her strength and charity. As
Achakka becomes increasingly involved in the resistance, she studies Vedic texts and yoga
with Rangamma and participates in boycotts of foreign cloth and in picketing against tobacco
and liquor shops, during which she is beaten, along with other Gandhians. When her house,
with much of Kanthapura, is burned, she goes to live in the nearby village of Kashipura.
Moorthy: a young Brahmin, the principal organizer of Gandhian resistance and the Congress
Party in Kanthapura. Noble, quiet, generous, and deferent in manner, the smart and handsome
deep-voiced only son drops out of the university to follow Gandhi and teach reading and
writing to ―untouchables.‖ After experiencing a holy vision of the Mahatma (great
soul), Moorthy distributes spinning wheels as a measure of resistance, as well as engaging in
fasts and meditation. Ever admonishing Gandhians against hatred and violence, he is
sorrowful but calm, and submissive but steadfast, in his leadership of nonviolent actions.
Although beaten severely and imprisoned frequently, Moorthy remains loyal to Gandhian
principles, despite becoming a supporter of the more pragmatic Jawaharlal Nehru in the
nationalist movement.
Bhatta: the First Brahmin, or chief priest at ceremonial feasts, and primary landlord of
Kanthapura. A clever, overweight opportunist, he exploits the conflict among villagers,
siding with the traditionalists who oppose Gandhi‘s doctrine of equal treatment for
untouchables because his profits are larger as a result of the cheap labor that they provide. He
lobbies his cause with phony smiles of religious devotion, wearing holy ashes to enhance his
image. Through frequent trips to the city of Kawar, he becomes the official legal agent of the
colonial administration and the sole banker of Kanthapura, using his position to raise interest
rates on mortgaged lands belonging to Gandhi‘s supporters. When Kanthapura is nearly
destroyed in the police assaults on the resisters, the untouchables burn Bhatta‘s house. He
sells the deeds that he holds to Bombay land speculators and moves to Kashi.
Patel Range Gowda, the primary executive officer of Kanthapura, acting as mayor.
Plot:
In Kanthapura, Raja Rao tells a story about a village in the southern portion of India where
there is a traditional caste system. The town known as Kanthapura does not abide by modern
processes, however most people within the location believe that they are blessed by an entity
known as Kenchamma. The village has approximately 120 homes with about 700 people.
Within the caste system, the Brahmins are said to be the highest group and then there are two
different groups that are known as tradesmen who are both weavers and potters. After the
tradesmen, there are sudras who are known as laborers and pariahs who are known as
untouchables.
During the introduction and first chapter of the novel, the reader is informed that the story is
told during the 1930s, during the same time that Mahatma Gandhi tries to facilitate liberation
in terms of politics. The narrator of the story is an old widow by the name of Achakka and
she is known to a Brahmin, which is the highest caste in the system. She tells the story of the
main character known as Moorthy, also a Brahmin, who has left University in order to
become an activist for the congress of India.
In chapters two and three, Moorthy tries his best to promote the teachings of Gandhi
throughout the nation of India. He firmly believes in non-cruelty and he indicates that each
person should be able to have a sense of inner peace. Even though he tries to relay this
message, he is often distracted by the many negative factors within the village of Kanthapura.
Many people do not believe in Gandhi‘s message and in turn they do not take Moorthy
seriously. Since there is a great level of resistance in the village, police authorities are forced
to oversee daily life in Kanthapura. One of the policemen known as Bade Khan does not
believe in Moorthy‘s actions at all and he indicates that Gandhi‘s teaching undermines all of
social order and religion in the world.
As the chapters progress, Moorthy continues to spread his knowledge about Gandhi‘s
message to the nation and he slowly begins to grow a following, especially among people
who are in the lower groups in the caste system. He shows his courage and he even stands up
to local authority when he is questioned about his peaceful protests.
Eventually, Moorthy‘s mother passes away. The Brahmin clerks of Kanthapura invite
Moorthy to the estate in order to create an increased sense of awareness regarding the social
injustice taking place. When Moorthy enters the estate, Bade Khan shows up and physically
injures him. Fortunately, there are other members in the estate who are able to defend
Moorthy. After the incident, Moorthy is very unhappy with the turn of events and he prays
that the violence would just come to an end.
Due to the injustice that was faced at the estate, Moorthy decides to go on a fast for three
days, just like Gandhi would participate in. At the end of the fast, Moorthy is very happy and
he feels victorious that he is able to rise above those people with small minds. Even though
he is satisfied with himself, the foreign government approaches Moorthy and tells him that he
is provoking violence throughout Kanthapura. Due to his actions, the police officers decide to
arrest him.
Moorthy is sent to prison for three months because the authorities believe that he is the reason
that there are many violent outbursts. In his presence, Rangamma stays active and she
develops a volunteer corps committee. Within the group, she inspires women to have courage
and to continue fighting for their freedom through the use of non-violence.
Once Moorthy is released from jail, he maintains a positive stance. When he approaches his
home, he finds that there are many people waiting for him, cheering him on since they
believe in his peaceful attitude.
After Moorthy‘s release from prison, there continue to be arrests of people who are protesting
social injustice and brutality, especially against women. There are police officers who are
seen chasing women and trying to abuse them. There are also instances where the officers
start beating people for no justifiable reason. Within Kanthapura, the increased violence that
is seen is disturbing to Moorthy especially since he has taken the time to promote peace,
following Gandhi‘s philosophy. Regardless, Moorthy continues to try and make strides in
order to change the ways of Kanthapura.
Once one year has passed, it is seen that approximately 30 refugees from Kanthapura have
fled and have settled in Kashipur. These people look to their Lord to save them from the
injustices that were once brought to them in Kanthapura. As time goes on, they still have a
desire to make their nation free again through the assistance of Gandhi and the belief in their
deities.
THE MAN EATER OF MALGUDI

-R K NARAYAN
Characters List:
 Nataraj - a printing press owner.
 Poet - friend of Nataraj
 Sen - A journalist, friend of Nataraj.
 Sastri - employee and friend of Nataraj.
 Vasu - a taxidermist, the antagonist of the novel.
 Muthu - a tea shop owner.
 Kumar - an elephant which was brought from Mempi Hills by Nataraj, for
medical treatment.
 Rangi - a temple dancer and a prostitute.
 Joshi - doctor who treats Kumar (the elephant).
This story revolves around the life of an Indian printer named Nataraj. Nataraj lives in a huge
ancestral house in Malgudi, a fictional town in south India. This place is near Mempi hills
which is very calm, pleasant and beautiful. He leads a contented lifestyle, with his own circle
of friends, such as a poet, a journalist named Sen, and his one employee, Sastri. Like his other
novel, Talkative Man, R.K. Narayan introduces a character who enters the life of Nataraj and
the town of Malgudi. The character, Vasu, is a taxidermist who comes to Malgudi in search
of the wildlife in Mempi hills near Malgudi. His introduction begins with his arrival at
Nataraj‘s printing press, where he demands the printing of 500 visiting cards. This arrival
begins the relationship between Vasu and Nataraj. While Nataraj wasn‘t sure whether Vasu is
a friend or an enemy, he dislikes the company of Vasu because of his brazen actions.
Vasu is a bully, and is once compared to a Rakshasa (a demon) by Nataraj and Sastri. Vasu
takes up residence in the attic of Nataraj‘s press by chance and convinces Nataraj that he
would stay there as a guest (self declared) only for a few days until he gets put up some place
else. Little known to Nataraj, Vasu sees the place very suitable for his activities as a
taxidermist plans otherwise. Vasu is a ‗pehelwan‘ (muscleman), proud of his strength. As the
story continues, Vasu encroaches on Nataraj‘s life, every now and then bullies away his
friends, his customers, shoots someone‘s pet dog and many other animals and birds near the
dwelling place, poaches wildlife from Mempi hills, creates stench in the neighborhood
through his activities as a taxidermist. When Nataraj questions this, Vasu files a complaint
with the Rent Control authority on Nataraj as a self declared tenant, entertaining women in
the attic, disturbs the peace of Malgudi, whom the narrator refers to as ―the man eater
of Malgudi‖
As in Talkative Man, the end comes with the commemoration of a function. This time, it is
for the release of a poetry book on Krishna by his poet friend. Rangi informs Nataraj that
Vasu wants to kill Kumar, the elephant, which Nataraj had brought down from Mempi Hills
to treat an ailment as a favour to one of his friends. Muthu, the tea shop owner helps Nataraj,
when Nataraj happens to meet him under unexpected circumstances, owing to Vasu‘s
adventures. Now Nataraj comes to know of the plans of Vasu to shoot Kumar, the temple
elephant, for his collection and business. The protagonists frantically try to stop him, but in
vain. As Nataraj decides to talk to Vasu for once and for all, he finds Vasu sleeping, but the
next morning he discovers that Vasu is dead.
The autopsy takes place with the verdict being that he was not poisoned and that he was
attacked on the head by a blunt weapon. The case is closed, but the reputation of Nataraj‘s
press is ruined and his friends and other people start avoiding him. Later, Nataraj learns
through his friend Sastri (who learns from Rangi) that Vasu was not murdered, but died in an
attempt to smash a mosquito sitting on his temple. He had damaged one of his nerves with his
powerful hand and died instantly.
Now Nataraj was rid of Vasu, and the story ends on the note that all demons-rakshashas,
devils and monsters bring the downfall to themselves. The narration is very humorous and
lively all along.
The story with its pleasant twists features the metamorphosis of a quiet, spineless man
(Nataraj) to rise up against his ―friend‖ Vasu and the self destruction of the evil.
UNIT –V PROSE
ANNIHILATION OF CASTE
-B. R. AMBEDKAR
This famous address invited attention of no less a person than Mahatma Gandhi. Dr.
Ambedkar observes that the reformers among the high-caste Hindus were enlightened
intellectuals who confined their activities to abolish the enforced widow-hood, child-
marriage, etc., but they did not feel the necessity for agitating for the abolition of castes nor
did they have courage to agitate against it. According to him, the political revolutions in India
were preceded by the social and religious reforms led by saints. But during the British rule,
issue of political independence got precedence over the social reform and therefore social
reform continued to remain neglected. Pointing to the. Socialists, he remarked that the
Socialists will have to fight against the monster of caste either before or after the revolution.
He asserts that caste is not based on division of labour. It is a division of labourers. As an
economic organization also, caste is a harmful institution. He calls upon the Hindus to
annihilate the caste which is a great hindrance to social solidarity and to set up a new social
order based on the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity in consonance with the principles
of Democracy. He advocates inter-caste marriage as one of the solutions to the problem. But
he stresses that the belief in the ‗Shastras‘ is the root cause of maintaining castes. He
therefore suggests, ―Make every man and woman free from the thraldom of the ‗Shastras‘,
cleanse their minds of the pernicious notions founded on the ‗Shastras‘ and he or she will
interdine and intermarry‖. According to him, the society must be bused on reason and not on
atrocious traditions of caste system.
Maharashtra as a Linguistic Province
Part II includes Dr. Ambedkar‘s major writings on linguistic States. Maharashtra as a

Linguistic Province is his first statement on the creation of linguistic provinces. It is a
memorandum submitted in 1948 to the Linguistic Provinces Commission. While
acknowledging the danger to the Unity of India inherent in the creation of linguistic
provinces with their pride in race, language and literature developing into mentalities of being
separate nations, Dr. Ambedkar sees certain definite political advantages in the reconstitution
of provinces on linguistic basis. With the proviso that the official language of the State shall
be the official language of the Central Government, Dr. Ambedkar maintains that a linguistic
province with a homogeneous population is more suitable for the working of democracy than
a heterogeneous population can ever be. Since six provinces in India exist as linguistic
provinces the question of the reconstitution of Bombay, Madras and Central Provinces as
unilingual provinces cannot be postponed in view of the new democratic constitution of free
India. Dr. Ambedkar next pleads for the creation of an unilingual Maharashtra as a province
with a single legislature and single executive by merging with it all the contiguous Marathi-
speaking districts of the Central Province and Berar with the City of Bombay as its capital.
Dr. Ambedkar refutes on historical, geographical, demographical, commercial, economic and
other grounds with solid documentary proof, the arguments which are advanced in support of
the separation of the city of Bombay from Maharashtra and its constitution into a separate
province. Spurning the proposal of settling the problem of Bombay by arbitration he asserts
that Maharashtra and Bombay are not merely inter-dependent but that they are really one and
integral.
Need for Checks and Balances
In this article published in the ‗Times of India‘ after tracing the history and growth of the
concept of linguistic States Dr. Ambedkar examines their viability and communal set-up. The
State of Andhra, according to him will not be viable if the other Telugu-speaking area from
the State of Hyderabad remains excluded from it. The caste set up, he observes, within the
linguistic areas like PEPSU, Andhra and Maharashtra will be of one or two major castes large
in number and a few minor castes living in subordinate dependence on the major castes. He
questions the propriety of consolidating in one huge State all people who speak the same
language. Consolidation which creates separate consciousness may lead to animosity between
State and State. Accepting however the fact that there is a case for linguistic provinces he
advocates that there should be checks and balances to ensure that caste majority does not
abuse its power under the garb of linguistic State.
Thoughts on Linguistic States
‗Thoughts on Linguistic States‘ is Dr. Ambedkar‘s final statement on the formation of

linguistic States that came as a critique of the report of the States Reorganization
Commission. What the Commission has created, according to him, is not a mere disparity
between the States by leaving U.P. and Bihar as they are, but by adding to them a new and
bigger Madhya Pradesh with Rajasthan. It creates a new political problem of the consolidated
Hindi-speaking North versus the
balkanized South. Considering the vast cultural differences between the two sectors and the
apprehensions of dominance of the North articulated by the leaders of the South Dr.
Ambedkar predicts the danger of a conflict between the two in course of time. He observes
that the Commission should have followed the principle of ―one State one language‖ and not
―one language one State‖ He favours formation of unilingual States as against
multilingual States for the very sound reasons that the former fosters the fellow-feeling which
is the foundation of a stable and democratic State, while the latter with its enforced
juxtaposition of two different linguistic groups leads to faction fights for leadership and
discrimination in administration — factors which are incompatible with democracy. His
support for unilingual States is however qualified by the condition that its official language
shall be Hindi and until India becomes fit for this purpose, English shall continue. He
foresees the danger of a unilingual Stale developing an independent nationality if its regional
language is raised to the status of official language.
To remove the disparity between the large States of the North and the small States of the
South which has been accentuated by the absence of the provision for equal representation of
the States in the central legislature irrespective of their areas and popula tions, Dr.
Ambedkar‘s remedy is to divide the larger States into units with a population not exceeding
two crores. He suggests tentatively division of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh into two States
each and of United Provinces into three States. Each of these States being unilingual the
division will not affect the concept of a linguistic State. His proposal for Maharashtra is to
divide it, as in ancient times, into three States of Western, Central and Eastern Maharashtra
with Bombay City as a separate city State of Maharashtra. Such smaller States, in his opinion,
will meet the requirements of efficient administration and the special needs of different areas.
It will also satisfy their sentiments. In a smaller State the proportion of majority to minority
which in India is not political but communal and unchangeable, decreases and the danger of
the majority practising tyranny over the minority is also minimised. To give further
protection to minorities against such tyranny, Dr. Ambedkar suggests amendment of the
constitution that will provide a system of plural-member constituencies (two or three) with
cumulative voting. Dr. Ambedkar advocate‘s also the creation of a second capital for India
and locating it in the South preferably in the city of Hyderabad to ease the tension and
political polarization of the North and the South.
Ranade, Gandhi and Jinnah
Dr. Ambedkar delivered this important address on the 101st birth anniversary of Justice
Ranade, one of India‘s foremost political and social thinkers. At the beginning of his address,
Dr. Ambedkar discusses the role of man as a maker of history. According to him, the theory
of Buckle that the history is created by Geography and Physics, and that of Marx that it is the
result of economic forces, both speak the half truth. They do not give any place to man. But
Dr. Ambedkar asserts that man is a factor in the making of history and that environmental
forces alone are not the makers of history. Dr. Ambedkar further proceeds to discuss the tests
of a great man as propounded by Carlyle the apostle of Hero Worship, and also of other
political thinkers. After exhaustive discussion, he observes that sincerity and intellect the
combination of which are necessary to make a man great. But these qualifications are not
alone sufficient. A man possessed of these two qualities must be motivated by the dynamics
of a social purpose and must act as a scavenger of society. According to Dr. Ambedkar,
Ranade was a great man by any standard. He wanted to vitalize the Hindu society to create
social democracy. Ranade lived in times when social and religious customs, however
unmoral, were regarded as sacrosanct. What appeared to Ranade to be shames and wrongs of
the Hindu society, were considered by the people to be most sacred injunctions of their
religion. Ranade wanted to vitalize the conscience of the Hindu society which became
moribund as well as morbid. Ranade aimed to create a real social democracy. without which
there could be no sure and stable politics. Dr. Ambedkar points out that Ranade‘s aim was to
cleanse the old order and improve the moral tone of the Hindu society. Concluding his
address, Dr. Ambedkar cautions against despotism. He says, ― Despotism does not cease to
be despotism because it is elective. Nor does despotism become agreeable because the
Despots belong to our own kindred ... The real guarantee against despotism is to confront it
with the possibility of its dethronement …. of its being superseded by a rival party.‖
Evidence before the Southborough Committee
Dr. Ambedkar‘s evidence before the Southborough Committee was his first assay in political
writings. The evidence comprises of a written statement submitted to the Franchise
Committee under the Chairmanship of Rt. Hon‘ble Lord Southborough and also of the oral
evidence before the same Committee on January 27, 1919.
After arguing theoretically that any scheme of franchise and constituency that fails to bring
about representation of opinions as well as representation of persons falls short of creating a
popular Government. He shows how very relevant the two factors are in the context of the
Indian society which is ridden into castes and religious communities. Each caste group tends
to create its own distinctive type of like-mindedness which depends upon the extent of
communication, participation or endosmosis. Absence of this endosmosis is most pronounced

between touchable and untouchable Hindus, more than between the religious communities
such as Hindus, Muslims, Parsees etc. These communities have on secular plane common
material interests. There will be in such groups landlords, labourers and capitalists. The
untouchables are, however,
isolated by the Hindus from any kind of social participation. They have been dehumanised by
socio-religious disabilities almost to the status of slaves. They are denied the universally
accepted rights of citizenship. Their interests are distinctively their own interests and none
else can truly voice them. On the population basis, Dr. Ambedkar demands for the
untouchables of the Presidency of Bombay, eight to nine representatives in the Bombay
Legislative Council with franchise pitched as low for them as to muster a sizable electorate.
While reviewing the various schemes proposed by different organizations he criticizes the
Congress scheme which offers communal representation only to the Muslims and leaves
untouchables to seek representation in general electorate as typical of the ideology of its
leaders who are political radicals and social tories. He does not agree with the proposals of
moderates to reserve only one or two seats for the untouchables in plural constituencies as
this does not give them effective representation. He brushes aside the proposal of the
Depressed Class Mission for nomination by co-option by the elected members of the Council
as an attempt to dictate to the untouchables what their good shall be, instead of an endeavour
to agree with them so that they may seek to find the good of their own choice. The communal
representation with reserved seats for the most depressed community, he holds out, will not
perpetuate social divisions, but will act as a potent solvent for dissolving them by providing
opportunities for contact, co-operation and re-socialisation of fossilised attitudes. Moreover it
was the demand of the untouchables for self-determination which the major communities too
were claiming from the British bureaucracy.
Federation versus Freedom
Dr. Ambedkar‘s two addresses, ―Federation vs. Freedom‖ and ―Communal Deadlock and a
Way to solve It‖ were delivered by him before the Gokhale Institute of Economics. Pune on
January 29, 1939 and at the session of the All India Scheduled Castes Federation held in
Bombay on May 6, 1945 respectively. They are in the nature of tracts of the time. In 1939 all
major political parties of India had accepted and some were even implementing that part of
the Government of India Act, 1935 which related to provincial autonomy. The question of
accepting the Federal structure at the Centre was however, looming large on the political
horizon of India. Dr. Ambedkar who till then had not expressed in public his views on the
subject took the opportunity to do so before the learned body of the Gokhale Institute of
Economics. In the address he sets out briefly the outline of the scheme of Federation and
examines it in the light of accepted tests of democratic federations in operation. The
examination reveals that the scheme granted only a limited responsibility at the centre; it has
the potentiality to evolve into a dominion status. There is inequality of status between the two
sets of federating units viz. the Provinces and the Princely States. Federation is a natural
corollary of autonomous provinces. They join the Federation as a natural course, while
accession of the princely States is governed by the various conditions of their historical
treaties with the British crown and the instrument of accession they would sign. Accession of
the States and not only of the autonomous provinces, is the precondition for the
implementation of the Federation. The representation of the provinces to the two Federal
Houses is by election but the State representatives are the nominees of their autocratic rulers
and owe their allegiance to the rulers. These representatives will always be at the beck and
call of the British bureaucracy which yields paramountcy over the rulers. Instead of fostering
one all India nationalism, the Indian Princely States being treated under the Federation as
foreign territories will encourage separatist tendencies. The scheme also does not permit the
Federal Legislature to discuss the conduct of the ruler nor the administration of his State,
though his nominees can participate in the debate pertaining to a province and vote on the
issue. As in the matter of representation so too in that of taxation, administration, legislation
etc, there is, in the scheme discrimination in favour of the princes. The princes thus become
arbiters of the destiny of the British India.
On these and several other counts Dr. Ambedkar rejects the Federal structure as envisaged by
the Government of India Act of 1935. His solution of the problem of the States is, to regard it
not as a political one but as an administrative one. To tackle it legally is to pension off
princes and annexe their territories as is done under the Land Acquisition Act which allows
private rights and properties to be acquired for political purposes. According to Dr.
Ambedkar, excepting the Princes, and the Hindu Mahasabha which felt that the accession of
the Princes was an accretion to the Hindu strength, no major political party was happy with
the scheme of the Federation. The view of the freeman and of the poor man of whom the
Federation does not seem to take any account says Dr. Ambedkar, will be a similar one. If the
Federation comes the autocracy of the Princes will be a menace to the freedom of a freeman
and obstacle to the poor man who wants constitution to enable him to have old values
revalued and to have vested rights devastated.
Communal Deadlock and a Way to solve It
―Communal Deadlock and a Way to solve It‖ is yet another tract of the time included in this
volume. It purports to be a constructive proposal put forth on behalf of the Scheduled Castes
for the future constitution of India. This plan was one of the many advanced by Dr.
Ambedkar‘s contemporaries to explore the possibility of solving the communal problem in
the eventful year of 1945. Earlier, in 1941. Dr. Ambedkar had advocated creation of Pakistan
on the principle of self-deter mination‘ and also as a historical necessity. The present tract
sets out an alternative plan which in his opinion would ensure a United India, where with
proper checks and balances interests of all minorities would be safeguarded.
He is wholly opposed to the setting of a Constituent Assembly before the communal problem
is solved. Moreover India has already constitutional ideas and constitutional forms ready at
hand in the Government of India Act of 1935. All that is necessary is to delete those sections
of the Act, which are inconsistent with Dominion status. If at all there is to be a Constituent
Assembly, says Dr. Ambedkar. The communal question should not form a part of it. After
examining the two schemes for Constituent Assembly one each by Sir Stafford Cripps and Sir
Tej Bahadur Sapru, Dr. Ambedkar concludes that both the schemes leave the communal
question unsolved. In his opinion all such schemes and plans advocated so far fail because of
their wrong approach. They proceed by a method instead of by a principle. The ultimate
result is constant appeasement of ever-growing demands of communal minorities. The
principle he enunciates is that in India majority being communal majority and not a
convertible political majority, the majority rule is untenable in theory and unjustifiable in
practice. The major community should be content with relative majority. Even this should not
be so large as to enable it to secure an absolute majority by coalition with a smaller minority
to establish its rule. In the same way the major minority should also not have the possibility
to secure a majority by similar combination. The combination of all minorities should
however have an absolute majority in the legislature. Dr. Ambedkar has set out in detail how
the application of these principles would reflect community-wise in the central and provincial
legislatures. Dr. Ambedkar‘s proposal is mainly for a United India; but even if the partition of
India eventuates, he expects, the Muslims of Pakistan not to deny the benefit of these
principles to non-Muslim residents of their country. Their co-religionists, who otherwise
would be a helpless minority in India, will have their interests safeguarded by the acceptance
of these principles. Abandonment of the principle of majority rule in politics cannot, in the
opinion of Dr. Ambedkar, affect the Hindus in other walks of life such as social and
economic.
States and Minorities
States and minorities is a memorandum on the safeguards for the minorities in general and
the Scheduled Castes in particular drafted by Dr. Ambedkar and submitted to the Constituent
Assembly on behalf of the All-India Scheduled Castes Federation in the year 1946. It is in the
form of draft articles of a constitution, followed by explanatory notes and other statistics. The
memorandum sets out in specific terms fundamental rights of citizens, safeguards of the
rights of minorities and Scheduled Castes to representation in the legislatures, local bodies,
executive and services. It also provides for special provisions for education and new
settlement of the Scheduled Castes in separate villages. The very first article is allotted to the
admission of Indian States into the Union which are here classified as Qualified and
Unqualified on admission to the
Union. The qualified State has an obligation to have an internal government which is in
consonance with the principles Underlying the Constitution of the Union. The territory of the
Unqualified states will be treated as the territory of the Union. The memorandum not only
prescribes the rights and privileges of the Scheduled Castes but also lays down the remedies
in the event of encroachment upon them. For this the author draws heavily from his own
memorandum submitted to the minorities of the Round Table Conference in 1931. They are
derived from the United States statutes and amendments passed in the interest of the Negroes
after their emancipation and from the Burma Anti-boycott Act. One of the novel features of
the memorandum is the provision for the election of the Prime Minister — Union and
provincial — by the whole house of the legislature, of the representatives of the different
minorities in the cabinet by members of each minority in the house and of the representatives
of the majority community in the executive again by the whole house.
Another unique feature is the provision of remedies against invasion of the fundamental
rights of citizens of freedom from economic exploitation and from want and fear. This is
sought to be accomplished by constitutional provision enforceable within ten years of the
passing of the constitution for alteration of the economic structure of the country. In short by
adopting state socialism, it envisages state ownership and management of all key and basic
industries and insurance. Agriculture which is included in the key industries is to be
organized on collectivized
method. Owners of the nationalized industries and land are to be compensated in the form of
debentures. The debenture-holders are entitled to receive interest at such rates as defined by
the law.
Small Holdings in India
The subjects of Dr. Ambedkar‘s Doctoral thesis were in the disciplines of economics only.
The present paper was one of his articles dealing with the problem of agricultural economy of
the Country. Amongst several problems of agricultural economy dealing with agricultural
production, Dr. Ambedkar chose the subject of the size of holdings as it affects the
productivity of agriculture. Dr. Ambedkar in his paper points out that the holdings of land in
India are not small but they are also scattered. This feature of Indian agriculture has caused
great anxiety regarding agriculture which Dr. Ambedkar designates as an industry. The
problems of these holdings are two-fold—(1) How to consolidate the holdings and (2) after
consolidation, how to perpetuate the said consolidation. The heirs of deceased in India desire
to secure share from each survey number of the deceased rather than distributing complete
holdings amongst themselves. This has resulted into rendering the farming most inefficient
and causing several problems. Dr. Ambedkar discusses methods for consolidation e.g.,
restripping, restricted sale of the occupancy
of the fragmented land to the contagious holder and the right of pre-emption. In this
connection Dr. Ambedkar discusses the report of the Baroda Committee and the proposals of
Prof. Jevons and Mr. Keatinge, and points out that the consolidation may obviate the evils of
scattered holdings, but it will not obviate the evils of small holdings unless the consolidated
holding becomes an economic holdings. While discussing the terms of economic holding, Dr.
Ambedkar
observes, ―Mere size of land is empty of all economic connotation…. It is the right or
wrong proportion of other factors of production to a suit of land that renders the latter
economic or uneconomic‖. Thus a small farm may be economic as well as a large farm.
Verifying the statistics at length, he concludes that ―the existing holdings are uneconomic,
not, however, in the sense that they are too small but that they are too large‖ as against the
inadequacy of other factors of production. He therefore suggests that the remedy lies in not
enlarging the holding but in the matter of increasing capital and capital goods. According to
Dr. Ambedkar, the evil of small holding is the product of mal-adjustment of the Indian social
economy. A large part of population of superfluous and idle labour exerts high pressure on
agriculture. He tries to analyse how to remedy the ills of agriculture and suggests that
industrialization of India is the soundest remedy for the agricultural problems of India.
Mr. Russell and the Reconstruction of Society
While reviewing the book ―Principles of Social Reconstruction‖ by the Honourable

Mr. Bertrand Russell, Dr. Ambedkar deals only with the analysis of the institution of Property
and the modifications it is alleged to produce in human nature. Commenting on the
observations of Mr. Russell on the philosophy of war, Dr. Ambedkar opines that Mr. Russell
is against war but is notfor quieticism. Quieticism is another name of death. Activity leads to
growth. He suggests that to achieve anything we must use force ; only we must use it
constructively as energy and not destructively as violence. The pacifist Mr. Russell,
according to Dr. Ambedkar, thinks that even war is an activity leading to the growth of the
individual and condemns it only because it results in death and destruction. He therefore
thinks that Russell would welcome milder forms of war.
Dr. Ambedkar further discusses the analysis of effects of property as propounded by Mr.
Russell. Regarding the mental effects of property, he finds that Russell‘s discussion on this
aspect is marked by certain misconceptions. Criticising the statement about ―love of money‖
as interpreted by Mr. Russell, Dr. Ambedkar points out that there is genuine difference in the
outlook of the ‗haves‘ and ‗have nots‘. Hence their attitude about money will be different.
According to him, Mr. Russell failed to inquire into the purpose of the love of money which
has given rise to wrong conception. Dr. Ambedkar feels that this thesis is shaky from the
production side of our life. He further proceeds to discuss and prove how the above
proposition is also untenable from the consumption side of life. Here the learned Doctor
enters into a psychological discussion of the desires and pleasures. We leave this interesting
discussion to be read by the readers in original without taking their much time. The editors do
not claim to have covered all the main features of the closely reasoned arguments of the
learned Doctor in the present volume.
THE QUEST (CHAPTER 3: THE DISCOVERY OF INDIA)
-JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
Jawaharlal Nehru has obliged the world literature by penning down `The Discovery of India‘
which proves to be the testimonial to his capacity as a writer of historical as well as
autobiographical book. Writing history is like walking on a tight rope as the writer may prove
to be influenced by his personal prejudices and dogmas but fortunately Nehru comes out as
an exception, barring some portions. Nehru, the first prime minister of India, was one of the
greatest figures of the modern India. He was a multifaceted personality-a statesman, a
politician, a writer, a thinker, a philosopher, and a visionary artist. He combined a fine
sensitivity of mind, a rare delicacy of feelings with large and generous impulses. He was
indeed, a great emancipator of the human race, who had given all his life and energy to the
liberty of human beings from all the bondages of mind. It has been rightly observed:
―The Discovery of India considered as a whole is a curious jumble of

historical facts, philosophical speculations and reflective essays on divergent
themes couched in pleasant prose often rising to poetic heights. It is a thesis on
Indian culture and history by the catholic and cosmopolitan mind of Nehru. He
approaches India like a ―friendly foreigner‖, appreciates her
wisdom, condemns her follies and studies her past to make it a spring-board
of action, to push and direct the current of history in creative future channels.
But it is impossible to count it entirely as a book of history or culture, for
what interests us more in The Discovery is its intimate autobiographical tone,
its lucid style and literary graces, above all, its expression of the ideas and
opinions, tastes and temperament, refined sentiments and noble passions of
our beloved leader and the chief disciple of Mahatma Gandhi.‖
Jawaharlal Nehru occupies an enviable position in Indian writing in English. He was a prose
writer of distinction. The literary genius of Nehru has been acclaimed not only in India but
also in the world by scholars. His reputation as a creative artist and literary personality rests
on his major works
Nehru was a born visionary. He was writer of par excellence as well. Commenting on the
greatness of Nehru as a writer Dr Rajendra Prasad writes,
―Jawaharlal is a man of culture in the widest and best sense of the expression.
He is a man with ideas born of study of books and widespread contact with
man, Indian and foreign. His emotional nature and his inmate independence of
thought have helped him in developing a style of expression which is direct
and captivating. He is a gifted writer wielding the pen as an artist.‖
Nehru has been widely acclaimed for his exceptional command over English language. His
English is profoundly rich yet lucid. There is a free flow of poetic narration in his works.
Even his prose works sound melodious to our ears. It must have been a challenging task for
Nehru to manifest Indian sensibility in a foreign language but he succeeded by his creative
genious. Nehru is the superb master of narration. He brings before us the vivid images of the
great leaders and saints of resplendent India. The following narration of Buddha portrayed by
Nehru is evidence in itself:
―Seated on the lotus flower, calm and impassive, above passion and
desire, beyond the storm and strife of this world, so far away he seems, out of
reach, unattainable. Yet again we look and behind those still, unmoving
features there is a passion and an emotion, strange and more powerful than the
passions and emotions we have known. His eyes are closed, but some power
of the spirit looks out of them and a vital energy feels the frame. The ages roll
by and Buddha seems not so far away after all; his voice whispers in our ears
and tells us not to run away from the struggle but, calm-eyed, to face it, and to
see in life ever greater opportunities for growth and advancement.‖
Jawaharlal Nehru‘s ‗The Discovery of India‘ rejuvenates one of the world‘s ancient cultures
covering all its aspects- history, philosophy, art, religion, science, economy, society and its
movements. It is a monumental work. It has brought him worldwide fame as a writer. It was
translated into major European, Asian and Indian languages. It has been widely regarded as a
‗Modern classics.‘ It is also remarkable for its beautiful use of English. It was the
masterpiece of Nehru in which his approach to history is both realistic and philosophical.
Nehru writes about his motherland with pride. He acknowledges the heritage and
success as well as weaknesses and failures of her people.
‗The Discovery of India‘ has been labeled as a historical book which deals with India‘s rich
and complex past from the pre history to the British rule in India but it is very difficult to put
it under a particular branch of literature as it is a disarray of historical facts, philosophical
views and reflective essays. It is a work of prodigious scope and scholarship which unfolds
the Indian culture and history. It also analyses the greatest texts of India from the Vedas to
the Upanishads and the great Indian epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. He also tries
to throw light on the great personalities of India like Buddha, Chanakya and Mahatma
Gandhi. Sunil Khilnani in introduction to the book writes,
―The Discovery of India feels distinctly modern in its mixing of genres.

memoir interleaved with political commentary and philosophical musings, and
all this is contained within a narrative that spans Indian history from the Indus
Valley to the Quit India movement of 1942. It is not a work of original
historical scholarship. It is an act of political and literary imagination.‖
Nehru‘s treatise ‗The Discovery of India‘ was written over five months when he was
imprisoned at Ahmednagar fort in 1942-1946 for his participation in the Quit India
movement along with the great leaders of India. He used the time of monotony and boredom
of jail life to write down his thoughts and learning about India‘s past for he believed that the
past which shapes the present, is an integral part of life. He says,
―The past becomes something that leads up to the present, the moment
of action, the future something that flows from it; and all three are inextricably
intertwined and interrelated.‖
Nehru has already tried to discover the past in relation to present in his ―The Glimpses
of World History‖. The same urge once again tented him to concentrate again on the past in a
deeper sense and he made up his mind to write about India‘s Past. In leisurely mood, Nehru
roams into the past of India to arrive at the roots of his existence as well as his India and
writes what he finds from the twilight past stretched up to the complete dark of antiquity. The
Discovery of India is divided into ten chapters as,
1) Ahmadnagar Fort (2) Bedenweller Lausanne (3) The Quest (4) The Discovey of India (5)
Through the ages (6) New Problems (7) The Last Phase-(1): Consolidation of British Rule
and Rise of Nationalist Movement (8) The Last Phase-(2) Nationalism Versus Imperialism
(9) The Last Phase-(3) World War II (10) Ahmadnagar Fort Again.
The third chapter ‗The Quest‘ is considered to be the real beginning of ‗The Discovery of
India‘. The panorama of India‘s past, India‘s strength and Weakness, the search for India,
Bharatmata, The variety and Unity of India, all these sub chapters in the third chapter reflect
Nehru‘s approach towards India and her appeal to him.
The Discovery of India pens detailed picture of the dawn of the medieval period and the
golden era of the Guptas. Here Nehru also gives a good sight of India‘s foreign relationships
with people of China, Iran and Greece as well as Indian‘s foreign trade which was wide
spread and the merchants of India dominated many foreign markets. Then the most
perplexing question of Buddhism in India, its effect on Hinduism, and its philosophy is
explained extensively.
Chapter 3, the quest. This is very the very essence of the book begins. The panorama of her
past, the search for India, the bharat mata, the variety and unity of India and all these reflect
the beauty and glory of the Indian civilization. Reading through the pages, one can easily tell
the difference between the India that is being talked about in the book and the India of the
present. Whichever is the best is a matter of the individual mind, but one thing is for sure, the
glory of the Indian civilization, can never be equaled in any way by the modern society of our
country.
THE LADIES HAVE SO, SHALL WE LEAV IT TO THE

FEELINGS, E
EXPERTS?
-ARUNDHATI ROY
In the essay, ―The ladies have Feelings…‖ Arundhati Roy ponders the ill effects of
globalization as well as the role of art and artist in combating the effects. She defines
globalization as a process of barbaric dispossession on a scale that has few parallels in
history. Roy powerfully argues that major corporations move silently into the Indian market,
employing Indians to do the actual financial exploitation and therefore ―can have
their colonies and an easy conscience‖. They can further pretend to be aiding Indian people,
thus donning a convincing mask for ―third world repression‖ and financial neocolonization.
Through this essay Arundhati Roy wants every individual to be awake & enlightened. She
does not want people to be silent or passive onlookers. She wants them to watch &
understand everything. Personally, Roy thinks that nothing could be more terrifying than
charging a writer with any role or responsibility. She says that the writer is meant to fly on
the wings of imagination. Arundhati Roy says that in the present circumstances, the role of
the writer has become very difficult. He has to ask himself some very uncomflible questions.
He has to ask questions about our vision for the future, our responsibility as citizens, the role
of the State, the police, the army & the intellectual community.
India at present is facing very simple problems. They are the problems of water supply,
electricity & irrigation. It is difficult to understand how corporate globalization will bridge
the gap between the privileged & the unprivileged; between the upper casts & the lower
casts; between the educated & the uneducated. It will only give friendly helping hand to those
who are already rich.
In this essay Roy takes up such different issues as the duty of a writer, modernity & tradition,
globalization, governance, pollution & poverty. After discussing them one by one with good
examples, she weaves them together by suggesting a common solution to all these issues. She
says that the only way to tackle all these issues is to develop the culture of protest, the politics
of opposition, and the politics of joining hands across the world and prevent certain
destruction.
PAPER-IV
Note
examinations also.

ENGLISH 304 A: POSTCOLONIAL LITERATURES
UNIT 1: BACKGROUND
COLONIALISM
It means the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another
country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.
Puritan poetry was offered uniformly to the service of God. Michael Wigglesworth's Day of
Doom (1662) was uncompromisingly theological, and Anne Bradstreet's poems, issued as
The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650), were reflective of her own piety. The
best of the Puritan poets, Edward Taylor, whose work was not published until two centuries
after his death, wrote metaphysical verse worthy of comparison with that of the English
metaphysical poet George Herbert.
Authors of the Colonial Period
1. Robert Beverley
2. William Bradford
3. Anne Bradstreet
4. William Byrd
5. Jonathan Edwards
6. Jupiter Hammon
7. Thomas Hooker
8. Edward Johnson
9. Cotton Mather
10. Mary Rowlandson
11. Samuel Sewall
12. Edward Taylor
POST-COLONIALISM
Postcolonial literature often addresses the problems and consequences of the decolonization
of a country, especially questions relating to the political and cultural independence of
formerly subjugated people, and themes such as racialism and colonialism. A range of
literary theory has evolved around the subject.
Postcolonial literature is the literature of countries that were colonized, mainly by European
countries. It exists on all continents except Antarctica. Postcolonial literature often addresses
the problems and consequences of the decolonization of a country, especially questions
relating to the political and cultural independence of formerly subjugated people, and themes
such as racialism and colonialism. A range of literary theory has evolved around the subject.
Migrant literature or postcolonial literature shows some considerable overlap. However, not
all migration takes place in a colonial setting, and not all postcolonial literature deals with
migration. A question of current debate is the extent to which postcolonial theory also speaks
to migration literature in non-colonial settings. Ngugi wa Thiong‘o, Ayi Kwei Armah, Doris
Lessing, Bate Besong are the important writers.
DECOLONIZATION
Decolonization is the undoing of colonialism: where a nation establishes and maintains its
domination over dependent territories. The Oxford English Dictionary defines decolonization
as ―the withdrawal from its colonies of a colonial power; the acquisition of political
or economic independence by such colonies.‖ The term refers particularly to the
dismantlement, in the years after World War II, of the colonial empires established prior
to World War I throughout the world. However, decolonization not only refers to the
complete ―removal of the domination of non-indigenous forces‖ within the geographical
space and different institutions of the colonized, but it also refers to the ―decolonizing
of the mind‖ from the colonizers' ideas that made the colonized feel inferior.
The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization has stated that in the process of
decolonization there is no alternative to the colonizer allowing a process of self-
determination, but in practice decolonization may involve either nonviolent
revolution or national liberation wars by pro-independence groups. It may be intramural or
involve the intervention of foreign powers acting individually or through international bodies
such as the United Nations. Although examples of decolonization can be found as early as the
writings of Thucydides, there have been several particularly active periods of decolonization
in modern times. These include the breakup of the Spanish Empire in the 19th century; of
the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires following World War I; of
the British, French, Dutch, Japanese, Portuguese, Belgian and Italian colonial empires
following World War II; and of the Soviet Union (successor to the Russian
Empire) following the October Revolution.
NEOCOLONIALISM
It means the use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence
other countries, especially former dependencies.
Neocolonialism, neo-colonialism or neo-imperialism is the practice of using capitalism,
globalization and cultural imperialism to influence a developing country in lieu of direct
military control (imperialism) or indirect political control (hegemony). It was coined
by Kwame Nkrumah in the context of African countries undergoing decolonization in the
1960s. Neo-colonialism is also discussed in the works of Western thinkers such as Jean-Paul
Sartre (Colonialism and Neo-colonialism, 1964) and Noam Chomsky (The Washington
Connection and Third World Fascism, 1979). Some neocolonial ideas, like charter cities, are
popular among economists.
MIMICRY-HYBRIDITY
Let's start with mimicry, the easier of the two concepts. Mimicry in colonial and postcolonial
literature is most commonly seen when members of a colonized society (say, Indians or
Africans) imitate the language, dress, politics, or cultural attitude of their colonizers (say, the
British or the French).
Daniel Dafoe‘s 1719 novel, Robinson Crusoe, is a rich text for understanding the
mechanisms of European colonialism and the relation between the colonizer and the
colonized (represented by Crusoe and Friday). Dafoe represents Crusoe as being the ultimate
incarnation of an Englishman: industrious, self-determining and ready to colonize natives.
Crusoe encounters a native and he names him Friday, teaches him English, the words of God,
and slowly ―civilizes‖ the dark-skinned native. Although the novel forecloses any possibility
of understanding Friday‘s experience, a reader could start to wonder how Friday‘s relation to
Crusoe affects his own sense of identity. In the novel, we only see Friday as mimicking
Crusoe and civilization–but what effects does this mimicry have on a colonized subject and
psyche? And how does mimicry and hybridity affect textual representation and signification?
The term hybridity has become one of the most recurrent concepts in postcolonial cultural
criticism. It is meant to foreclose the diverse forms of purity encompassed within essentialist
theories. Homi Bhabha is the leading contemporary critic who has tried to disclose the
contradictions inherent in colonial discourse in order to highlight the
colonizer‘s ambivalence in respect to his position toward the colonized other. The simple
presence of the colonized other within the textual structure is enough evidence of the
ambivalence of the colonial text, an ambivalence that destabilizes its claim for absolute
authority or unquestionable authenticity.
Along with Tom Nairn, Homi Bhabha considers the confusion and hollowness that resistance
produces in the minds of such imperialist authors as Rider Haggard, Rudyard Kipling, and E.
M. Forster. But while Nairn sees their colonialist grandiose rhetoric as disproportionate to the
real decadent economic and political situation of late Victorian England, Bhabha goes as far
as to see this imperial delirium forming gaps within the English text, gaps which are the signs
of a discontinuous history, an estrangement of the English book. They mark the disturbance
of its authoritative representations by the uncanny forces of race, sexuality, violence, cultural
and even climatic differences which emerge in the colonial discource as the mixed and split
texts of hybridity. If the English book is read as a production of hybridity, then it no longer
simply commands authority.
His analysis, which is largely based on the Lacanian conceptualization of mimicry as

camouflage focuses on colonial ambivalence. On the one hand, he sees the colonizer as a
snake in the grass who, speaks in ―a tongue that is forked,‖ and produces a mimetic
representation that ―emerges as one of the most elusive and effective strategies of
colonial power and knowledge‖ (Bhabha 85). Bhabha recognizes then that colonial power
carefully establishes highly-sophisticated strategies of control and dominance; that, while it is
aware of its ephemerality, it is also anxious to create the means that guarantee its economic,
political and cultural endurance, through the conception, in Macaulay‘s words in his
―Minute on Indian Education‖ (1835),‖of a class of interpreters between us and the millions
whom we govern – a class of persons Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, in
opinions, in morals and in intellect‖ – that is through the reformation of that category of
people referred to by Frantz Fanon in the phrase, ―black skin/white masks,‖ or as ―mimic
men‖ by V.S.Naipaul. Friday could be one of these mimic men; but as we have already seen,
the process of colonial mimicry is both a product of and produces ambivalence and hybridity.
Bhabha explains that Macaulay‘s Indian interpreters and Naipaul‘s mimic men are authorized
versions of otherness: ―part-objects of a metonymy of colonial desire, end up
emerging as inappropriate colonial subjects … [who], by now producing a partial vision of
the colonizer‘s presence‖ (88). What is left in the repeating action of mimicry, according to
Bhabha, is the trace, the impure, the artificial, the second-hand. Bhabha analyses the
slippages in colonial political discourse, and reveals that the janus-faced attitudes towards the
colonized lead to the production of a mimicry that presents itself more in the form of a
menace and rupture rather than than a resemblance and consolidation.
At a basic level, hybridity refers to any mixing of east and western culture. Within colonial
and postcolonial literature, it most commonly refers to colonial subjects from Asia or Africa
who have found a balance between eastern and western cultural attributes
Hybridity, Bhabha argues, subverts the narratives of colonial power and dominant cultures.
The series of inclusions and exclusions on which a dominant culture is premised are
deconstructed by the very entry of the formerly-excluded subjects into the mainstream
discourse (See Representation, Nationalism). The dominant culture is contaminated by the
linguistic and racial differences of the native self. Hybridity can thus be seen, in Bhabha‘s
interpretation, as a counter-narrative, a critique of the canon and its exclusion of other
narratives. In other words, the hybridity-acclaimers want to suggest first, that the colonialist
discourse‘s ambivalence is a conspicuous illustration of its uncertainty; and second, that the
migration of yesterday‘s ―savages‖ from their peripheral spaces to the homes of
their
―masters‖ underlies a blessing invasion that, by ―Third-Worlding‖ the center, creates
―fissures‖ within the very structures that sustain it.
UNIVERSALISM-EUROCENTRISM
In his essay discussing the nature and boundaries of post-colonialism, Simon During argues
for a more inclusive definition, calling it ―the need, in nations, or groups which have
been victims of imperialism to achieve an identity uncontaminated by universalist or
Eurocentric concepts or images.‖
Eurocentrism (also ―Western-centrism‖) is a worldview centered on and biased
towards Western civilization. The exact scope of centrism varies from the entire Western
world to only Europe or even just Western Europe (especially during the Cold War). When
applied to history, it may refer to an apologetic stance towards European colonialism and
other forms of imperialism
The term Eurocentrism itself dates back to the late 1970s and became prevalent during the
1990s, especially in the context of decolonization and development aid and humanitarian
aid offered by industrialised countries (―First World‖) to developing countries (―Third
World‖).
MYTH-HISTORY
Mythology refers variously to the collected myths of a group of people or to the study of
such myths. Myths are the stories people tell to explain nature, history, and customs.
Myth is a feature of every culture. Many sources for myths have been proposed, ranging from
personification of nature or personification of natural phenomena, to truthful or hyperbolic
accounts of historical events to explanations of existing rituals. A culture's collective
mythology helps convey belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioral models,
and moral and practical lessons.
UNIT –II (POETRY)
EVE TO HER DAUGHTERS

-JUDITH WRIGHT
Judith Arundell Wright was an Australian poet, environmentalist and campaigner for
Aboriginal land rights.
It was not I who began it.

Turned out into drafty caves,
hungry so often, having to work for our bread,
hearing the children whining,
I was nevertheless not unhappy.
Where Adam went I was fairly contented to go.
I adapted myself to the punishment: it was my life.
But Adam, you know…!

He kept brooding over the insult,
over the trick They had played on us, over the scolding.
He had discovered a flaw in himself
and he had to make up for it.
Outside Eden the earth was imperfect,

the seasons changed, the game was flee-footed,
he had to work for our living, and he didn‘t like it.
He even complained of my cooking
(it was hard to compete with
Heaven).
So he set to work.
The earth must be made a new Eden
with central heating, domesticated animals,
mechanical harvesters, combustion
engines, escalators, refrigerators,
and modern means of communication
and multiplied opportunities for safe investment
and higher education for Abel and Cain
and the rest of the family.
You can see how his pride had been hurt.
In the process he had to unravel
everything, because he believed that

mechanism
was the whole secret—he was always mechanical-minded.

He got to the very inside of the whole machine
exclaiming as he went, So this is how it works!
And now that I know how it works, why, I must have invented it.
As for God and the Other, they cannot be demonstrated,
and what cannot be demonstrated
doesn‘t exist.
You see, he had always been jealous.
Yes, he got to the center

where nothing at all can be demonstrated.
And clearly he doesn‘t exist; but he refuses
to accept the conclusion
You see, he was always an egoist.
It was warmer than this in the cave;

there was none of this fall-out.
I would suggest, for the sake of the children,
that it‘s time you took over.
But you are my daughters, you inherit my own faults of

character; you are submissive, following Adam
even beyond existence.
Faults of character have their own logic
and it always works out.
I observed this with Abel and Cain.
Perhaps the whole elaborate fable

right from the beginning
is meant to demonstrate this; perhaps it‘s the whole secret.
Perhaps nothing exists but our faults?
At least they can be demonstrated.
But it‘s useless to make

such a suggestion to Adam.
He has turned himself into God,
who is faultless, and doesn‘t exist.
Summary:
This Poem ‗Eve to Her Daughters‘ reflect Feminist thought and is written with women‘s
words. We think that the ―Daughters‖ all are women that have lived and died, and will live
and die. We interpret it as if it‘s Eve who is telling how Adam became after they had been
dismissed from the Garden of Eden. He wants to make Earth easier to live in, which means
that he invents cars, escalators and other things. But Adam in this Poem is not Adam, it is
men. Judith Wright writes that, ―Perhaps the whole secret is that nothing exists but
our faults.‖
BULLOCKY
-JUDITH WRIGHT
Beside his heavy-shouldered team
thirsty with drought and chilled with rain,
he weathered all the striding years
till they ran widdershins in his brain:
Till the long solitary tracks

etched deeper with each lurching load
were populous before his eyes,
and fiends and angels used his road.
All the long straining journey grew

a mad apocalyptic dream,
and he old Moses, and the slaves
his suffering and stubborn team.
Then in his evening camp beneath

the half-light pillars of the trees
he filled the steepled cone of night
with shouted prayers and prophecies.
While past the campfire's crimson ring

the star struck darkness cupped him round.
and centuries of cattle-bells
rang with their sweet uneasy sound.
Grass is across the wagon-tracks,

and plough strikes bone beneath the grass,
and vineyards cover all the slopes
where the dead teams were used to pass.
O vine, grow close upon that bone

and hold it with your rooted hand.
The prophet Moses feeds the grape,

and fruitful is the Promised Land.
Summary:
Bullocky is a written art form. It describes in fascinating tactile images and metaphors the
eventual death. Bullocky is another poem, which can depict the Australian landscape. In this
poem, all stanzas are in the past tense except the final one in which she changes to the
present.
The poem depicts the final lonely days of Bullocky. Years of naught but bulls for company,
the only voice being his own as he cries out into the nothingness, waiting for a response, and
left wanting. Finally his loneliness breeds demented fantasies; his eyes and ears play tricks,
yet he does not resist it. His hallucinations, his friends and angels, are his only company. So
he surrenders to madness, and for that convoying moment before death he experiences peace.
He is sung into the long awaited death by the cattle-bells. After that we read of the Bullocky
being discovered, many years later, in the vineyard. ―The Prophet Moses feeds the grape,
and fruitful is the Promised Land.‖ The Bullocky is at rest in the soil of the Promised Land
(Australia).
He is where he is meant to be, feeding the grapes, as part of life and Earth as he ever was.
Judith Wright, whose pastorolist family established itself in northern New South Wales and
Southern Queens land felt compelled to withdraw her early poem ‗Bullocky‘ from the
anthologies of poetry used in schools because she believed it was being misinterpreted as an
uncomplicated affirmation of the pioneering spirit - an interpretation, she noted, that
overlooked the fact that the old man in the poem is a ‗mild religious maniac‘, who is
described as being in thrall to a ‗mad apocalyptic dream.‘ ‗Bullocky‘ is not an absolute
rejection of the pioneering narrative, but the ‗tone of the last two verses‘, said Wright,
‗which I had seen as a gently affectionate send up of the Vision, was missed — they became
a hyperbolic celebration of it‘. Furthermore, the poem only addresses one aspect of the story.
Other poems, Wright felt, were ‗necessary to a proper view of ―Bullocky‖.
REQUEST TO A YEAR
-JUDITH WRIGHT
If the year is meditating a suitable gift,

I should like it to be the attitude
of my great- great- grandmother,
legendary devotee of the arts,
who having eight children
and little opportunity for painting pictures,
sat one day on a high rock
beside a river in Switzerland

and from a difficult distance viewed
her second son, balanced on a small ice flow,
drift down the current toward a waterfall
that struck rock bottom eighty feet below,
while her second daughter, impeded,
no doubt, by the petticoats of the day,
stretched out a last-hope alpenstock
(which luckily later caught him on his way).
Nothing, it was evident, could be done;

And with the artist's isolating eye
My great-great-grandmother hastily sketched the scene.
The sketch survives to prove the story by.
Year, if you have no Mother's day present planned,
Reach back and bring me the firmness of her hand.
Summary:
The gift that the poet proposes to ask of the year is the attitude that the ‗poet‘s great-great-
grandmother possessed.‘ This grandmother had eight children and she took up the hobby of
painting pictures only once they were all grown up. Once when she was painting sitting on
the banks of a riverbed, she suddenly saw that her second son was almost on the verge of
falling in to a waterfall. The boy‘s sister was trying to pull her brother out of the water and
she herself was almost in trouble as her heavy frocks acted as a barrier for the rescue. The
grandmother resignedly sketched this scene. The poet asks that if it is possible for the year to
think of trying to provide her with an attitude just like her grandmother. Request to a year is
not part of her much-feted scenic nationalistic standard. Deceptively casual, it demonstrates
her craft; the discipline, wit, grace of expression and, above all, her gift with images. It is a
way of reflecting what her life must have felt like; surrounded by disasters and horrors and
unable to directly contain, confront or control them. It places you there on the spot; watching
your child drift away on an ice floe. What do you do? Shriek...run up and down—all very
understandable—but it won't solve the problem. The common understanding of this poem
centers on its heartlessness.
The mother in the poem has let the boy go exploring, to find himself and the world, and when
he gets into trouble she's too far away to do anything except give him ―life through art‖, so
to speak. The essence is, an artist—or anyone else for that matter—cannot give way to self-
indulgent helplessness.
MARVEL’S GARDEN
-PHYLLIS WEBB
Phyllis Webb, OC (born April 8, 1927) is a Canadian poet and

radio broadcaster. The Canadian Encyclopedia describes her as ―a writer of stature
in Canadian letters‖, and calls her work ―brilliantly crafted, formal in its energies and
humane in its concern‖.
Besides the traditional concept of time, Webb also contrasts the male version of spiritual
ecstasy with her own in one of her best-known poems, ―Marvell's Garden.‖ Marvell is
portrayed as one who escapes suffering by retreating into art, a journey likened to the ascent
toward the paradise of which fallen man has been dispossessed. At first she is in awe of him:
Marvell's vision of heaven, and of eternity, is in accordance with the patriarchal myth of an
otherworldly escape from the toils of earthly existence; it represents seclusion, escape,
freedom, exclusivity. In his poem, the poet finds refuge in a static pastoral haven that
excludes the presence of women, where ―[n]o white nor red was ever seen‖; the
colours associated with female beauty in Marvell's time are marked by their absence. It is the
pervasive, orderly masculinity of his paradise that affords him peace of mind.
BREAKING
-PHYLLIS WEBB
Give us wholeness, for we are broken.
But who are we asking, and why do we ask?
Destructive element heaves close to home,
our years of work broken against a breakwater.
Shattered gods, self-iconoclasts,

it is with Lazarus unattended we belong
(the fall of the sparrow is unbroken song).
The crucifix has clattered to the ground,

the living Christ has spent a year in Paris,
travelled on the Métro, fallen in the Seine.
We would not raise our silly gods again.

Stigmata sting, they suddenly appear
on every blessed person everywhere.
If there is agitation there is cause.
Ophelia, Hamlet, Othello, Lear,

Kit Smart, William Blake, John Clare,
Van Gogh, Henry IV of Pirandello,

Gerard de Nerval, Antonin Artaud
bear a crown of darkness.
It is better so.
Responsible now each to his own attack,
we are bequeathed their ethos and our death.
Greek marble white and whiter grows

breaking into history of a west.
If we could stand so virtuously white
crumbling in the terrible Grecian light.
There is a justice in destruction.

It isn't 'isn't fair'.
A madhouse is designed for the insane,
a hospital for wounds that will re-open;
a war is architecture for aggression,
and Christ's stigmata body-minted token.
What are we whole or beautiful or good for
but to be absolutely broken?
AH GHALIB
-PHYLLIS WEBB
Ah! Ghalib, you are drinking too much,

your lines are becoming maudlin.
Here, take this tea and sober up. The moon

is full tonight, and I can't sleep.
And look ' this small branch of cherry

blossoms, picked today, and it's only February.
You could use a few cool Japanese images

to put you on the straight and narrow.
Still, I love to study your graceful script,

Urdu amorous, flowing across the page.
There were nights I watched you dip your pen

into the old Persian too, inscribe 'Asad'
with a youthful flourish, Remember Asad,

Ghalib?
Mirza Asadullah Beg Khan, who are you really?

Born in Agra, of Turkish ancestry,
fond of women, politics, money, wine.

'Losses and consequent grief' a recurring
theme, also 'a poetry ... of what was,

what could have been possible.'
Ah Ghalib, you are almost asleep,

head on the table, hand flung out,
upturned. In the blue and white jar

a cherry branch, dark pink in the moonlight '
from the land of

only what is.
CALYPSO
-KAMAU BRATHWAITE
Edward Kamau Brathwaite is a Barbadian poet and academic, widely considered one of the
major voices in the Caribbean literary canon. Co-founder of the Caribbean Artists Movement,
Brathwaite is the author of numerous collections of poetry, including Elegguas (2010), Slow
Horses (2005), Ancestors (2001), Middle Passages (1992), and Black Blues (1976). His first
three collections, Rights of Passage (1967), Masks (1968), and Islands (1969), have been
gathered into The Arrivants: A New World Trilogy (1973). He is also the author of Our
Ancestral Heritage: A Bibliography of the Roots of Culture in the English-speaking

Caribbean (1976) and Barbados Poetry: A Checklist: Slavery to the Present (1979).
The stone had skidded arc'd and bloomed into islands:

Cuba and San Domingo
Jamaica and Puerto Rico
Grenada Guadeloupe Bonaire
curved stone hissed into reef

wave teeth fanged into clay
white splash flashed into spray
Bathsheba Montego Bay
bloom of the arcing summers...

The islands roared into green plantations
ruled by silver sugar cane
sweat and profit

cutlass profit
islands ruled by sugar cane
and of course it was a wonderful time
a profitable hospitable well-worth-you-time
when captains carried receipts for rices

letters spices wigs
opera glasses swaggering asses
debtors vices pigs
O it was a wonderful time

An elegant benevolent redolent time
And young Mrs P.‘s quick irrelevant crine
At four o‘clock in the morning
But what of black Sam

With the big splayed toes
And the shoe black shiny skin?
He carries bucketfuls of water

Cause his Ma‘s just had another daughter.
And what of John with the European name

Who went to school and dreamt of fame
His boss one day called him a fool
And the boss hadn‘t even been to school….
Steel drum steel drum

Hit the hot calypso dancing
Hot rum hot rum
Who goin‘ stop this bacchanalling?
For we glance the banjoy

Dance the limbo
Grow our corps by maljo
have loose morals

gather corals
father out neighbour's quarrels
perhaps when they come

with their cameras and straw
hats: sacred pink tourists from the frozen Nawth
we should get down to those

white beaches
where if we don't wear breeches
it becomes an island dance

Some people doin' well
while others are catchin' hell
o the boss gave our Johnny the sack

though we beg him please
please to take ‗im back
so now the boy nigratin‘ overseas…
BREAD
-KAMAU BRATHWAITE
Slowly the white dream wrestle(s) to life

hands shaping the salt and the foreign cornfields
the cold flesh kneaded by fingers

is ready for the charcoal for the black wife
of heat the years of green sleeping in the volcano.

the dream becomes tougher. settling into its shape
like a bullfrog. suns rise and electrons
touch it. walls melt into brown. moving to crisp and crackle
breathing edge of the knife of the oven.

noise of the shop. noise of the farmer. market.
on this slab of lord. on this table w/ its oil-skin cloth
on this altar of the bone. this sacrifice
of isaac. warm dead. warm merchandise. more than worn merchandise

life
itself. the dream of the soil itself
flesh of the god you break. peace to your lips. strife
of the multitudes who howl all day for its saviour

who need its crumbs as fish. flickering through their green element
need a wide glassy wisdom
to keep their groans alive
and this loaf here. life

now halted. more and more water add-
itive. the dream less clear. the soil more distant
its prayer of table. bless of lips. more hard to reach w/ penn-
ies. the knife

that should have cut it. the hands that should have broken open its victory
of crusts at your throat. balaam watching w/ red leak
-ing eyes. the rats
finding only this young empty husk

sharp-
ening their ratchets. your wife
going out on the streets. searching searching
her feet tapping. the lights of the motor-

cars watching watching round-
ing the shape of her girdle. her back naked
rolled into night into night w/out morning

rolled into dead into dead w/out vision
rolled into life into life w/out dream
Summary:
Bread is a nightmare where life-giving gestures turn murderous, and communal sharing
breaks into a lonely flight. The first poem about Agwèis is red with shed blood, associated as
it is with the storm ―that liberated Haiti …obliterated Haiti.‖ ―Esplanade Poem‖ is an ironic
vignette about two fat white ―tourisses‖ walking along ―Bayshore as they call it now,‖ next to
four black workers cleaning the beach. It ends on a note of shared compassion: whether they
are ―walking their walks or sweeping the sand / of the morning.‖
LIMBO
-KAMAU BRATHWAITE
(In some Christian beliefs) the supposed abode of the souls of unbaptized infants, and of the
just who died before Christ's coming.)
And limbo stick is the silence in front of me

Limbo
limbo
limbo like me
limbo
limbo like me
long dark night is the silence in front of me

limbo
limbo like me
stick hit sound

and the ship like it ready
stick hit sound

and the dark still steady
limbo
limbo like me
long dark deck and the water surrounding me

long dark deck and the silence is over me
limbo
limbo like me
stick is the whip

and the dark deck is slavery
stick is the whip

and the dark deck is slavery
limbo
limbo like me
drum stick knock

and the darkness is over me
knees spread wide

and the water is hiding
limbo
limbo like me
knees spread wide

and the dark ground is under me
down
down
down
and the drummer is calling me
limbo
limbo like me
sun coming up
and the drummers are praising me
out of the dark
and the dumb god are raising me
up
up
up
and the music is saving me

hot
slow
step
on the burning ground.
OVERTURE
-CHRISTOPHER OKIGBO
Christopher Ifekandu Okigbo was a Nigerian poet, teacher, and librarian, who died fighting
for the independence of Biafra. He died in the civil war in Nigeria, fighting for the
independence of Biafra. His difficult but suggestive and prophetic poems show the influence
of modernist European and American poetry, African tribal mythology, and Nigerian music
and rhythms. Okigbo first planned to study medicine, but changed his major to Greek and
Latin, graduating in 1956. He edited the University Weekly and translated Greek and Latin
Verse. From the university days on he was a close friend of Chinua Achebe.
The publication of heavensgate by Christopher Okigbo marked his initiation return to the
African cultural heritage and the deeply-felt personal rebirth with the goddess of his tradition
called Idoto. As used in ‗Overture poem‘ Idoto is a mother goddess of the village stream in
the poet‘s hometown known as Ojoto, in eastern Nigeria. The oilbean is part of the mangrove
ecology in this river town which was one of the emblems being worshiped by the river
goddess Idoto. The poet discloses his religious and metaphysical experience by bringing out
family beliefs into the poems. His vision for the spiritual quest led the poet to classical myths
and the writing of melodic modes.
In ‗overture‘ the Persona is more like reciting or chanting from the rituals of Idoto, a river
goddess of the author‘s village. This incantation is intruding readers of this poem into the
persona‘s cultural and religious experience. From the first two stanzas, readers can tell that
the persona is in complete submission at a sacred place as he says ‗naked I stand, before your
watery presence‘ and that a secrete culture is being practiced because the images used tells us
that; this poem is a translation from the oral praises of mother Idoto and its occasion
composition was during the worship of mother Idoto. In1989, an edition book of Christopher
Okigbo was published by Paul Theroux and Adewale Maja-peace entitled ‗Collected Poems‘.
The images in heavensgate from this book reflected that; ‗Idoto is the goddess of the village
stream in the poet‘s hometown Ojoto, in eastern Nigeria; the oilbean is part of the mangrove
ecology in this riverine town and it is one of the emblems of Idoto‘s worship.
In the last stanza of ‗overture‘, Watchman suggests that the persona is a man and
Heavensgate is an experience to his life. The persona is in complete submission to the
guiding spirits as he say ―under your power wait I on bare foot‖ and basically pleading for
acceptance as the last verse says ‗give ear and hearken‘ to mean please listen to me.
‗Overture‘ is closely related to ‗sacrifice‘ in the sense that the persona in both poems intends
to construct a spiritual sanctuary to accommodate the most cherished affinities, his most
deep-seated instincts and sensibilities. The essence of all this is that as the persona takes the
literally journey of self-discovery through a wide range of people and tongues, he will have
attained a sense of his complex personality by means of a guiding beacon which he can fairly
claim to be his own. The persona in these poems wrestles with residual images of religious
aspects as they learn to transcend the endeavors to find themselves.
FROM ELEGY FOR ALTO

-CHRISTOPHER OKIGBO
In ―Elegy for Alto,‖ Christopher Okigbo presented his final testament. In 1966, at the age of
34, one year before being murdered by the Gowon Military, he prophecized a bleak future for
his country. This poem ―bemoaned the death of a great dream. The country stood at the brink
of war, and the reversion to chaos, only temporarily staved off, continued with accelerated
speed. For a man who had stood at the center of the great dream of Nigerian nationhood, the
alienation and sense of doom were most distressing and painful.
BANKS OF
REED -CHRISTOPHER OKIGBO
Tell me, before the ferryman's return,

What was that stirred within your
soul, One night fifteen floods today,
When upon a dugout
Mid pilgrim lettuce on the Niger,
You with a start strained me to breast:
Did you that night in the raucous voice
Of yesterday's rain,
Tumbling down banks of
reed To feed a needless
stream,
Then recognize the loud note of quarrels
And endless dark nights of intrigue
In Father's house of many wives?
UNIT-III
FICTION
THINGS FALL APART
-CHINUA ACHEBE
Characters List:
Okonkwo - An influential clan leader in Umuofia, since early childhood, Okonkwo‘s

embarrassment about his lazy, squandering, and effeminate father, Unoka, has driven him to
succeed. Okonkwo‘s hard work and prowess in war have earned him a position of high status
in his clan, and he attains wealth sufficient to support three wives and their children.
Okonkwo‘s tragic flaw is that he is terrified of looking weak like his father. As a result, he
behaves rashly, bringing a great deal of trouble and sorrow upon himself and his family.
Nwoye - Okonkwo‘s oldest son, whom Okonkwo believes is weak and lazy. Okonkwo
continually beats Nwoye, hoping to correct the faults that he perceives in him. Influenced by
Ikemefuna, Nwoye begins to exhibit more masculine behavior, which pleases Okonkwo.
However, he maintains doubts about some of the laws and rules of his tribe and eventually
converts to Christianity, an act that Okonkwo criticizes as ―effeminate.‖ Okonkwo
believes that Nwoye is afflicted with the same weaknesses that his father, Unoka, possessed
in abundance.
Ezinma - The only child of Okonkwo‘s second wife, Ekwefi. As the only one of Ekwefi‘s ten
children to survive past infancy, Ezinma is the center of her mother‘s world. Their
relationship is atypical—Ezinma calls Ekwefi by her name and is treated by her as an equal.
Ezinma is also Okonkwo‘s favorite child, for she understands him better than any of his other
children and reminds him of Ekwefi when Ekwefi was the village beauty. Okonkwo rarely
demonstrates his affection, however, because he fears that doing so would make him look
weak. Furthermore, he wishes that Ezinma were a boy because she would have been the
perfect son.
Ikemefuna - A boy given to Okonkwo by a neighboring village. Ikemefuna lives in the hut
of Okonkwo‘s first wife and quickly becomes popular with Okonkwo‘s children. He develops
an especially close relationship with Nwoye, Okonkwo‘s oldest son, who looks up to him.
Okonkwo too becomes very fond of Ikemefuna, who calls him ―father‖ and is a
perfect clansman, but Okonkwo does not demonstrate his affection because he fears that
doing so would make him look weak.
Mr. Brown - The first white missionary to travel to Umuofia. Mr. Brown institutes a policy
of compromise, understanding, and non-aggression between his flock and the clan. He even
becomes friends with prominent clansmen and builds a school and a hospital in Umuofia.
Unlike Reverend Smith, he attempts to appeal respectfully to the tribe‘s value system rather
than harshly impose his religion on it.
Reverend James Smith - The missionary who replaces Mr. Brown. Unlike Mr. Brown,
Reverend Smith is uncompromising and strict. He demands that his converts reject all of their
indigenous beliefs, and he shows no respect for indigenous customs or culture. He is the
stereotypical white colonialist, and his behavior epitomizes the problems of colonialism. He
intentionally provokes his congregation, inciting it to anger and even indirectly, through
Enoch, encouraging some fairly serious transgressions.
Uchendu - The younger brother of Okonkwo‘s mother. Uchendu receives Okonkwo and his
family warmly when they travel to Mbanta, and he advises Okonkwo to be grateful for the
comfort that his motherland offers him lest he anger the dead—especially his mother, who is
buried there. Uchendu himself has suffered—all but one of his six wives are dead and he has
buried twenty-two children. He is a peaceful, compromising man and functions as a foil (a
character whose emotions or actions highlight, by means of contrast, the emotions or actions
of another character) to Okonkwo, who acts impetuously and without thinking.
The District Commissioner - An authority figure in the white colonial government in

Nigeria. The prototypical racist colonialist, the District Commissioner thinks that he
understands everything about native African customs and cultures and he has no respect for
them. He plans to work his experiences into an ethnographic study on local African tribes, the
idea of which embodies his dehumanizing and reductive attitude toward race relations.
Unoka - Okonkwo‘s father, of whom Okonkwo has been ashamed since childhood. By the
standards of the clan, Unoka was a coward and a spendthrift. He never took a title in his life,
he borrowed money from his clansmen, and he rarely repaid his debts. He never became a
warrior because he feared the sight of blood. Moreover, he died of an abominable illness. On
the positive side, Unoka appears to have been a talented musician and gentle, if idle. He may
well have been a dreamer, ill-suited to the chauvinistic culture into which he was born. The
novel opens ten years after his death.
Obierika - Okonkwo‘s close friend, whose daughter‘s wedding provides cause for festivity
early in the novel. Obierika looks out for his friend, selling Okonkwo‘s yams to ensure that
Okonkwo won‘t suffer financial ruin while in exile and comforting Okonkwo when he is
depressed. Like Nwoye, Obierika questions some of the tribe‘s traditional strictures.
Ekwefi - Okonkwo‘s second wife, once the village beauty. Ekwefi ran away from her first
husband to live with Okonkwo. Ezinma is her only surviving child, her other nine having
died in infancy, and Ekwefi constantly fears that she will lose Ezinma as well. Ekwefi is good
friends with Chielo, the priestess of the goddess Agbala.
Enoch - A fanatical convert to the Christian church in Umuofia. Enoch‘s disrespectful act of
ripping the mask off an egwugwu during an annual ceremony to honor the earth deity leads to
the climactic clash between the indigenous and colonial justice systems. While Mr. Brown,
early on, keeps Enoch in check in the interest of community harmony, Reverend Smith
approves of his zealotry.
Ogbuefi Ezeudu - The oldest man in the village and one of the most important clan elders
and leaders. Ogbuefi Ezeudu was a great warrior in his youth and now delivers messages
from the Oracle.
Obiageli - The daughter of Okonkwo‘s first wife. Although Obiageli is close to Ezinma in
age, Ezinma has a great deal of influence over her.
Ojiugo - Okonkwo‘s third and youngest wife, and the mother of Nkechi. Okonkwo beats
Ojiugo during the Week of Peace.
Summary:
Okonkwo is a wealthy and respected warrior of the Umuofia clan, a lower Nigerian tribe that
is part of a consortium of nine connected villages. He is haunted by the actions of Unoka, his
cowardly and spendthrift father, who died in disrepute, leaving many village debts unsettled.
In response, Okonkwo became a clansman, warrior, farmer, and family provider
extraordinaire. He has a twelve-year-old son named Nwoye whom he finds lazy; Okonkwo
worries that Nwoye will end up a failure like Unoka.
In a settlement with a neighboring tribe, Umuofia wins a virgin and a fifteen-year-old boy.
Okonkwo takes charge of the boy, Ikemefuna, and finds an ideal son in him. Nwoye likewise
forms a strong attachment to the newcomer. Despite his fondness for Ikemefuna and despite
the fact that the boy begins to call him ―father,‖ Okonkwo does not let himself show
any affection for him.
During the Week of Peace, Okonkwo accuses his youngest wife, Ojiugo, of negligence. He
severely beats her, breaking the peace of the sacred week. He makes some sacrifices to show
his repentance, but he has shocked his community irreparably.
Ikemefuna stays with Okonkwo‘s family for three years. Nwoye looks up to him as an older
brother and, much to Okonkwo‘s pleasure, develops a more masculine attitude. One day, the
locusts come to Umuofia—they will come every year for seven years before disappearing for
another generation. The village excitedly collects them because they are good to eat when
cooked.
Ogbuefi Ezeudu, a respected village elder, informs Okonkwo in private that the Oracle has
said that Ikemefuna must be killed. He tells Okonkwo that because Ikemefuna calls him
―father,‖ Okonkwo should not take part in the boy‘s death. Okonkwo lies to
Ikemefuna, telling him that they must return him to his home village. Nwoye bursts into
tears.
As he walks with the men of Umuofia, Ikemefuna thinks about seeing his mother. After
several hours of walking, some of Okonkwo‘s clansmen attack the boy with machetes.
Ikemefuna runs to Okonkwo for help. But Okonkwo, who doesn‘t wish to look weak in front
of his fellow tribesmen, cuts the boy down despite the Oracle‘s admonishment. When
Okonkwo returns home, Nwoye deduces that his friend is dead.
Okonkwo sinks into a depression, neither able to sleep nor eat. He visits his friend Obierika
and begins to feel revived a bit. Okonkwo‘s daughter Ezinma falls ill, but she recovers after
Okonkwo gathers leaves for her medicine.
The death of Ogbuefi Ezeudu is announced to the surrounding villages by means of the ekwe,
a musical instrument. Okonkwo feels guilty because the last time Ezeudu visited him was to
warn him against taking part in Ikemefuna‘s death. At Ogbuefi Ezeudu‘s large and elaborate
funeral, the men beat drums and fire their guns. Tragedy compounds upon itself when
Okonkwo‘s gun explodes and kills Ogbuefi Ezeudu‘s sixteen-year-old son.
Because killing a clansman is a crime against the earth goddess, Okonkwo must take his
family into exile for seven years in order to atone. He gathers his most valuable belongings
and takes his family to his mother‘s natal village, Mbanta. The men from Ogbuefi Ezeudu‘s
quarter burn Okonkwo‘s buildings and kill his animals to cleanse the village of his sin.
Okonkwo‘s kinsmen, especially his uncle, Uchendu, receive him warmly. They help him
build a new compound of huts and lend him yam seeds to start a farm. Although he is bitterly
disappointed at his misfortune, Okonkwo reconciles himself to life in his motherland.
During the second year of Okonkwo‘s exile, Obierika brings several bags of cowries (shells
used as currency) that he has made by selling Okonkwo‘s yams. Obierika plans to continue to
do so until Okonkwo returns to the village. Obierika also brings the bad news that Abame,
another village, has been destroyed by the white man.
Soon afterward, six missionaries travel to Mbanta. Through an interpreter named Mr. Kiaga,
the missionaries‘ leader, Mr Brown, speaks to the villagers. He tells them that their gods are
false and that worshipping more than one God is idolatrous. But the villagers do not
understand how the Holy Trinity can be accepted as one God. Although his aim is to convert
the residents of Umuofia to Christianity, Mr. Brown does not allow his followers to
antagonize the clan.
Mr. Brown grows ill and is soon replaced by Reverend James Smith, an intolerant and strict
man. The more zealous converts are relieved to be free of Mr. Brown‘s policy of restraint.
One such convert, Enoch, dares to unmask an egwugwu during the annual ceremony to honor
the earth deity, an act equivalent to killing an ancestral spirit. The next day, the egwugwu
burn Enoch‘s compound and Reverend Smith‘s church to the ground.
The District Commissioner is upset by the burning of the church and requests that the leaders
of Umuofia meet with him. Once they are gathered, however, the leaders are handcuffed and
thrown in jail, where they suffer insults and physical abuse.
After the prisoners are released, the clansmen hold a meeting, during which five court
messengers approach and order the clansmen to desist. Expecting his fellow clan members to
join him in uprising, Okonkwo kills their leader with his machete. When the crowd allows the
other messengers to escape, Okonkwo realizes that his clan is not willing to go to war.
When the District Commissioner arrives at Okonkwo‘s compound, he finds that Okonkwo
has hanged himself. Obierika and his friends lead the commissioner to the body. Obierika
explains that suicide is a grave sin; thus, according to custom, none of Okonkwo‘s clansmen
may touch his body. The commissioner, who is writing a book about Africa, believes that the
story of Okonkwo‘s rebellion and death will make for an interesting paragraph or two. He has
already chosen the book‘s title: The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the Lower Niger.
THE MIMIC MEN
-V.S. NAIPAUL
V. S. Naipaul is widely considered one of the greatest, and most controversial, English
language authors of the last half century. He has won more than seven literary awards since
1958, including the 2001 Nobel Prize in Literature.
Summary:
The Mimic Men follows Ranjit Kripal Singh, a man of Indian heritage who was born on the
Caribbean island of Isabella in the 1920s. Isabella is a fictional island based on the author‘s
own birthplace of Trinidad. Because Isabella is a colony of the British Empire, Singh is a
British citizen. The novel is structured as Singh‘s memoir, which he writes at the age of 40
from a hotel in the suburbs of London after being ousted from the government of Isabella and
from the island itself. Singh‘s memoir begins in the period when he was a student at an
unnamed London university. He lived in a London boarding house and befriended a young
Maltese woman named Lieni. Through Lieni, Singh was introduced to many other people in
London who, like Lieni and Singh, were originally from countries that had been colonized by
Britain.
At the university, Singh met a young woman from North London named Sandra, who was
also a student there. Singh and Sandra soon became romantically attached. Sandra was
younger than Singh, and after Singh had graduated from the university, Sandra failed an
important exam and was not allowed to graduate. Because Sandra had no substantial
prospects, Singh agreed to marry her, and together they moved to Singh‘s birthplace, the
island of Isabella. A few years prior to their return, Singh‘s maternal grandmother had died.
Singh‘s paternal grandparents owned the bottling factory on the island and thus were quite
wealthy. In her will, Singh‘s grandmother bequeathed Singh some money and a large tract of
land. Singh divided this land into lots and rented them out for development. The development
was a success, and Singh became quite wealthy. However, his gains eventually felt hollow
and unsatisfying, and his marriage to Sandra began to feel joyless.
Singh then transitions to his childhood, which he spent on Isabella. His father was a
schoolteacher, and his mother was the daughter of the owners of the island‘s bottling factory.
Singh had an uncle, Cecil, who was only a few years older than Singh. There was much
friction between Singh‘s father and Cecil, as Cecil had little respect for his elders, and he
constantly bragged about the fortune his parents had made as owners of the bottling factory.
As a boy, Singh attended Isabella Imperial, which was run by the British government. Singh
describes his friends at school and his relationship with his father. He recalls a specific
episode in which he and his family went for a drive around the island, and Singh observed the
impoverished neighborhoods, which were predominantly comprised of black residents. Singh
recalls despising these people due to their poverty. However, Singh‘s friend Browne
gradually developed a heavy conscience on behalf of these economically downtrodden
people, and in light of these differing views, their friendship eventually ended.
Singh recalls that one day; his father quit his teaching job and went to live in the forest with
groups of poor people on the island. Singh‘s father became a spiritual leader and social
activist, and the government sent police officers to suppress this activity. However, the
movement eventually died out on its own. Singh‘s father was placed in an internment camp
during World War 2, and he was released after six years. Meanwhile, Cecil inherited the
bottling factory after his parents‘ deaths, but he ran it into the ground, lived wantonly, and
behaved erratically. After Singh‘s father was released, Singh went to visit him and to say
goodbye before leaving to go study at a university in London. While in London, Singh
eventually received a letter from Isabella that said his father had been shot and killed by
Cecil.
The memoir then transitions back to Singh‘s adult life on Isabella. He was approached by
Browne, who had founded a socialist newspaper and wished to have Singh as a collaborator.
Singh agreed, and a strong political following coalesced around the newspaper. Singh and
Cecil used this support to successfully run for offices in Isabella government, and Cecil was
elected as Chief Minister. Unfortunately, politics revealed themselves to Singh as being quite
messy. Singh traveled to London to acquire independent nationhood for Isabella, as well as
several important economic contracts, but he failed. After he came back to Isabella, his
marriage ended and he was ousted from both Isabella government and from the island itself.
He moved to London at the age of 40, where he took up residence in a hotel in a suburb of
London. There, he wrote his memoir and was able to use the writing process as a way of
processing and coming to terms with the events of his life.
THE HANDMAID’S TALE
-MARGARET ATWOOD
Margaret Eleanor Atwood, (born November 18, 1939) is a Canadian poet, novelist, literary
critic, essayist, inventor, and environmental activist. She is a winner of the Arthur C. Clarke
Award, Prince of Asturias Award for Literature and the Peace Prize of the German Book
Trade. She has been shortlisted for the Booker Prize five times, winning once, and has been a
finalist for the Governor General's Award several times, winning twice.
Characters List:
Offred - The narrator and protagonist of The Handmaid’s Tale. Offred belongs to the class of
Handmaids, fertile women forced to bear children for elite, barren couples. Handmaids show
which Commander owns them by adopting their Commanders‘ names, such as Fred, and
preceding them with ―Of.‖ Offred remembers her real name but never reveals it. She
no longer has family or friends, though she has flashbacks to a time in which she had a
daughter and a husband named Luke. The cruel physical and psychological burdens of her
daily life in Gilead torment her and pervade her narrative.
The Commander - The Commander is the head of the household where Offred works as a
Handmaid. He initiates an unorthodox relationship with Offred, secretly playing Scrabble
with her in his study at night. He often seems a decent, well-meaning man, and Offred
sometimes finds that she likes him in spite of herself. He almost seems a victim of Gilead,
making the best of a society he opposes. However, we learn from various clues and from the
epilogue that the Commander was actually involved in designing and establishing Gilead.
Serena Joy - The Commander‘s Wife, Serena worked in pre-Gilead days as a gospel singer,
then as an anti-feminist activist and crusader for ―traditional values.‖ In Gilead, she sits at the
top of the female social ladder, yet she is desperately unhappy. Serena‘s unhappiness shows
that her restrictive, male-dominated society cannot bring happiness even to its most pampered
and powerful women. Serena jealously guards her claims to status and behaves cruelly
toward the Handmaids in her household.
Moira - Offred‘s best friend from college, Moira is a lesbian and a staunch feminist; she
embodies female resourcefulness and independence. Her defiant nature contrasts starkly with
the behavior of the other women in the novel. Rather than passively accept her fate as a
Handmaid, she makes several escape attempts and finally manages to get away from the Red
Center. However, she is caught before she can get out of Gilead. Later, Offred encounters
Moira working as a prostitute in a club for the Commanders. At the club, Moira seems
resigned to her fate, which suggests that a totalitarian society can grind down and crush even
the most resourceful and independent people.
Aunt Lydia - The Aunts are the class of women assigned to indoctrinate the Handmaids with
the beliefs of the new society and make them accept their fates. Aunt Lydia works at the
―Red Center,‖ the re-education center where Offred and other women go for instruction
before becoming Handmaids. Although she appears only in Offred‘s flashbacks, Aunt Lydia
and her instructions haunt Offred in her daily life. Aunt Lydia‘s slogans and maxims drum
the ideology of the new society into heads of the women, until even those like Offred, women
who do not truly believe in the ideology, hear Gilead‘s words echoing in their heads.
Nick - Nick is a Guardian, a low-level officer of Gilead assigned to the Commander‘s home,
where he works as a gardener and chauffeur. He and Offred have a sexual chemistry that they
get to satisfy when Serena Joy orchestrates an encounter between them in an effort to get
Offred pregnant. After sleeping together once, they begin a covert sexual affair. Nick is not
just a Guardian; he may work either as a member of the Eyes, Gilead‘s secret police, or as a
member of the underground Mayday resistance, or both. At the end of the novel, Nick
orchestrates Offred‘s escape from the Commander‘s home, but we do not know whether he
puts her into the hands of the Eyes or the resistance.
Ofglen - Another Handmaid who is Offred‘s shopping partner and a member of the
subversive ―Mayday‖ underground. At the end of the novel, Ofglen is found out, and
she hangs herself rather than faces torture and reveal the names of her co-conspirators.
Cora - Cora works as a servant in the Commander‘s household. She belongs to the class of
Marthas, infertile women who do not qualify for the high status of Wives and so work in
domestic roles. Cora seems more content with her role than her fellow Martha, Rita. She
hopes that Offred will be able to conceive, because then she will have a hand in raising a
child.
Janine - Offred knows Janine from their time at the Red Center. After Janine becomes a
Handmaid, she takes the name Ofwarren. She has a baby, which makes her the envy of all the
other Handmaids in the area, but the baby later turns out to be deformed—an ―Unbaby‖—and
there are rumors that her doctor fathered the child. Janine is a conformist, always ready to go
along with what Gilead demands of her, and so she endears herself to the Aunts and to all
authority figures. Offred holds Janine in contempt for taking the easy way out.
Luke - In the days before Gilead, Luke had an affair with Offred while he was married to
another woman, then got a divorce and became Offred‘s husband. When Gilead comes to
power, he attempts to escape to Canada with Offred and their daughter, but they are captured.
He is separated from Offred, and the couple never sees one another again. The kind of love
they shared is prohibited in Gilead, and Offred‘s memories of Luke contrast with the
regimented, passionless state of male-female relations in the new society.
Offred‘s Mother - Offred remembers her mother in flashbacks to her pre-Gilead world—she
was a single parent and a feminist activist. One day during her education at the Red Center,
Offred sees a video of her mother as a young woman, yelling and carrying a banner in an
anti-rape march called Take Back the Night. She embodies everything the architects of
Gilead want to stamp out.
Summary
Offred is the narrator and protagonist of Margaret Atwood‘s The Handmaid’s Tale. She
belongs to the class of Handmaids, forced to bear children for elite, barren couples. As per
the custom and tradition, Handmaids show which Commander owns them by adopting their
Commanders‘ names, such as Fred, and preceding them with ―Of.‖ She serves
the Commander and his wife, Serena Joy, a former gospel singer and advocate for
―traditional values.‖ She is restricted by Commander and his wife. She was allowed to go out
for shopping trips only.
The writer used flashback technique successfully through the character Offred. In her
flashback, she recollects her past that she had an affair with Luke, a married man. He
divorced his wife and married Offred, and they had a child together. Moira is her close friend
fiercely independent. The architects of Gilead started assassinated the president and members
of Congress. Most of the people escaped from them. Offred and Luke along with their
daughter attempted to flee across the border to Canada. But unfortunately they were caught
and separated from one another.
After her capture, Offred was sent to the Rachel and Leah Re-education Center, called the
Red Center by its inhabitants. There women were instructed into Gilead‘s ideology in
preparation for becoming Handmaids.
Aunt Lydia supervised the women by delivering some speeches about the Gilead‘s beliefs
that women should be obedient to men and solely concerned with bearing children.
Offred takes shopping trips with Ofglen, another Handmaid and a member of the subversive
―Mayday,‖ which is an underground organization dedicated to overthrowing Gilead.
They visit for shopping and Harvard University, where the bodies of rebels hang. She must
visit the doctor frequently to be checked for disease and other complications also. When she
visits the doctor and he asks to have sex with her to get her pregnant, suggesting that her
Commander is probably infertile but she refuses. She begins to find that the Ceremony feels
dissimilar and less unfriendly now that she knows the Commander. Their nighttime
conversations begin to
touch on the new order that the Commander and his fellow leaders have created in Gilead.
When Offred admits how unhappy she is, the Commander remarks, ―[Y]ou can‘t make
an omelette without breaking eggs.‖
Nick is a Guardian, a low-level officer of Gilead assigned to the Commander‘s home, where
he works as a gardener and chauffeur. He and Offred have a sexual chemistry that they get to
satisfy when Serena Joy orchestrates an encounter between them in an effort to get Offred
pregnant. After sleeping together once, they begin a covert sexual affair. Nick is not just a
Guardian; he may work either as a member of the Eyes, Gilead‘s secret police, or as a
member of the underground Mayday resistance, or both. At the end of the novel, Nick
orchestrates Offred‘s escape from the Commander‘s home, but we do not know whether he
puts her into the hands of the Eyes or the resistance.
Since she does not pregnancy from Commander, Serena suggests her to have sex with Nick
secretly. Nick is a Guardian, a low-level officer of Gilead assigned to the Commander‘s
home. He may work as a member of the Eyes also. Serena tells her that she could bring her
daughter if she sleeps with Nick. Offred realizes that Serena has always known the
whereabouts of Offred‘s daughter. The same night that Offred is to sleep with Nick, the
Commander secretly takes her out to a club called Jezebel‘s, where the Commanders mingle
with prostitutes. She encounters Moira that comes to know that she was captured just before
she crossed the border. She chose life in Jezebel‘s over being sent to the Colonies, where
most political prisoners and dangerous people are sent. After that night at Jezebel‘s, Offred
says, she never sees Moira again. The Commander takes Offred upstairs after a few hours,
and they have sex in what used to be a hotel room. She tries to pretend passion.
Soon after she returns from Jezebel‘s late at night, she has sex with Nick. Soon they begin to
sleep together regularly without bothering other things. Offred becomes caught up in the
affair and ignores Ofglen‘s requests that she gather information from the Commander for
Mayday. Soon she comes to know that the old Ofglen hanged herself when she saw the secret
police coming for her.
At home, Serena has found out about Offred‘s trip to Jezebel‘s, and she sends her to her
room, promising punishment. Offred waits there, and she sees a black van from the Eyes
approach. Then Nick comes in and tells her that the Eyes are really Mayday members who
have come to save her. Offred leaves with them, over the Commander‘s futile objections, on
her way either to prison or to freedom—she does not know which.
Nick arranged Offred‘s escape but that her fate after that is unknown. She could have escaped
to Canada or England, or she could have been recaptured.
UNIT – IV DRAMA
KONGI’S HARVEST
-WOLE SOYINKA
Wole Soyinka was born on 13 July 1934 at Abeokuta, near Ibadan in Western Nigeria. After
preparatory university studies in 1954 at Government College in Ibadan, he continued at the
University of Leeds, where, later, in 1973, he took his doctorate.
Kongi's Harvest is a 1965 play written by Wole Soyinka. It premiered in Dakar, Senegal, at
the first Negro Arts Festival in April 1966. It was later adapted as a film of the same name,
directed by the American Ossie Davis. The play was published in 1967 in London and New
York by Oxford University Press.
Kongi's Harvest, Wole Soyinka's latest play, has predictably created a sensation at Dakar,
where it was presented at the Negro Arts Festival. For Soyinka has chosen a topical subject,
African nationalism, and whether he tikes it nor not, his hysterical Kongi has probably been
judged as much in terms of Nkrumah's ejection, for example, as by artistic merit. This
reviewer is largely unfamiliar with African politics and the traditional values upon which
Soyinka apparently bases so much of his work. Consequently, these remarks of an unabashed
outsider of necessity concern only the clarity and coherence of the play considered, perhaps
unfairly, outside its social context.
As mounted in the Arts Theatre at the University of Ibadan—that is, without the final scene,
called ―Hangover‖ and with considerable confusion attending its conclusion—the
play depicts for the outsider what sort of harvest a man reaps if he sits alone on top of a
mountain. That is Kongi‘s situation through the greater part of the play' he descends, at its
conclusion, to a harvest festival at which he is presented not with the expected new yam, but
with a decapitated human head.
Kongi, as several characters, in the play remark, is a poseur, a man who thinks of the world
as watching him at all times. He sits upon his mountain looking out on the world, and at the
same time, he is visible to that world. Such an approach to living seems to have taken its,
emotional toll. Kongi is, hysterical, and in the final scene, he delivers in mime what we are
told is a four-and-a-half hour speech, while the affairs of the world - the preparation of the
new yam and the noise thereof— completely submerge the words of the speech. The speech
is pure gesture, devoid of sound, unheeded by the world. The gestures, full of fury only, are
those of a man out of all emotional control.
Ranged in various more or less defined sorts of opposition to Kongi are at least three
characters. The first of these is Oba Danlola an old arid obstinate, fiery, traditional leader. He
is in detention as the play opens, presumably for opposition, and one of the major actions of
the play involves bringing Danlola to present Kongi with the new yam—to renounce in effect
his traditional authority in I he feast. The old order passeth, and DanLoJa finally consents.
The outsider is not really competent to judge Obas generically. One imagines that, as
sketched, Danlola is a stock traditional figure, and he seems a pleasant enough fellow. Yet, at
one point, two characters liken him to Kongi in the important matter of posing. To the
uninitiated there seems little obvious point in the comparison not because Danlola does not
pose, but because his posing does not seem to have produced hysteria. This point may also be
made in terms of the notion of ―isms‖ developed in the play. Kongi, rules a land called Isma
and his devotion to ―isms‖ seems to be a function of his posing. Danlola, poseur though he
may be, can't really be said to participate in this fondness for ―isms‖. We have only the bare,
unqualified assertion of Danlola‘s likeness to Kongi and nothing visible on the stage to
support the statement. Surely, here Soyinka has either led us considerably astray, or has failed
entirely to carry us with him.
Apparently, Danlola's nephew and heir, Daodu, is also ranged against Kongi and his ―isms‖,
―Apparently‖„ because we see Daodu do precious little. He is a bar fly, a habitué of
Segi‘s Night Club, and Segi's present Lover. Segi is a sort of Herculean whore, Kongi‘s
former mistress about whom terrifying stories circulate: she destroys men, the suggestion is,
sexually. It does not appear to what extent.
Kongi's present, highly disorganized condition is owing to his experiences with her. Nor is it
clear whether it is Segi or Daodu who has the upper hand in their relationship. When he is not
drinking Segi‘s beer. Daodu raises champion yams on a farm settlement which runs a sort of
Loose competition to the Kongian establishments, outdistancing them every time, it is his
yam which is selected at the concluding festival, pounded and presented to all but Kongi,
Obviously in the matter of harvest Daodu and his yams are separated from Kongi and hiS
human head by the distance between life and death. However, Daodu at one point in the play
announces a platform of resistance to Kongi which is predicated upon very nearly universal
hatred and, to follow the metaphor, human heads. Segi opposes his position pleading for a
loving approach to one's fellow men, but, like so much in the play, the point of this
conversation remains obscure. One is left to speculate whether Segi here asserts her basic
domination of Daodu, or whether Daodu is to be viewed as the ―developing character‖ who
grows out of his hatred, or whether it is all a horrible joke. Segi‘s words of love sullied by her
profession. At any rate Daodu‘s program of hatred seems clearly opposed to his benevolent
yam growing, and we never see him do anything which resolves the issue.
Segi may also be placed in opposition to Kongi, but if it is difficult to determine Daodu's and
Danlola‘s positions, with Segi the problem is hopeless. Primarily this is true because we see
her do even less, than Daodu. She never acts unambiguously in such a way as to disprove the
persistent story that she destroys men. Her relation with Daodu is so undefined as to shed
little light on this matter. For much of the play she maintains silence, which she breaks most
noticeably with her passionate appeal for universal love. Here, her destructive tendencies
seem open to question. Her other major action, completely at odds with her profession of
universal love, concludes the play. Facing Kongi directly, she presents him with the
decapitated head of her father. As staged, the confrontation is symbolic with a capital ‗S‘ , in
view of the obvious sexual overtones of the harvest festival, one immediately suspects that
Kongi‘s particular harvest results from cultivating the Likes of Segi, that if one resorts to her
one can only get abominations. Here again Soyinka may have led us astray. If Segi is a
champion in the pitched battle between the sexes—engaged in the good fight Soyinka his
portrayed in The Lion and the Jewel—destroying men as rumor reports he does, Soyinka has
carried us a long way from African nationalism in that final scene. For in that case, Kongi,
and also Danlola and Daodu are mere tools in a perverse fertility rite, and the trouble with
Africa lies not in its dictators, but in its whores.
In view of the series of major interpretive alternatives suggested above, one is forced to
conclude that Kongi's Harvest is, to the outsider an incoherent sprawl. Alternative, and
mutually exclusive interpretations are not artistic ambiguity, Soyinka sets us on a number of
scents, which pursued, lead in no single direction. We are led into every briar patch in the
area, along widely divergent and mutually exclusive paths, and end by running in very small,
perplexed circles.
Against such a view of the play two objections might be raised. First, some of the suggestions
about the meaning of various actions might be termed over-ingenious. Such an objection
must be at least partially granted; yet, Soyinka himself must bear partial responsibility for this
critic's over-zealous application, Soyinka has the true dramatist's gift of making actions seem
significant. His imaginative use of action and language effectively commands the audience
―look here, this is important, and you should watch carefully‖. When a comparison of
two characters is underlined try considerable discussion of the comparison, when a dumb
character finally speaks, when a passive character finally acts, we cannot choose but suspect
the situation is important. Perhaps Soyinka is too good at gelling, our attention, with the
result that we are fascinated by the non-essential as well as the essential. On the other hand, it
might be objected that a man as unfamiliar with African politics and culture as this reviewer
cannot form a proper opinion of such a play. This too is a formidable objection. Still, drama
is a public form of art, if it is anything, and an artist like Soyinka should decide whether he
wants to reach anything larger than a purely Nigerian or African public. It would seem that an
artist tries to order parochial events in such a way that they have more than a parochial
significance in presenting the uninitiated a dramatic experience with African politics Soyinka
only confuses, and one can only suspect that he is confused himself.
The matter of Right and Left Ears of State exemplifies the outsider's difficulties very nicely.
Those two remarkably named characters are introduced, as the henchmen of Kongi‘s
Organizing Secretary. They are a grand ―sight gag‖—the conception funny enough
to
demand our attention, and we expect that they will do something amusing. Instead, they
disappear mutely into the backroom of Segi's Night Club, never to re-appear. We later learn
that they have been killed in retribution for Kongi‘s politics. Their memory lingers on,
however; we can't really believe that we have lost them so early; moreover, various
characters employ ―ear‖ phrases which recall their names to us. As a result, when in the last
scene, the head is presented to Kongi, we, without Soyinka's stage note stating whose head it
is, recall, even if only for a brief moment, our old friends the Ears. Our attention, in other
words is at least partially distracted at this important point by the strong expectation that the
Ears will prove interesting. Soyinka must reckon with the fact that he can arouse our interest,
and in nonessential matters, handle that talent carefully. It is a great disappointment to realize
finally that, in the interests of coherence and clarity, many fascinating dramatic touches in
Kongi's Harvest should, like the Ears of State, be more fully developed, carefully
subordinated, or lopped off.
The end of the play leaves no hope in us for the purging of such societies. The struggle by
Daoudu and others to overcome Kongi‘s destruction is doomed. This futility of action is first
hinted in the proverbs from ―Hemlock‖. Even Daodu and Segi who are the only
ones courageous enough to openly condemn Kongi‘s rule, are in the end victims of the
predicted general clampdown indicated by the iron grating that clamps on the ground at the
end of the play.
DREAM ON MONKEY MOUNTAIN
-DEREK WALCOTT
Sir Derek Alton Walcott, (23 January 1930 to 17 March 2017) was a Saint Lucian poet and
playwright. He received the 1992 Nobel Prize in Literature. He was Professor of Poetry at
the University of Essex from 2010 to 2013.
Derek Walcott has described Dream on Monkey Mountain as a ―dream‖ that ―exists as much
in the given minds of its principal characters as in that of its writer.‖ This accurate description
of the illogical progression of action must be taken into account when confronting this
strange play. A surrealistic fable, the play does not adhere to the tenets of a realistic narrative.
Since it concerns Makak‘s belief in an unseen force (a white goddess) and the power of his
imagination to will unnatural events to happen, it is appropriate that readers, too, should be
asked to suspend disbelief in the improbable. Walcott asks his audience to accept the
pleasures and possibilities for personal growth available to those who, like Makak, have
given themselves over to an irrational force.
Many events in this play do not make sense in naturalistic terms. Characters such as
Moustique die and then return to life with a renewed sense of purpose. The sick are healed by
the humblest of men, Makak, an old charcoal burner who first appears in a prison for drunken
conduct and petty thievery. A cabinetmaker named Basil turns out to be a figure for death
itself. These strange occurrences must be accepted at the outset if the play‘s symbolic
meanings and political function are to emerge. The absence of naturalistic content also allows
readers to pay attention to the beautiful lyricism and the rhythms of the West Indian dialect
known as patois. An acclaimed poet and winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1992,
Walcott has suggested that the play should be ―treated as a physical poem with all
the subconscious and deliberate borrowings of poetry.‖
In addition to its dreamlike plot and its emphasis on poetic language, the play is also designed
to be produced in a highly stylized manner. The playwright has compared his play‘s style to
the ritualistic nature of Japanese Kabuki Theater, but the origins of Dream on Monkey
Mountain also reside in the folk customs, dances, and chants native to the Caribbean islands.
There is a political reason behind Walcott‘s employing a Caribbean setting and elements of
West Indian folk traditions in his play. By using the West Indian theater as a showcase for the
oral culture of the West Indies, Walcott hoped to create a more secure social identity for West
Indians living under English rule.
The play‘s ritualistic style is related to the system of belief held by many of the characters in
the play. These characters, who live in the village near Monkey Mountain, accept on faith the
healing powers of Makak‘s magic. Walcott, therefore, creates an analogy through the style of
the play between the villagers‘ belief in Makak‘s healing function and the significance of a
nativist theater in enhancing the meaning and value of the lives of Caribbean villagers.
Although the play does not, finally, portray a revolution against the colonial regime by the
impoverished followers of Makak, the play‘s style and setting do.
ALTERNATIVES
-DREW HAYDEN TAYLOR
Drew Hayden Taylor is a Canadian playwright, author and journalist. He intentionally writes
about First Nations culture. He has been a regular contributor to various magazines.
His play alterNatives which was published in 2000 is about relation between Angel and
Colleen. Angel is a 24-year-old First Nation man who desires to write Native Science Fiction
whereas Colleen is his girlfriend, an older Jewish woman who teaches at the local University.
They live together, and host dinner party. Colleen has invited Angel‘s friends, Yvonne and
Bobby and her friends, Michelle and Dale. Michelle and Dale are vegetarians whereas
Yvonne and Bobby have since lost touch. The main intention of the party is to reconnect
them, as well as get to know Angel and his past, and show off her relationship to her own
friends.
When the play opens, Angel is introduced by cart wheeling out of the bedroom. Angel gets
ready, and Colleen suggests what he should wear, which Angel accepts. There is amiable and
amicable relationship between them. Angel tells a Nanabush story, which Colleen edits and
gently challenges while listening to it. Angel has received a rejection letter from McClellan
and Stewart. Michelle and Dale are introduced as ―two politically correct vegetarians‖ (19)
and Dale is further explained as ―he just sometimes… doesn‘t know how to phrase
things properly‖ (19).
Angel doesn‘t become upset until Colleen reveals that the extra guests are his childhood
friends, Bobby and Yvonne. He asks Colleen ―Why are you always prying into my
life?‖ (21). This is their first fight where Angel actually defends his position, and Colleen
counters it aggressively. The guests arrive.
Michelle starts drinking right away, brushing off Dale‘s concerns. She justifies this by citing
the previous hustle to get to the party, the lost keys, and so on. Angel, in his quick wit after
seeing the extra wine the guests had brought, says, ―Geez, and they call us alcoholics‖ (25),
which is funny and true. The awkward keeps on coming with Dale asking if Angel knows his
first wife, who was also Aboriginal and named Benita.
The first interesting break from Michelle and Dale‘s relationship comes when Dale smells the
meat and correctly identifies it as moose, and mentions that ―I‘m much healthier now,
and making a much better impact on the environment, aren‘t I, my love?‖ (29). He needs
affirmation and direction from Michelle about his life choices. Even so, after this it is Dale
that has the best suggestions of how to cook and prepare a moose roast, making Angel
comment, ―That‘s some vegetarian‖ (31).
Colleen and Michelle have a few minutes alone to discuss life and men, mainly men. Colleen
mentions that Angel is secretive and ―[h]e doesn‘t mention his family much. I know he has
two sisters somewhere, but I know nothing about his parents. He‘s quite enigmatic about his
youth. He won‘t even tell me what reserve he‘s from‖ (35).
Angel forgets to introduce Colleen to his friends. Yvonne brings homemade apple-pear butter
for Colleen, which Angel shows excitement for. There is conflict between Yvonne and
Angel, and Bobby seems to like social awkwardness when he says ―So who do I have to sign
a treaty with to get a drink around here? (44).
Yvonne is shown to be a ambitious, curious woman who is in her Master‘s program, focusing
on the specific cultural revivals going on in cultural traditions – how people bring back the
―good‖ stuff and do not acknowledge or talk about the less than PC aspects of tribes. Such as
―arranged marriages, frequent inter-tribal warfare, slavery, and in some cases, rumours
of cannibalism‖ (76)
Act 1 ends with a scream of despair from the kitchen, with Angel and Yvonne muttering
about Bobby under their breath.
Act 2 starts with all parties having words. Michelle is upset with Dale and his rebellious
behaviour. Dale is upset with the limitations put upon him. Bobby is poking at all them.
Yvonne and Angel are dealing with their complicated past. Colleen is watching her party go
up in flames.
Colleen and Angel are left alone to dissect their emotions. Angel mentions that Colleen was
―expecting three Indians to come to dinner, instead you got us‖ (135). That Colleen
held assumptions about what native was – like Angel knowing how to cook moose – and that
she wanted to show him off. Finally, he asks, ―[a]re you with me because I‘m Native?‖ to
which colleen replies, ―[a]re you with me because I‘m white?‖ (135).
Angel further pushes her to realize her own fascination with Indian-ness buy telling her a
story of how his grandfather died and he had to honour the seven generation teachings by
fixing the stories he made up as a youngster, but then tell Colleen the story wasn‘t true, but it
was what Colleen wanted to believe. And he makes you speak Ojibway, three sentences, and
there is silence when she cannot repeat those sentences in Hebrew or even Yiddish, her own
cultural languages.
PAPER-V
Note
examinations also.

PAPER-V
LITERATURE AND FILM (INTER-
DISCIPLINARY) UNIT-I
BACKGROUND
NARRATIVE ELEMENTS (PLOT, CHARACTER, POINT OF VIEW,
SETTING);
1. PLOT
Aristotle asserted:
--that plot is the ―life and soul of the drama.‖
--that a plot should take a linear form proceeding from beginning to end
Known as the ―arrangement of the incidents‖
2. CHARACTER
Aristotle:
--referred to this element as ―the agent for the action.‖
--considered this element the second most important theatrical element.
--believed it brought forth a plot
--asserted that it served as the embodiment of action on a stage and was a necessary element
for identification with the play
3. POINT OF VIEW
Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion, or feelings of
the individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration
that an author employs to let the readers ―hear‖ and ―see‖ what takes place in a story, poem,
essay etc.
Point of view is a reflection of the opinion an individual from real life or fiction can have.
Examples of point of view belong to one of these three major kinds:
1. First person point of view involves the use of either of the two pronouns ―I‖ and
―we‖. Eg: ―I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and disgrace.‖
2. Second person point of view employs the pronoun ―you‖.

Eg: ―Sometimes you cannot clearly discern between anger and frustration.‖
3. Third person point of view uses pronouns like ―he‖, ―she‖, ―it‖, ―they‖ or a name.
Eg: ―Mr. Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book and never lets you
deceive him easily.
4. SETTING
Greatest comprehension and audience empathy can be evoked if a play takes place in a single
setting. Aristotle‘s theory asserts that using different settings would be too difficult to
portray and would confuse the audience.
The use of acts and scenes in contemporary theatre often indicates a departure from
Aristotle‘s unities.
MISE EN SCÈNE
/ˌmiːz ɒ̃ ˈsɛn,French miz ɑ̃ sɛn/
The arrangement of the scenery, props, etc. on the stage of a theatrical production or on the
set of a film.
Eg: The setting or surroundings of an event.
CINEMATOGRAPHY
ˌ
It is the art of photography and camerawork in film-making.
"Home movie footage with superb cinematography"
Cinematography is the science or art of motion-picture photography by recording light or

other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically by means of an image sensor, or
chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as film stock.
Typically, a lens is used to repeatedly focus the light reflected from objects into real
images on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a questioned exposure, creating
multiple images. With an electronic image sensor, this produces an electrical charge at
each pixel, which is electronically processed and stored in a video file for subsequent display
or processing. The result with photographic emulsion is a series of invisible latent images on
the film stock, which are later chemically "developed" into a visible image. The images on
the film stock are played back at a rapid speed and projected onto a screen, creating the
illusion of motion.
Cinematography finds uses in many fields of science and business as well as for
entertainment purposes and mass communication.
The word "cinematography" was created from the Greek words κίνημα (kinema), meaning
"movement, motion" and γράφειν (graphein) meaning "to record", together meaning
"recording motion." The word used to refer to the art, process, or job of filming movies, but
later its meaning was restricted to "motion picture photography."
MONTAGE
/mɒnˈtɑːʒ,ˈmɒntɑːʒ/
It is the technique of selecting, editing, and piecing together separate sections of film to form
a continuous whole.
"Montage was a useful device for overcoming the drawbacks of silent film"
A sequence of film made using the technique of montage.
Montage is a technique in film editing in which a series of short shots are edited into a
sequence to condense space, time, and information. The term has been used in various
contexts. It was introduced to cinema primarily by Sergei Eisenstein, and
early Soviet directors used it as a synonym for creative editing. In French the word
"montage" applied to cinema simply denotes editing. The term "montage sequence" has been
used primarily by British and American studios, which refers to the common technique as
outlined in this article.
The montage sequence is usually used to suggest the passage of time, rather than to create
symbolic meaning as it does in Soviet montage theory.
From the 1930s to the 1950s, montage sequences often combined numerous short shots with
special optical effects (fades, dissolves, split screens, double and triple exposures) dance and
music. They were usually assembled by someone other than the director or the editor of the
movie.
FILM GENRES
A film genre is a motion picture category based on similarities in either the narrative
elements or the emotional response to the film (namely, serious, comic, etc.). Most theories
of film genre are borrowed from literary genre criticism. The
basic genres include fiction and documentary, from which subgenres have emerged, such
as docufiction and docudrama. Other subgenres include the courtroom and trial-
focused drama known as the legal drama. Types of fiction which may seem unrelated can
also be combined to form hybrid subgenres, such as the melding of horror and comedy in
the Evil Dead films. Other popular combinations are the romantic comedy and the action
comedy film.
Films can also be classified by the setting, theme, topic, mood, format, target audience or
budget. The setting is the environment where the story and action take place (e.g., a war film,
a Western film, or a space opera film). The theme or topic refers to the issues or concepts
that the film revolves around (e.g., science fiction film, sports film, or crime film).
The mood is the emotional tone of the film (e.g., comedy film, horror film, or tearjerker
film). Format refers to the way the film was shot (e.g., anamorphic widescreen) or the
manner of presentation (e.g.: 35 mm, 16 mm or 8 mm). Additional ways of categorizing film
genres is by the target audience (e.g., children's film, teen film or women's film) or by type of
production (e.g., B movie, big-budget blockbuster or low-budget film).
UNIT II (ESSAYS)
INDIAN CINEMA TODAY
-CHIDANANDA DAS GUPTA
The film industry of India is depending upon which statistics you emphasize^ the second^
thirds or fourth largest in the world.
Moreover films have been made in India since the earliest decade of the art. How then do we
explain the fact that side from the films of Satyajit Ray Indian films have been unable to
obtain attention in the world film scene? And what are the prospects in the new nation that
has been growing up since independence from Britain for the curiously chaotic Indian film
industry? This article by a well known Indian critic film-society official and film-
makerattempts to sketch answers to such question.
We must put everything into the cinema, says Jean-Luc Godard, the high priest of modem
cinema. And his films leapfrog from real life to painting, advertising, science, politics
connecting it all less and less by story links, and more and more by the unifying force of the
film-maker mind, turning narrative, objective• cinema into a direct personal communication
between the film-maker and his audience. But this putting everything into the cinema is only
made possible by the filmmakers awareness of the many past forms both of cinema and of
other arts, and his sense of the constantly developing interrelations of art, history, literature,
science. Only this can give him an awareness of the possibilities of the cinema, because the
cinema is a medium distilled out of previous modes of expression synthesized by science.
Yet, so far, only a tiny segment of India lives in the scientific ambience of the twentieth
century; the rest is one enormous anachronism struggling to leap into the present.
Those of us who would fike to see Indian cinema on the sophisticated level of films from the
West (or Japan) tend to forget that the forces weighing down Indian cinema are special and
massive. Even the most avant-garde section of the Indian film industry is still subject to
crushing pressures from both past and present.
The absorption of the twentieth-century medium of the cinema, born and developed in
industrially advanced countries, into India classical and folk culture presents enormous
problems. India is one country, but has over 800 mother tongues; 16 languages with scripts of
their own are recognized in the constitution; the diversity in religions, races, costumes,
customs, food habits, looks and outlooks, cultural backgrounds is greater than within the
entirety of Western civilization. The advanced middle class is one of the most liberal-minded
in the world. But some tribal people still live in the neolithic age; other groups exist, as it
were, in medieval times. Even the educated, once inside their homes, often go back centuries,
leaving the modern world in the office and the drawingroom; they use the products of science
without allowing science itself to penetrate their beings and change the structure of their
minds. In India the industrial revolution began barely twenty years ago; neither its pace nor
its influence is yet adequate to give the cinema a product of science and technology a sense of
belonging to the times. Yet an average of 300 full-length features were produced and released
in the last three years by 61 studios, 39 laboratories, 1,000 producers, and 1,200 distributors;
films were shown in 6,000-odd theaters to an audience of more than two billion a year the
fourth largest in the world. There are films for nationwide or all-India distribution made in
Bombay and Madras (in Hindi or its variant Hindustani) and there are regional films made in
many states of which the most numerous are the Bengali, well- known for Satyajit Ray.
For more than a century, progress in India has been the outcome of a successful synthesis of
Indian tradition with a Western education in the sciences and the humanities. But this culture,
brought about by Tagore, Gandhi, and Nehru, is the culture of the advanced middle class; it
still leaves out the over- whelming majority of the population to whom the twentieth century
and its products are only a necessary evil to be lamented. In the popular mind, you resist this
Kaliyuga (evil eon) by mentally with-holding yourself from its contamination or you are
corrupted and fall from grace as defined by tradition.
Even the railway train and the radio are still un-connected facts things that exist and must be
used, but without any consciousness of where they came from or how. Science has only
confused the Indian villager‘s philosophy and his pattern of living. The products of science
have only brought vulgarity into his existence. This lack of integration between the disparate
aspects of fife is a constant source of vulgarity in social manifestations and in so-called
cultural phenomena the vulgarity of synthetic, folksy art, of the garish painting of ancient
temples, of the harshness of naked fluorescent tube lights, of the sons of 5-year-plan
contractors playing transistors under massive banyan trees, of dignified old peasants
breaking into an ugly trot to cross city streets.
The Hindi (i.e., all-India) film formula not only caters to these denominators, but also helps
to create and consolidate them, giving its public certain terms of reference for its cultural
adjustment, no matter how low the level of that culture and adjustment may be. It thus
supplies a kind of cultural leadership, and reinforces some of the unifying tendencies in our
social and economic changes. It pro-vides an inferior alternative to the valid cultural
leadership which has not emerged because of the hiatus between the intelligentsia, to which
the leaders belong, and the masses many of them living in remote corners of the country. One
cold spring morning in Manali (7,000 feet up in the northwestern foothills of the Himalayas) I
heard a woman voice softly singing a Hindi film song outside my window. I went out to
investigate and met a family which crosses the 14,000-foot Rohtang Pass every spring, from
Lahaul Valley on the Tibet border, to seek work on this side. Every spring they go to Kulu to
the cinema there, and the wife was singing a song from a film she had seen the previous year.
For her, the experience of a Hindi film once a year was a tiny window on the world beyond
the Rohtang Pass.
The basic ingredients in the all-India film for the laborer from Lahaul as well as the half-
educated petty bourgeois comprise not only an operatic assembly of all possible spectacles,
sentiments, melodrama, music and dancing, but a mix of these calculated to appeal to the
righteous inertia of the audience. In the absence of any other explanation of technological
phenomena, it is the Hindi film which holds forth: Look at the Twentieth Century, full of
night clubs and drinking, smoking, bikini-clad women sinfully enjoying themselves in fast
cars and mixed parties; how right you are in condemning them in the end everyone must go
back to the traditional patterns of devotion to God, to parents, to village life, or be damned
forever. This answer does not try to explain; it merely echoes the natural fear which
traditional people have of anything new, anything they do not understand. The films thus give
reassurance to the â€œfamily audience which is the mainstay of the film industry. They
pander to the Puritanism developed in the dark pre-British period of superstition and
isolationism, aided and abetted by Christian missionary teaching of the British period. They
satisfy the common man curiosity regarding the ways of the new times but do not explain
them. They not only do not try to make him think; they do everything possible to stop him
from thinking. Film landscapes change weirdly from Bombay to Tokyo or Delhi to Honolulu,
airplanes land and big cars whiz past; the story has no logic, but the songs are delectable, the
heroines glamorous, the dances carry the viewer off his feet. Yet in the end he has not sinned
himself; like the Code-supervised American moviegoer of yore, he has merely inspected the
sins of others before condemning them. The hero with whom he identifies has returned to his
true love, the village belle, and renounced the city siren. Sin belongs to the West; virtue to
India. Between the two Sharmila Tagores one a cabaret dancer and the other a demurely
Indian damsel of Evening in Paris, no compromise, no middle tones are possible. The more
the nouveaux riches rock and roll or twist and shake in blue jeans, the deeper becomes the
schizophrenia between modernity and tradition in the Indian cinema.
ADAPTATION AND MIS-ADAPTATIONS

FILM, LITERATURE, AND SOCIAL DISCOURSES
-FRANCESCO CASETTI
(Discourse, as defined by Foucault, refers to: ways of constituting knowledge, together

with the social practices, forms of subjectivity and power relations which inhere in such
knowledges and relations between them. Discourses are more than ways of thinking and
producing meaning.) The relationship between literature and film has been the subject
of numerous reflections and analyses.
Despite their diversity, most of these researches have a common starting point. Both
literature and cinema have been regarded essentially as modes of expression, sites and
ways of manifestation of an ability to give shape to ideas, feelings, and personal
orientations; in other words, as sites in which an individual‘s perceptions are combined with
the person‘s will/necessity to offer an image of him or herself and of his or her own world.
As a consequence, many of these contributions employ, as their key concepts, notions
such as ―work,‖ ―author,‖ ―poetics,‖ and ―intention.‖ These notions focus on the presence
of an individual‘s work and, simultaneously, on the fact that a text testifies to it; they
emphasize the unfolding of personal actions and a personal universe, and the additional idea
of being the repository of the text‘s deepest identity.
Among the reasons that have permitted this approach to become dominant, one in particular
stands out: the desire to ―valorize‖ cinema as an art form and as an object of inquiry; that is,
the recognition of its ―artistic value,‖ a privilege that other fields, and in particular literature,
have had for a long time. This desire, which is apparent in critical writings from the 1920s to
the 1980s, has led to the application of categories used in literary studies – such as author,
work, poetics, and so on – and in aesthetic theory to the cinema. Such an approach has
contributed to the partial disregard of some of cinema‘s specificities; for instance, the fact
that it is a mass-communication medium. Conversely, film studies have failed to extend the
application of some peculiarly cinematic categories to other fields in order to provoke them
into questioning their own aesthetic ssumptions.
In keeping with this approach, I would like to suggest another perspective: both film and
literature can also be considered as sites of production and the circulation of discourses;
that is, as symbolic constructions that refer to a cluster of meanings that a society
considers possible (thinkable) and feasible (legitimate). Consequently, film and literature
are more revealing of the ways in which subjects interact with each other as either addressers
or addressees, than of an author‘s ability to express him or herself. I therefore suggest
regarding audiovisual and literary texts as one would regard conversations, newspaper
reports, public speeches, research reports, stories and anecdotes; that is, as discursive
formations which testify to the way in which society organizes its meanings and shapes its
system of relations; or else, as events, as Foucault defines them, which punctuate social life,
functioning, on the one hand, as reservoirs of meaning, and, on the other, as vectors of
relations. This perspective, which does not exclude a more aesthetically concerned approach,
leads to a reformulation of the conceptual framework usually activated in understanding the
relationship between film and literature, and to a reconsideration of the notion of adaptation.
Adaptation as the ―Reappearance‖ of Discourse
Within this perspective adaptation is no longer seen as a work repeating another work, nor as
an expressive intention that juxtaposes itself to another expressive intention. We are no
longer confronted with a re-reading or a re-writing: rather, what we are dealing with is
the reappearance, in another discursive field, of an element (a plot, a theme, a character,
etc.) that has previously appeared elsewhere.
A reappearance is a new discursive event that locates itself in a certain time and space in
society, one that, at the same time, carries within itself the memory of an earlier discursive
event. Within this reappearance, what matters is the development of a new communicative
situation, more than simply the similarity or dissimilarity between the later and earlier events.
Otherwise said, what matters is the new role and place that the later event takes on within the
discursive field, more than the abstract faithfulness that it can claim with respect to the source
text. In fact, the text‘s identity is defined more by this role and this place than by a series of
formal elements.
Discussions about displacement are appropriate here: 4 in an adaptation we always need to

identify the background of a story – for instance, in Luhrmann‘s Romeo and Juliet (1996) the
story of Romeo and Juliet is moved from Verona to Los Angeles – and, especially, we need
to redefine the background within which the text locates itself – from Elizabethan theater to
youth culture, its cult movies, and MTV. A displacement has taken place, specifically from
one space–time to another, from one geographical location to another. As I suggested earlier,
the passage from text 1 to text 2 involves – always and most importantly – a transition from a
―situation 1‖ to a ―situation 2.‖ Therefore, consideration needs to be given not only to the
text as such, but also to its conditions and modes of existence.
The Communicative Situation
The notion of the communicative situation is rather complex. Let us consider a conference
panel: there are words bouncing from the table to the room; subjects, some of whom talk
while others listen, ready to take the floor when the others have stopped talking; actions
connected to the circulation of texts, such as the act of speaking, or gestures that accompany
it in order to emphasize important sentences or even less serious ones; circumstantial actions,
such as doodles drawn in the margin of one‘s notebook, or the winks of people that already
know each other; circumstances, that is, the time and place of this communication; an
organization that is responsible for the event, whether it is a university or a researcher‘s
association; established rules that govern the conference; and again, in Schütz‘s words, a ―life
world,‖ the existential framework within which we are located; and, finally, a ―paper world,‖
the universe of texts and discourses that circulate around us and give weight to what we say.
A communicative situation is the result of the interrelationship among all these factors;
it cannot be reduced to the sum of a text and a context. Rather, it is the complex, and often
contradictory, interplay of all these elements.
Simplifying, the communicative situation involves the presence of a text, a series of elements
that guarantee the communicative interaction (interactional frame), a set of institutionalized
rules and manners (institutional frame), a series of background discourses (intertextual
frame), and a set of personal and collective experiences that operate as a reference (existential
frame). These factors work together and determine each other. Each one of us has
experienced communicative situations in which the existential frame exerted influence, for
whatever reason. I read Flaubert‘s The Sentimental Education when I was sixteen, or so.
Naturally, I did not consider the writing style as I was reading it. Rather, at that time, I read it
as a novel that explained to me how hard it was to become an adult and, in this case, the real
world ―won.‖ However, in my French Literature class the paper world, the intertextual frame,
would be the winner: there, one is required to explain the author‘s stylistic choices and their
relation to the choices of other authors of the same period. What this means is that in a
communicative situation the elements that I listed above do not merely interact with each
other, sometimes one of them overcomes the others and determines the whole. The role and
the meaning of the text are consequently changed. If, for example, we want to proclaim our
love to a woman with whom we are deeply in love, the style of the delivery does not concern
us much; on the other hand, if we are poets, missing the rhyme is a great failure, regardless of
the outcome of our declaration.
Calling attention to the communicative situation does not just imply considering a text and its
surroundings, but, more importantly, it means dealing with the relationship between these
elements and the way in which they, together, bend the text one way or another. What is at
stake is the way in which a text appears as an event within the world. In some cases, texts
appear to provide us with useful information for our life-world; at other times they entertain
us (the institutional frame of cinema demands entertainment); other times they establish
connections with previous discourses; finally, at other times, they simply ensure continuity
within communicative interactions. The direction taken by the communicative situation
therefore appears to be crucial.
The perspective I have just outlined carries precise consequences for the study of the
recontextualization implied by adaptation. Let us consider the incredible number of
adaptations
in early cinema. Besides responding to the assumption that culture is an archive and that
cinema works within it as the possibility to circulate its ―symbolic capital,‖ early
cinema manifests the desire to challenge film‘s institutional frame: to present a story that has
already been told, means to explore how cinema is capable of renewing and intensifying the
relationship between text, representation, and spectatorship. The presence of a system of
attractions, as emphasized by Tom Gunning, confirms that cinema relies on its ability to re-
propose a new and more intense ―spectacular experience.‖ Let us then consider the famous
adaptations of classical cinema, starting from Laurence Olivier‘s adaptations of
Shakespeare. In these cases cinema is celebrated for its storytelling ability as much as
theater, and with equal artistic value. Therefore, the intertextual frame is predominantly
activated, and the adaptation rests on a situation that refers primarily to the ―paper world.‖
Finally, let us consider some contemporary adaptations, such as Ang Lee‘s Sense and
Sensibility (1995): if the question we pose is not so much what changes in thematic and
formal terms between Jane Austen‘s novel and the film, but rather the change in terms
of the communicative situations that the two texts construct and operate within, then
the answer is that, while the novel appears to be referencing primarily a life-world, the
film employs the same plot to explore the possibility of constructing a melodrama in the
postmodern era. Ultimately, the film refers to the institutional and cultural framework
within which cinema operates today. These examples, admittedly tentative, serve as
indications of how to approach a new consideration of adaptation.7
Adaptation as ―Re-programming‖ the Reception
To adapt, to move from one communicative situation to another, entails a number of things,
most significantly, to re-program the reception of a story, a theme, or a character, and so on.
The second life of a text coincides with a second life of reception. Let us go back to an
example already mentioned: Romeo and Juliet. The link between Luhrmann‘s film and
Shakespeare‘s tragedy is established by the reappearance of the same title and by the
repetition of original lines. However, while the lines are the same, their reading changes. It
changes first and foremost because Luhrmann‘s film presents an entirely different
communicative situation, especially in the way in which it positions the spectator. In the
move from play to film, what changes is the social function of the spectacle: while in the
Shakespearean version an entire society recognized itself, in Luhrmann‘s film only the youth
subculture can recognize itself. As a consequence, the reception of the film depends upon a
sense of belonging and on exclusionary mechanics that have no relation to those activated by
the shows at the Globe theater. Luhrmann then can claim faithfulness to Shakespeare, while
in reality he re-programs the text‘s reception in a totally different way.
Ironically, society‘s self-recognition in the face of tragedy is nowadays activated by other

films, which do not derive directly from Shakespeare. For instance, Abel Ferrara‘s The
Funeral (1996) stages a somewhat Elizabethan story. More importantly, it forces all its
spectators, without subcultural distinction, to question the meaning of life vis-àvis the
pervasiveness of evil. In this sense, I would go as far as to say that while Luhrmann‘s film
keeps Shakespeare‘s lines unchanged, while shifting their meaning, Ferrara‘s film does not
refer to Shakespeare yet, by reproposing a theme reminiscent of his work, and by activating a
communicative situation in some ways similar to the one activated by Shakesperean
tragedies, acts as a faithful adaptation in its own way (although not in an explicit, intentional
way). In sum, The Funeral re-programs the ―same‖ reception, while Romeo and Juliet
programs a reception that is foreign to the original.
Along these lines we can naturally look for more complex examples. Consider Visconti‘s
La terra trema (1948), an adaptation of Verga‘s novel I malavoglia, which originated in
the desire to make a film about Sicily on behalf of the Italian Communist Party, in
preparation for the 1948 national election. Lino Miccichè has successfully reconstructed, on
the basis of unpublished documents, the long process of preparation for Visconti‘s film,8 and
has effectively shown what we could define as a double dislocation: from the militant project
to Verga‘s novel – on which there had been heated debate in the pages of the film journal
Cinema, and in which Visconti had to some extent participated; and from Verga‘s book to the
film. On the basis of Miccichè‘s findings, we could say that La terra trema is composed of
two different texts that work in two different communicative situations. It is a commissioned
film within a communicative situation in which the reference to the life-world has priority (to
make a film that would show the class struggle in Sicily in support of the election) and in
which the life-world itself was to be the element emphasized by the film. However, if we
analyze the history of the critical reception of La terra trema, we see that from the very
beginning the film becomes the manifesto of Neorealism: the attention is shifted from the
horizon of reality (which fades away into a generic dimension) to the system of discourses
that support the cinematic movement to which Visconti‘s film belongs. After all, even today
this is the prevalent reading: the film is not regarded as a documentary on Aci Trezza or on
the social and political condition of the Sicilian people (nor as an essay on social injustice or
class struggle, although the opening epigraph encourages us to see it thus), but as the greatest,
though problematic, example of a specific poetics. In other words, the guiding principle of
the contemporary reading of the film‘s communicative situation is represented by the paper
world more than by the life world. In this case, the relationship with Verga, which should be
kept in the background in the case of the documentary reading of the film, comes instead into
the foreground as an interesting element. We should remark that this re-programming of the
reception is not the result of someone‘s intention (a change of mind by the Italian Communist
Party or Visconti‘s will), but the outcome of a set of processes occurring around the film.
Postmodern Discourses
The perspective that I have been presenting raises issues ignored within the traditional debate
on the relationship between cinema and literature; it makes it apparent, I hope, that the old
issues need to be re-formulated.
Let us consider the idea of ―faithfulness‖ and ―unfaithfulness,‖ or ―closeness‖ and ―distance,‖
between the source and the derivative text. Within our perspective, it becomes clear that the
main issue is no longer that of the permanence of a certain number of common elements, but
rather that of re-proposing (or failing to do so) homologous or similar communicative
situations. On this ground, if we ask: what of Shakespeare is present in Luhrmann? Then the
answer is nothing, besides lines from Romeo and Juliet. We can also ask: what of
Shakespeare is in Ferrara? And the answer will be everything (maybe via Artaud), except the
lines. We can even wonder whether The Jerry Springer Show is the most Shakespearean of
all, given that, in this day and age, it is the place where The Merry Wives of Windsor and
family tragedies across generations are celebrated. The question remains open, but what is
certain is that by changing our approach, the idea of closeness or distance between texts
transforms radically.
Within this framework we also need to address another question: whether the discursive areas
to which literature and cinema belong, and, more generally, the discursive space of
postmodern culture have a role in the redefinition of such concepts as faithfulness or
closeness. This is a substantial theme which I will only briefly explore.
One initial observation is that media present different ―stages of maturity.‖ Let us consider
cinema: its regime of representation is changing as a consequence of the increasing use of
digital images; the images on the screen that once stood for traces of reality are now images
without a referent, mere graphic inventions, despite efforts to attain the highest degree of
similarity with the world. Adaptation has to take this into account too: the ―truth‖ of the sign
matters (and this ―truth‖ as a trace of reality is stronger in sound media, radio for example, or
written media, such as books or Internet pages, than in visual media). At the same time,
today‘s media tend toward convergence. If we consider cinema again, we can see how the
advent of VHS, and then of cable television, led to a greater degree of proximity between
cinema and television. The widespread use of digital signs will bring these two media even
closer, and this will spread to other media. The technological base of different media will
become increasingly homologous, thus fostering the process of contamination of genres and
formats; we will witness an increasing hybridization of texts and the construction of
increasingly universal formats, which can move without mediation (without adaptation) from
one medium to another. This osmosis between cinema, television, and other media also finds
confirmation in the tendency toward uniformity in their use. Cinema-going is becoming
closer to watching television (for example, it is losing its ―festive‖ character and its ability to
encourage processes of socialization), while television is ―radiofied,‖ insofar as ―listening‖ is
preferred to ―viewing.‖ These tendencies within the system of mass communication suggest
an increasing synergy among media, and maybe a homologization of apparatuses, both in
terms of the typology of products and in terms of reception. Within this framework, the short
circuits that adaptations used to provoke between different discursive spaces appear quite
insignificant vis-à-vis the interplay of references, and the nomadism of postmodern texts. For
this reason, perhaps the most interesting instances are those in which adaptation functions as
a site of resistance, as a block and filter; that is, when adaptation is in fact mis-adaptation.
New Perspectives
Without wanting to attribute to adaptation a value and a significance that it does not
have, especially when compared to social phenomena of different weight – consider, for
example, the processes of cultural hybridization of diasporic experiences.
One more point needs to be added. If we consider cinema and literature as social
discourses
to be connected to a broader network of other discourses, we need a way to contain our
analysis, or else we would undertake a never-ending project.
Personally, I have been exploring the notion of negotiation, which is based on the assumption
that every node in the network ―confronts itself‖ with other nodes, while trying to maintain
its peculiarity, on the one hand, and to connect with the rest of the network, on the other
hand. As a consequence, each node either ―connects‖ or ―mis-connects‖ with the
whole. This negotiation occurring at the intertextual level is then accompanied by a
negotiation taking place at the level of reception (the text confronts its addressee, the latter‘s
expectations, its readership, its previous knowledge, and the tension between the two poles
creates an interpretation), a further negotiation on the institutional level (the text confronts the
rules and principles of use in its own realm and at the same time it renews and explores their
viability: often texts work this way), and a negotiation taking place on the broader social level
(the text confronts itself with the life-world of a group and, in particular, with the social
practices, the needs, and the processes of reception that characterize it; in this way the text
presents itself as an individual and collective resource). In the case of cinema – that is, in the
case of a medium that has had such a strong impact on the forms of discourse, reception,
and social habits of the past century – to emphasize the processes of negotiation of some
films permits us to focus on them while considering the broader network to which they
belong, which can then be used as a background or as a generic whole.
By way of conclusion, let me point out that I have been trying to show the possibility of
changing the orientation of scholarship devoted to the relationship between cinema and
literature. In particular, I have suggested that we should consider these two realms as sites of
production and circulation of discourses and connect them to other social discourses in order
to trace a network of texts, within which we can identify the accumulation or dispersion, the
coming forth or the reformulation, the emergence and the disappearance of some themes and
issues. This is not an easy task, even if it has an already established tradition in other
disciplines. At any rate, this approach allows us to raise new questions, and to regard cinema
and literature as two large ―construction sites‖ where every society experiments with
its values, meanings, and systems of relations – in other words, what it deems visible,
thinkable,
shareable. In these ―construction sites‖ society challenges itself and to some extent the
destiny of its members. In this sense, they are crucial to all of us.
FILM AND LANGUAGE (FROM THE SUBJECT OF CINEMA)
-GASTON ROBERGE
Film is thus the language of sounds along with the image- the film can convey meaning
without the soundtrack but not always. The language of Cinema tends to be iconic and the
language of literature tends to be symbolic.
However image and word, both media involve perception and cognition, and also the process
of decoding. More than merely perceiving a cinematic image, we link that perception to
prior perceptions to previously gained knowledge and experience. While reading, we
ourselves perform the act of visualisation but in watching a visual directly in a film, we still
construct a mental image and match it with our prior structure of image to reach a
"perception".
So whether it's word or picture, we must inevitably construct a mental image of what we
have "perceived". While watching a film we constantly translate the visual in front of us.
If we see a character in the first scene in the narrative and then do not see him for the
next few scenes, we are constantly trying to place him with the main narrative until he
reappears again on the screen. When we see a small figure on the screen gaining in
height as he walks towards the camera we immediately know that he is not expanding in
size but coming closer.
The word and the image can elicit similar association of ideas-"bright lights" both as a word
and as image will throw up associations of festivities, happiness etc. Hence like words in
literature, images in Cinema are capable of carrying both denotations and connotations, they
not only signify entities other than themselves in the literal sense but also have a way of
calling up feelings surrounding them. However while Gerald Barrett and Virginia Woolf,
argue that film has much lesser connotative capacity than verbal language.
Another similarity between cinematic and literary language lies their mode of construction in
the manner in which they tend to arrange their signs. Film may choose to communicate
vanous 'messages' simultaneously, while literature has no such capability. Film has no
grammar and so no predetermined rules for its construction. But film like verbal language
frequently opts to order its signs in some logical sequence in order to make meaning.
Besides being a storytelling art, both film and literature are fundamentally
representational art unlike music, dance and architecture. To use Siegfried Kracauer's
phrase, the basic function of the camera is "to redeem reality", to recreate and reflect the
world out there. Andre Bazin points out that film achieved what painting struggled to realize
in its 2000-year-old history. Film however veered towards the imaginative aspect of
literature, through fictional representation of reality rather than the real world.
Like all other narratives, film and literature both have two time frames at work, the time
taken for narration and the time of the story itself. Hence both forms are capable of ellipsis.
In films, while a montage of several scenes in rapid succession shows passage of time, a fade-
in and fade-out of darkness and light or trees flowering and bare trees also shows passage of a
day or a season respectively. Both forms are also capable of stopping time, for example long
descriptive passages, philosophical reflections stop the flow of time in a novel whereas freeze
frames or a long take can stop time in a film.
Similarly within a given time frame both the forms can depict parallel action. The film
form has syntax like language and can be learnt through exposure. While cut or fade
modifies time, similarly camera angle, close-up, long shot, top angle and pan modifies space
and all these together determine meaning.
The film has however a unique advantage over novel i.e. two separate tracks one for the
image and the other for the sound. It has thus the capability of non-synchronous sound and
image. For example the image of a man walking down a lonely street can be patched up with
sound tracks of a romantic melody, to suspense music or to a music evoking horror, (the
stock repertoire of these soundtracks can be easily recognized by a regular viewer) and the
impact would be different each time. Similarly dialogues and voice-overs on the sound track
mayor may not match the image on the screen hence constituting varied and diverse
meanings. Film may have borrowed from literature but have also contributed to written texts.
Critics now detect post-cinematic effects in many novels.
In the recent discussions relating to the film and novel following questions are usually
raised:
1. Objective viewpoint. (Phenomenology, avoidance of interiority etc).

2. Subjective viewpoint. (First person narration, memory, hallucination, imagination).
3. Transitions (scene linking, superimposition, fondus or dissolved).
4. Chronology (flashbacks, flash forwards, real versus filmed time, absence of film "tenses")
5. Problems of film versus literary "language" (analogies of syntax, punctuation, metaphors
semantics)
6. Cinematic versus novelistic "universe" (question of time space).
7. Projection and empathy in novel reader and film spectator.
8. Verbal versus Visual description (analysis possible or impossible) .
9. Presence or absence of narrator in the film and the novel.
10. The "double register"(image and sound) in film versus the single register in novel.
Film is an unique art form because by its means of expression it is also capable of organising
itself into a sequence of being a language. Metz makes an interesting point when he says that
the technique of Montage resulted from the desire to make the film language a language
system, something like a verbal language. The famous Russian film director Kuleshov's
experiments showed that succession of images creates narrativity and because the film tells a
story, it is a language, and not vice-versa. A film language is invented and established
through usage and; may; vary while verbal language has fIxed grammatical rules.
The point-of-view is a major area of departure between the theatre and the film. A theatrical
performance is one that is viewed from aflxed vantage point in the theatre, it can have
theatric equivalents of dissolves and masking but basically it is a long shot or a medium shot
'of continuous enactment. A film on the other hand can fragment this experience into close-up
detail, alternating angles and increasing variety of viewpoints. However in order to overcome
the
limitation of a flxed distance between the audience and the stage, innovative methods like a
revolving stage, dividing the stage into two sets and create crosscutting with the help of lights
on one or the other have been introduced time and again successfully.
UNIT-III (DRAMA AND FILM)
MACBETH
-WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Characters List:
 Duncan – King of Scotland
o Malcolm – Duncan's elder son
o Donalbain – Duncan's younger son
 Macbeth – a general in the army of King Duncan; originally Thane of Glamis, then
Thane of Cawdor, and later King of Scotland
 Lady Macbeth – Macbeth's wife, and later Queen of Scotland
 Banquo – Macbeth's friend and a general in the army of King Duncan
o Fleance – Banquo's son
 Macduff – Thane of Fife
o Lady Macduff – Macduff's wife
o Macduff's son
 Ross, Lennox, Angus, Menteith, Caithness – Scottish Thanes
 Siward – general of the English forces
o Young Siward – Siward's son
 Seyton – Macbeth's armourer
 Hecate – Queen of the witches
 Three Witches
 Captain – in the Scottish army
 Three Murderers – employed by Macbeth
o Third Murderer
 Two Murderers – attack Lady Macduff
 Porter – gatekeeper at Macbeth's home
 Doctor – Lady Macbeth's doctor
 Doctor – at the English court
 Gentlewoman – Lady Macbeth's caretaker
 Lord – opposed to Macbeth
 First Apparition – armed head
 Second Apparition – bloody child
 Third Apparition – crowned child
 Attendants, Messengers, Servants, Soldiers
The play opens amidst thunder and lightning, and the Three Witches decide that their next
meeting shall be with Macbeth. In the following scene, a wounded sergeant reports to King
Duncan of Scotland that his generals—Macbeth, who is the Thane of Glamis, and
Banquo—have just defeated the allied forces of Norway and Ireland, who were led by
the traitorous Macdonwald, the Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth, the King's kinsman, is praised
for his bravery and fighting prowess.
In the following scene, Macbeth and Banquo discuss the weather and their victory. As
they wander onto a heath, the Three Witches enter and greet them with prophecies.
Though Banquo challenges them first, they address Macbeth, hailing him as "Thane of
Glamis," "Thane of Cawdor," and that he shall "be King hereafter." Macbeth appears to
be stunned to silence. When Banquo asks of his own fortunes, the witches respond
paradoxically, saying that he will be less than Macbeth, yet happier, less successful, yet
more. He will father a line of kings though he himself will not be one. While the two men
wonder at these pronouncements, the witches vanish, and another thane, Ross, arrives and
informs Macbeth of his newly bestowed title: Thane of Cawdor. The first prophecy is thus
fulfilled, and Macbeth, previously skeptical, immediately begins to harbour ambitions of
becoming king.
King Duncan welcomes and praises Macbeth and Banquo, and declares that he will
spend the night at Macbeth's castle at Inverness; he also names his son Malcolm as his
heir. Macbeth sends a message ahead to his wife, Lady Macbeth, telling her about the
witches' prophecies. Lady Macbeth suffers none of her husband's uncertainty and wishes
him to murder Duncan in order to obtain kingship. When Macbeth arrives at Inverness,
she overrides all of her husband's objections by challenging his manhood and
successfully persuades him to kill the king that very night. He and Lady Macbeth plan
to get Duncan's two chamberlains drunk so that they will black out; the next morning
they will blame the chamberlains for the murder. They will be defenseless as they will
remember nothing.
Act II
While Duncan is asleep, Macbeth stabs him, despite his doubts and a number of
supernatural portents, including a hallucination of a bloody dagger. He is so shaken
that Lady Macbeth has to take charge. In accordance with her plan, she frames Duncan's
sleeping servants for the murder by placing bloody daggers on them. Early the next
morning, Lennox, a Scottish nobleman, and Macduff, the loyal Thane of Fife, arrive. A
porter opens the gate and Macbeth leads them to the king's chamber, where Macduff
discovers Duncan's body. Macbeth murders the guards to prevent them from professing
their innocence, but claims he did so in a fit of anger over their misdeeds. Duncan's sons
Malcolm and Donalbain flee to England and Ireland, respectively, fearing that whoever
killed Duncan desires their demise as well. The rightful heirs' flight makes them
suspects and Macbeth assumes the throne as the new King of Scotland as a kinsman of
the dead king. Banquo reveals this to the audience, and while sceptical of the new King
Macbeth, he remembers the witches' prophecy about how his own descendants would
inherit the throne; this makes him suspicious of Macbeth.
Act III
Despite his success, Macbeth, also aware of this part of the prophecy, remains uneasy.
Macbeth invites Banquo to a royal banquet, where he discovers that Banquo and his
young son, Fleance, will be riding out that night. Fearing Banquo's suspicions, Macbeth
arranges to have him murdered, by hiring two men to kill them, later sending a Third
Murderer. The assassins succeed in killing Banquo, but Fleance escapes. Macbeth
becomes furious: he fears that his power remains insecure as long as an heir of Banquo
remains alive.
At a banquet, Macbeth invites his lords and Lady Macbeth to a night of drinking and
merriment. Banquo's ghost enters and sits in Macbeth's place. Macbeth raves fearfully,
startling his guests, as the ghost is only visible to himself. The others panic at the sight of
Macbeth raging at an empty chair, until a desperate Lady Macbeth tells them that her husband
is merely afflicted with a familiar and harmless malady. The ghost departs and returns once
more, causing the same riotous anger and fear in Macbeth. This time, Lady Macbeth tells the
lords to leave, and they do so.
Act IV
Macbeth, disturbed, visits the three witches once more and asks them to reveal the truth of
their prophecies to him. To answer his questions, they summon horrible apparitions, each of
which offers predictions and further prophecies to put Macbeth's fears at rest. First, they
conjure an armoured head, which tells him to beware of Macduff (IV.i.72). Second, a
bloody child tells him that no one born of a woman shall be able to harm him. Thirdly, a
crowned child holding a tree states that Macbeth will be safe until Great Birnam Wood
comes to Dunsinane Hill. Macbeth is relieved and feels secure because he knows that all
men are born of women and forests cannot move. Macbeth also asks whether Banquo's sons
will ever reign in Scotland: the witches conjure a procession of eight crowned kings, all
similar in appearance to Banquo, and the last carrying a mirror that reflects even more kings.
Macbeth realises that these are all Banquo's descendants having acquired kingship in
numerous countries. After the witches perform a mad dance and leave, Lennox enters and
tells Macbeth that Macduff has fled to England. Macbeth orders Macduff's castle be
seized, and, most cruelly, sends murderers to slaughter Macduff, as well as Macduff's
wife and children. Although Macduff is no longer in the castle, everyone in Macduff's castle
is put to death, including Lady Macduff and their young son.
Act V
Meanwhile, Lady Macbeth becomes racked with guilt from the crimes she and her husband
have committed. At night, in the king's palace at Dunsinane, a doctor and a gentlewoman
discuss Lady Macbeth's strange habit of sleepwalking. Suddenly, Lady Macbeth enters in a
trance with a candle in her hand. Bemoaning the murders of Duncan, Lady Macduff,
and Banquo, she tries to wash off imaginary bloodstains from her hands, all the while
speaking of the terrible things she knows she pressed her husband to do. She leaves, and the
doctor and gentlewoman marvel at her descent into madness. Her belief that nothing can
wash away the blood on her hands is an ironic reversal of her earlier claim to Macbeth that
"[a] little water clears us of this deed" (II.ii.66).
In England, Macduff is informed by Ross that his "castle is surprised; wife and babes /
Savagely slaughter'd" (IV.iii.204–05). When this news of his family's execution reaches him,
Macduff is stricken with grief and vows revenge. Prince Malcolm, Duncan's son, has
succeeded in raising an army in England, and Macduff joins him as he rides to Scotland
to challenge Macbeth's forces. The invasion has the support of the Scottish nobles, who are
appalled and frightened by Macbeth's tyrannical and murderous behaviour. Malcolm leads
an army, along with Macduff and Englishmen Siward (the Elder), the Earl of
Northumberland, against Dunsinane Castle. While encamped in Birnam Wood, the
soldiers are ordered to cut down and carry tree limbs to camouflage their numbers.
Before Macbeth's opponents arrive, he receives news that Lady Macbeth has killed
herself, causing him to sink into a deep and pessimistic despair and deliver his
"Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow" soliloquy (V.v.17–28). Though he reflects on
the brevity and meaninglessness of life, he nevertheless awaits the English and fortifies
Dunsinane. He is certain that the witches' prophecies guarantee his invincibility, but is struck
with fear when he learns that the English army is advancing on Dunsinane shielded with
boughs cut from Birnam Wood, in apparent fulfillment of one of the prophecies.
A battle culminates in Macduff's confrontation with Macbeth, who kills Young Siward
in combat. The English forces overwhelm his army and castle. Macbeth boasts that he has
no reason to fear Macduff, for he cannot be killed by any man born of woman. Macduff
declares that he was "from his mother's womb / Untimely ripp'd" (V.8.15–16), (i.e.,
born by Caesarean section) and is not "of woman born" (an example of a literary
quibble), fulfilling the second prophecy. Macbeth realises too late that he has misinterpreted
the witches' words. Though he realises that he is doomed, he continues to fight. Macduff
kills and beheads him, thus fulfilling the remaining prophecy.
Macduff carries Macbeth's head onstage and Malcolm discusses how order has been restored.
His last reference to Lady Macbeth, however, reveals "'tis thought, by self and violent hands /
Took off her life" (V.ix.71–72), but the method of her suicide is undisclosed. Malcolm, now
the King of Scotland, declares his benevolent intentions for the country and invites all to
see him crowned at Scone.
MACBETH (MOVIE)
-ORSON WELLES
Macbeth is a 1948 American historical drama war film adaptation by Orson Welles of
William Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth, with Welles in the lead role. Jeanette Nolan co-stars
as Lady Macbeth.
In 1947, Orson Welles began promoting the notion of bringing a Shakespeare drama to the
motion picture screen. He initially attempted to pique Alexander Korda's interest in an
adaptation of Othello, but was unable to gather support for the project. Welles switched to
pushing for a film adaptation of Macbeth, which he visualized in its violent setting as "a
perfect cross between Wuthering Heights and Bride of Frankenstein."
Welles brought in Irish actor Dan O'Herlihy in his first U.S. film role as Macduff, and cast
former child star Roddy McDowall as Malcolm. Welles also cast his daughter Christopher in
the role of Macduff's son; this was her only film appearance.
Characters List:
 Orson Welles as Macbeth  Lionel Braham as Siward

 Jeanette Nolan as Lady Macbeth  Archie Heugly as Siward
 Dan O'Herlihy as Macduff  Jerry Farber as Fleance
 Roddy McDowall as Malcolm  Christopher Welles as Macduff's
 Edgar Barrier as Banquo child
 Alan Napier as A Holy Father  Morgan Farley as Doctor
 Erskine Sanford as Duncan  Lurene Tuttle as
 John Dierkes as Ross Gentlewoman and Witch
 Keene Curtis as Lennox  Brainerd Duffield as First
 Peggy Webber as Lady Murderer and Witch
Macduff and Witch
Adaptation
In bringing Macbeth to the screen, Welles made several changes to Shakespeare's original.
He added sequences involving the witches to increase their significance. At the beginning
of the film, they create a clay figurine of Macbeth, which is used to symbolize his rise and
ruin. It collapses in a heap, seemingly of its own volition, immediately after Macbeth is
beheaded. The witches seem to cast a spell on the doll, and anything that happens to it
seems to happen also to Macbeth, as in voodoo. The witches also return at the end of the
film, viewing the drama from afar and uttering "Peace, the charm's wound up" as the
final line; this line is spoken in the first act in the original text, when the witches initially
confront Macbeth.
Because of censorship, the Porter's speech was shorn of all its double entendre.
A major change is Welles' introduction of a new character, the Holy Man. The priest
recites the prayer of Saint Michael. Welles later explained that the character's presence was
meant to confirm that "the main point of that production is the struggle between the old and
new religions. I saw the witches as representatives of a Druidical pagan religion suppressed
by Christianity – itself a new arrival."
There is a subtle insinuation that Lady Macbeth fatally stabs Duncan prior to Macbeth's
attack on the king, and Macbeth is witness to Lady Macbeth's sleepwalking and madness
scene; in the play, he is not present.
Other changes were made to make the play more cinematic. Nearly all of King Duncan's
scenes at the beginning of the play have been cut as well as the character of Donalbain,
his second son.
Macbeth is seen dictating his letter to his wife, rather than writing it himself. In the play,
no such dictation scene exists.
The Thane of Cawdor's execution takes place on-screen accompanied by insistent

drumbeats.
Lady Macbeth's suicide and the final battle between Macbeth's forces and Macduff's
army are depicted on-screen; in the play, both scenes occur off-stage.
Rather than fatally stabbing Macbeth and then beheading the dead body, Macduff kills
Macbeth by slashing off his head. Needless to say, lines have been cut, speeches have
been reassigned, scenes have been reordered, etc.
This scandalized many critics at the time; today it is accepted practice to do so in film
versions of Shakespeare plays to an even greater degree than Welles did, as Jean-Luc
Godard did in his highly unusual and controversial King Lear, and as Peter Greenaway did
in Prospero's Books.
Filming
The film was shot on leftover sets for the westerns that were normally made at Republic
Studios. In order to accommodate the tight production schedule, Welles had the Macbeth cast
pre-record their dialogue.
Welles later expressed frustration with the film's low budget trappings. Most of the costumes
were rented from Western Costume, except those for Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. "Mine
should have been sent back, because I looked like the Statue of Liberty in it," Welles told
filmmaker Peter Bogdanovich. "But there was no dough for another and nothing in stock at
Western would fit me, so I was stuck with it."
Welles also told Bogdanovich that the scene he felt was most effective was actually based on
hunger. "Our best crowd scene was a shot where all the massed forces of Macduff's army are
charging the castle", he said. "There was a very vivid urgency to it, because what was
happening, really, was that we'd just called noon break, and all those extras were rushing off
to lunch."
Welles shot Macbeth in 23 days, with one day devoted to retakes.
Release and Reception

Republic initially planned to have Macbeth in release by December 1947, but Welles was
not ready with the film. The studio entered the film in the 1948 Venice Film Festival, but it
was abruptly withdrawn when it was compared unfavorably against Olivier's version
of Hamlet, which was also in the festival's competition.
In the U.S. theatrical release, Republic tested the film in a few cities. Critical reaction
was overwhelmingly negative, with complaints about Welles's decision to have his cast
speak in Scottish burrs and modify the original text.
After its original release, Republic had Welles cut two reels from the film and ordered him
to have much of the soundtrack re-recorded with the actors speaking in their natural voices,
and not the approximation of Scottish accents that Welles initially requested. This new
version was released by Republic in 1950. While critical reaction was still not supportive,
the film earned a small profit for the studio.
Welles would maintain mixed emotions about Macbeth. In a 1953 lecture at the Edinburgh
Fringe Festival, he said: "My purpose in making Macbeth was not to make a great film – and
this is unusual, because I think that every film director, even when he is making nonsense,
should have as his purpose the making of a great film. I thought I was making what might be
a good film, and what, if the 23-day day shoot schedule came off, might encourage other
filmmakers to tackle difficult subjects at greater speed. Unfortunately, not one critic in any
part of the world chose to compliment me on the speed. They thought it was a scandal that it
should only take 23 days. Of course, they were right, but I could not write to every one of
them and explain that no one would give me any money for a further day's shooting . . .
However, I am not ashamed of the limitations of the picture."
The truncated version of Macbeth remained in release until 1980, when the original uncut
version with the Scottish-tinged soundtrack was restored by the UCLA Film and Television
Archive and the Folger Shakespeare Library. Critical opinion of the film has drastically
improved since its original release, with many now regarding it as one of Welles' most
notable films. On Rotten Tomatoes, 87% of 23 critics gave the film positive reviews, with a
7.4 out of 10 rating; its consensus reads: "This haunting, eccentric Macbeth may be hampered
by budget constraints, but Orson Welles delivers both behind and in front of the camera."
Summary:
Orson Welles' expressionist, visually stunning version of Macbeth was the director's first
attempt at a cinematic adaptation of Shakespeare. Shot quickly and cheaply, the film makes a
virtue of its budget minimalism by setting the familiar play within a spartan, eerie wasteland
of fog and bare rock. Welles surrounds this bleak, violent parable of power and ambition with
swirling fog, twisted trees devoid of leaves, stark expanses of vague nothingness in which
only the light-sculpted features of the play's protagonists stand out, as though they are
declaiming into a void, spitting out their tormented speeches while already engulfed in the
hell that awaits them for their vile deeds.
Welles is mostly faithful to the text of Shakespeare's play, shifting some words and characters
around here and there, and somewhat emphasizing the religious subtext of the story, but
mostly remaining true to the language and the story. Macbeth (Welles) is moved to murder
the king by a prophecy given to him by three witches, further encouraged in the deed by his
scheming, ambitious wife (Jeanette Nolan). His crime gets him the crown, but he's overcome
by paranoia and madness, growing ever more bloodthirsty and reckless as he desperately
defends his ill-gotten title. The story is a classical study of the corruption of power, and
Welles revels in the blustery speeches and stormy psychological subtexts, all of it delivered
with the familiar disembodied sound that often characterized Welles' approach to dialogue —
he recorded all of the speech separately, so that the actors are simply mouthing their words,
and the dubbed, echoing quality of the sound contributes to the film's strange, haunting feel.
It's visually that Welles really makes his mark on this material. The chintzy sets and shoddy
theatrical props of this production were doubtless necessitated by budgetary limitations, but
Welles uses his limited means with purpose. The castle through which Macbeth stalks looks
more like a cave, the bare rock walls warped and full of holes in which all light disappears,
the ceilings low and craggy overhead. The film's atmosphere would be well-suited to a horror
movie, with fog draped around the dark, minimal set, reducing visibility to a small circle of
empty space in which Macbeth paces like a trapped rat, his face often blown up in dramatic
closeups that capture every bead of sweat dripping from his skin, every quiver of his lips and
every wild, bulging expression in his eyes. The backgrounds are blurry and sketchy, a few
warped trees sticking up out of a wasteland, crudely carved rock everywhere, while the faces
of the actors are crisply delineated with bold, high-contrast lighting, their eyes often shining
out of the darkness of their shadowed faces.
The frequent close framing of the actors places the larger-than-life emotions of Shakespeare's
text front and center. Even the minimal scenery, so gloomy and gothic, seems to reflect the
warped inner psychology of Macbeth and his wife, their paranoia and evil writ large upon
their surroundings. Welles poses Lady Macbeth as a seductress, a femme fatale, urging her
husband on to his murderous, treacherous deeds. In the crucial scenes where she convinces
him to kill the king, Welles frames Macbeth in the foreground with his wife slyly positioned
to his side, whispering in his ear, casting charged glances his way. She's Eve and the serpent
all rolled into one form, her last-act attacks of conscience notwithstanding, and at one point
her face glides into the frame at the fringes, behind a towering closeup of Macbeth, like a
sinister sprite perched on his shoulder, whispering evil in his ear.
The minimalist aesthetic at times seems to mock the protagonist. When Macbeth is crowned
king, a silly-looking square crown, at once flimsy and bulky, is placed upon his brow, with
his glowering face beneath it. He marches out before his assembled troops and subjects for
the first time as their king, and the music too mocks him, accompanying what should be his
grand entrance with a jaunty tune more suited to a court jester than a king. Later, at the
climax of the film, as Macbeth's foes amass beneath his ramparts to unseat him, the king runs
back and forth across the bare stone of his courtyard in a crown designed to resemble the
Statue of Liberty's spiked headband, thus ironically juxtaposing the vicious tyrant with the
symbol of American democracy.
Macbeth's famous final act soliloquy "full of sound and fury/ signifying nothing" is delivered
against an abstract image of smoke roiling and spinning in slow motion, a foggy void that's
set to devour the murderous king, to end his time of strutting upon life's stage. Welles' visual
interpretation of this material is often subtly clever like this, expanding the text with a truly
cinematic sensibility. Welles cuts from Macbeth looking at a twisted tree branch and musing
about crows to the image of the two murderers who Macbeth has sent after Banquo, crouched
on a tree limb, their shadowy forms looking very bird-like as they wait for their victim to pass
by so they might descend on him. The sound design is also exceptional, with Welles
ascribing piercing, harrowing import to a few key sounds on the otherwise hollow,
disembodied soundtrack: after the king's death, especially, the loud knocking of Macduff
(Dan O'Herlihy) at the castle door reverberates impressively, a foreboding sound of doom,
and there's a similar force to the screech of the owl that so frightens Lady Macbeth that she
grasps at her chest as though she's been stabbed by the sound. Welles' Macbeth was not
appreciated in its time, but in fact it's a stunning and visually inventive adaptation.
A DOLL’S HOUSE (DRAMA)

-HENRIK IBSEN
In some editions of A Doll’s House, the speech prompts refer to the character of Torvald
Helmer as ―Torvald;‖ in others, they refer to him as ―Helmer.‖ Similarly, in some editions,
Mrs. Linde‘s first name is spelled ―Christine‖ rather than ―Kristine.‖
Nora- The protagonist of the play and the wife of Torvald Helmer. Nora initially seems like a
playful, naïve child who lacks knowledge of the world outside her home. She does have some
worldly experience, however, and the small acts of rebellion in which she engages indicate
that she is not as innocent or happy as she appears. She comes to see her position in her
marriage with increasing clarity and finds the strength to free herself from her oppressive
situation.
Torvald Helmer - Nora‘s husband. Torvald delights in his new position at the bank, just as
he delights in his position of authority as a husband. He treats Nora like a child, in a manner
that is both kind and patronizing. He does not view Nora as an equal but rather as a plaything
or doll to be teased and admired. In general, Torvald is overly concerned with his place and
status in society, and he allows his emotions to be swayed heavily by the prospect of
society‘s respect and the fear of society‘s scorn.
Krogstad - A lawyer who went to school with Torvald and holds a subordinate position at
Torvald‘s bank. Krogstad‘s character is contradictory: though his bad deeds seem to stem
from a desire to protect his children from scorn, he is perfectly willing to use unethical tactics
to achieve his goals. His willingness to allow Nora to suffer is despicable, but his claims to
feel sympathy for her and the hard circumstances of his own life compel us to sympathize
with him to some degree.
Mrs. Linde - Nora‘s childhood friend. Kristine Linde is a practical, down-to-earth woman,
and her sensible worldview highlights Nora‘s somewhat childlike outlook on life. Mrs.
Linde‘s account of her life of poverty underscores the privileged nature of the life that Nora
leads. Also, we learn that Mrs. Linde took responsibility for her sick parent, whereas Nora
abandoned her father when he was ill.
Dr. Rank - Torvald‘s best friend. Dr. Rank stands out as the one character in the play who is
by and large unconcerned with what others think of him. He is also notable for his stoic
acceptance of his fate. Unlike Torvald and Nora, Dr. Rank admits to the diseased nature
(literally, in his case) of his life. For the most part, he avoids talking to Torvald about his
imminent death out of respect for Torvald‘s distaste for ugliness.
Bob, Emmy, and Ivar - Nora and Torvald‘s three small children. In her brief interaction
with her children, Nora shows herself to be a loving mother. When she later refuses to spend
time with her children because she fears she may morally corrupt them, Nora acts on her
belief that the quality of parenting strongly influences a child‘s development.
Anne-Marie -The Helmers‘ nanny. Though Ibsen doesn‘t fully develop her character, Anne-
Marie seems to be a kindly woman who has genuine affection for Nora. She had to give up
her own daughter in order to take the nursing job offered by Nora‘s father. Thus, she shares
with Nora and Mrs. Linde the act of sacrificing her own happiness out of economic necessity.
Nora‘s father - Though Nora‘s father is dead before the action of the play begins, the
characters refer to him throughout the play. Though she clearly loves and admires her father,
Nora also comes to blame him for contributing to her subservient position in life.
Summary:
A Doll’s House opens on Christmas Eve. Nora Helmer enters her well-furnished living room
—the setting of the entire play—carrying several packages. Torvald Helmer, Nora‘s husband,
comes out of his study when he hears her arrive. He greets her playfully and affectionately,
but then chides her for spending so much money on Christmas gifts. Their conversation
reveals that the Helmers have had to be careful with money for many years, but that Torvald
has recently obtained a new position at the bank where he works that will afford them a more
comfortable lifestyle.
Helene, the maid, announces that the Helmers‘ dear friend Dr. Rank has come to visit. At the
same time, another visitor has arrived, this one unknown. To Nora‘s great surprise, Kristine
Linde, a former school friend, comes into the room. The two have not seen each other for
years, but Nora mentions having read that Mrs. Linde‘s husband passed away a few years
earlier. Mrs. Linde tells Nora that when her husband died, she was left with no money and no
children. Nora tells Mrs. Linde about her first year of marriage to Torvald. She explains that
they were very poor and both had to work long hours. Torvald became sick, she adds, and the
couple had to travel to Italy so that Torvald could recover.
Nora inquires further about Mrs. Linde‘s life, and Mrs. Linde explains that for years she had
to care for her sick mother and her two younger brothers. She states that her mother has
passed away, though, and that the brothers are too old to need her. Instead of feeling relief,
Mrs. Linde says she feels empty because she has no occupation; she hopes that Torvald may
be able to help her obtain employment. Nora promises to speak to Torvald and then reveals a
great secret to Mrs. Linde—without Torvald‘s knowledge, Nora illegally borrowed money
for the trip that she and Torvald took to Italy; she told Torvald that the money had come from
her father. For years, Nora reveals, she has worked and saved in secret, slowly repaying the
debt, and soon it will be fully repaid.
Krogstad, a low-level employee at the bank where Torvald works, arrives and proceeds into
Torvald‘s study. Nora reacts uneasily to Krogstad‘s presence, and Dr. Rank, coming out of
the study, says Krogstad is ―morally sick.‖ Once he has finished meeting with
Krogstad, Torvald comes into the living room and says that he can probably hire Mrs. Linde
at the bank. Dr. Rank, Torvald, and Mrs. Linde then depart, leaving Nora by herself. Nora‘s
children return with their nanny, Anne-Marie, and Nora plays with them until she notices
Krogstad‘s presence in the room. The two converse, and Krogstad is revealed to be the source
of Nora‘s secret loan.
Krogstad states that Torvald wants to fire him from his position at the bank and alludes to his
own poor reputation. He asks Nora to use her influence to ensure that his position remains
secure. When she refuses, Krogstad points out that he has in his possession a contract that
contains Nora‘s forgery of her father‘s signature. Krogstad blackmails Nora, threatening to
reveal her crime and to bring shame and disgrace on both Nora and her husband if she does
not prevent Torvald from firing him. Krogstad leaves, and when Torvald returns, Nora tries
to convince him not to fire Krogstad, but Torvald will hear nothing of it. He declares
Krogstad an immoral man and states that he feels physically ill in the presence of such
people.
Act Two opens on the following day, Christmas. Alone, Nora paces her living room, filled
with anxiety. Mrs. Linde arrives and helps sew Nora‘s costume for the ball that Nora will be
attending at her neighbors‘ home the following evening. Nora tells Mrs. Linde that Dr. Rank
has a mortal illness that he inherited from his father. Nora‘s suspicious behavior leads Mrs.
Linde to guess that Dr. Rank is the source of Nora‘s loan. Nora denies Mrs. Linde‘s charge
but refuses to reveal the source of her distress. Torvald arrives, and Nora again begs him to
keep Krogstad employed at the bank, but again Torvald refuses. When Nora presses him, he
admits that Krogstad‘s moral behavior isn‘t all that bothers him—he dislikes Krogstad‘s
overly familiar attitude. Torvald and Nora argue until Torvald sends the maid to deliver
Krogstad‘s letter of dismissal.
Torvald leaves. Dr. Rank arrives and tells Nora that he knows he is close to death. She
attempts to cheer him up and begins to flirt with him. She seems to be preparing to ask him to
intervene on her behalf in her struggle with Torvald. Suddenly, Dr. Rank reveals to Nora that
he is in love with her. In light of this revelation, Nora refuses to ask Dr. Rank for anything.
Once Dr. Rank leaves, Krogstad arrives and demands an explanation for his dismissal. He
wants respectability and has changed the terms of the blackmail: he now insists to Nora that
not only that he be rehired at the bank but that he be rehired in a higher po sition. He then puts
a letter detailing Nora‘s debt and forgery in the -Helmers‘ letterbox. In a panic, Nora tells
Mrs. Linde everything, and Mrs. Linde instructs Nora to delay Torvald from opening the
letter as long as possible while she goes to speak with Krogstad. In order to distract Torvald
from the letterbox, Nora begins to practice the tarantella she will perform at that evening‘s
costume party. In her agitated emotional state, she dances wildly and violently, displeasing
Torvald. Nora manages to make Torvald promise not to open his mail until after she performs
at the party. Mrs. Linde soon returns and says that she has left Krogstad a note but that he
will be gone until the following evening.
The next night, as the costume party takes place upstairs, Krogstad meets Mrs. Linde in the
Helmers‘ living room. Their conversation reveals that the two had once deeply in love, but
Mrs. Linde left Krogstad for a wealthier man who would enable her to support her family.
She tells Krogstad that now that she is free of her own familial obligations and wishes to be
with Krogstad and care for his children. Krogstad is overjoyed and says he will demand his
letter back before Torvald can read it and learn Nora‘s secret. Mrs. Linde, however, insists he
leave the letter, because she believes both Torvald and Nora will be better off once the truth
has been revealed.
Soon after Krogstad‘s departure, Nora and Torvald enter, back from the costume ball. After
saying goodnight to Mrs. Linde, Torvald tells Nora how desirable she looked as she danced.
Dr. Rank, who was also at the party and has come to say goodnight, promptly interrupts
Torvald‘s advances on Nora. After Dr. Rank leaves, Torvald finds in his letterbox two of Dr.
Rank‘s visiting cards, each with a black cross above the name. Nora knows Dr. Rank‘s cards
constitute his announcement that he will soon die, and she informs Torvald of this fact. She
then insists that Torvald read Krogstad‘s letter.
Torvald reads the letter and is outraged. He calls Nora a hypocrite and a liar and complains
that she has ruined his happiness. He declares that she will not be allowed to raise their
children. Helene then brings in a letter. Torvald opens it and discovers that Krogstad has
returned Nora‘s contract (which contains the forged signature). Overjoyed, Torvald attempts
to dismiss his past insults, but his harsh words have triggered something in Nora. She
declares that despite their eight years of marriage, they do not understand one another.
Torvald, Nora asserts, has treated her like a ―doll‖ to be played with and admired.
She decides to leave Torvald, declaring that she must ―make sense of [her]self and
everything around her.‖ She walks out, slamming the door behind her.
A DOLL’S HOUSE (MOVIE)
-PATRICK GARLAND
A Doll's House is a 1973 British film, directed by Patrick Garland. It is based on Henrik
Ibsen's play A Doll's House (1879). Nora Helmer, the lead character, is married to the straight
but authoritarian Torvald. The two have a good marriage, until things from their past threaten
to destroy their lives.
Cast
 Claire Bloom as Nora Helmer

 Anthony Hopkins as Torvald Helmer
 Ralph Richardson as Dr. Rank
 Denholm Elliott as Nils Krogstad
 Edith Evans as Anne-Marie
 Anna Massey as Kristine Linde
 Helen Blatch as Helen
 Kimberley Hampton as Bob
 Daphne Riggs as Old Woman
 Mark Summerfield as Ivar
 Stefanie Summerfield as Emmy
Film Analysis
In 1973 Patrick Garland directed a movie based on Henrik Ibsen's play A Doll's House. As
the play goes Nora Helmer saves her husband's life by committing forgery. Throughout the
movie we see how Nora deals with the secret, blackmail, and how the truth comes out. Nora
plays a huge role in this film, and watching her character throughout is quite intriguing. Does
this movie portray how some women would be during this time period or was Nora Helmer a
one of a kind woman? I think any woman would have done what Nora did in her position,
and her character to me signifies the rights women might not know they have, but do possess.
The movie opens up with Nora coming home to Torvald and right away we notice the kind of
relationship they have. Just from there interaction, her acting almost like a pet, and him
enjoying every minute of it makes you wonder if that is how Torvald sees Nora. It's almost as
if he views her in a childish way, maybe they're just playful which makes you wonder about
their supposed "fairy-tail marriage." It's different seeing their interaction with our own eyes
then just reading it on paper and trying to imagine what it would be like. The movie definitely
puts all the emotion and relationships into perspective. Although this seems to be how
Torvald is with her we see how she would do anything for him.
The start of deception stood out to me macaroons in the movie than in the play. The
macaroons that Torvald doesn't want Nora to be eating but still does I think signifies the
deception and made me wonder what else she could be could be lying about. When reading
the play to me the macaroons didn't really stand out. They were just something that Nora had
bought that she shouldn't of.
We see how strong of a women Nora really is in the play, although when the secret is first
brought up between her in Christine I somewhat questioned how close their relationship
really is through the acting. Even though we know that they are supposed to be very close
friends because we have read the play, the emotion between the two almost seems different.
Christine seems to just stare at Nora and doesn't really show any emotion at all. To me they
didn't really act like they were close. If I were watching it for the first time I wouldn't
understand why Nora trusted her with such a big secret because I wouldn't know about how
close they are supposed to be.
The strength I refer to though would be with Krogstad, when he comes to black mail Nora for
a job at the bank. Nora did what any woman who loves their husband would do. Not only
does her actions let her be somewhat blackmailed but when Torvald finds out we see his real
colors, and how he really feels. This is the only scene of rage in the whole movie which I
believe is very significant. He shows his rage and then tries to desperately fix everything.
This brings Nora's transformation to life. She goes from the pretending wife to realizing their
marriage isn't what it seems to realizing that she needed to find herself. This all gave her the
courage to leave. Some may say she was selfish, but you cannot confine one person to a
house for all their life. The whole movie basically takes place in the Helmer's household. This
freedom Nora has now acquired is almost in the sense she's breaking down the barrier and
done being trapped.
Through all of this the emotion in the characters is what brings the movie to life. Although I
do believe some of it is hidden emotion because in scenes where you think there would be
some kind of expression there really isn't. The play shows the significance of Nora's role, and
her transformation through the whole thing. It would be a completely different movie and
play without her character in it. Her character adds to the plot, theme, and overall conflict.
Even though she deceives her husband she was a woman of intelligence and influence which
made a great character.
UNIT IV (FICTION AND FILM)

A PASSAGE TO INDIA (NOVEL)
-E M. FORSTER
Character List:
Dr. Aziz - An intelligent, emotional Indian doctor in Chandrapore. Aziz attempts to make
friends with Adela Quested, Mrs. Moore, and Cyril Fielding. Later, Adela falsely accuses
Aziz of attempted rape after an expedition to the Marabar Caves, but the charges are dropped
after Adela‘s testimony at the trial. Aziz enjoys writing and reciting poetry. He has three
children; his wife died several years before the beginning of the novel.
Cyril Fielding - The principal of the government college near Chandrapore. Fielding is an
independent man who believes in educating the Indians to be individuals—a much more
sympathetic attitude toward the native population than that held by most English in India.
Fielding befriends Dr. Aziz, taking the doctor‘s side against the rest of the English in
Chandrapore when Aziz is accused of attempting to rape Adela Quested.
Miss Adela Quested - A young, intelligent, inquisitive, but somewhat repressed

Englishwoman. Adela travels to India with Mrs. Moore in order to decide whether or not to
marry Mrs. Moore‘s son Ronny. Miss Quested begins with an openminded desire to get to
know Indians and see the real India. Later, she falsely accuses Aziz of attempting to rape her
in the Marabar Caves.
Mrs. Moore - An elderly Englishwoman who voyages to India with Adela Quested. Mrs.
Moore wishes to see the country and hopes that Adela will marry her son Ronny. Mrs. Moore
befriends Dr. Aziz, as she feels some spiritual connection with him. She has an unsettling
experience with the bizarre echoes in the Marabar Caves, which cause her to feel a sense of
dread, especially about human relationships. Mrs. Moore hurries back to England, and she
dies at sea during the journey.
Ronny Heaslop - Mrs. Moore‘s son, the magistrate at Chandrapore. Ronny, though well
educated and open-minded at heart, has become prejudiced and intolerant of Indians ever
since he moved to India—as is standard for most Englishmen serving there. Ronny is briefly
engaged to Adela Quested, though he does not appear particularly passionate about her.
Mr. Turton - The collector, the man who governs Chandrapore. Mr. Turton is officious and
stern, though more tactful than his wife.
Mrs. Turton - Turton‘s wife. In her interactions with Indians, Mrs. Turton embodies the
novel‘s stereotype of the snobby, rude, and prejudiced English colonial wife.
Mr. McBryde - The superintendent of police in Chandrapore, who has an elaborate theory
that he claims explains the inferiority of dark-skinned races to light-skinned ones. McBryde,
though condescending, actually shows more tolerance toward Indians than most English do.
Not surprisingly, he and Fielding are friendly acquain-tances. McBryde himself stands up
against the group mentality of the English at Chandrapore when he divorces his wife after
having an affair with Miss Derek.
Major Callendar - The civil surgeon at Chandrapore, Dr. Aziz‘s superior. Major Callendar
is a boastful, cruel, intolerant, and ridiculous man.
Professor Godbole - A Brahman Hindu who teaches at Fielding‘s college. Godbole is very
spiritual and reluctant to become involved in human affairs.
Hamidullah - Dr. Aziz‘s uncle and friend. Hamidullah, who was educated at Cambridge,
believes that friendship between the English and Indians is more likely possible in England
than in India. Hamidullah was a close friend of Fielding before Fielding and Aziz met.
Mahmoud Ali - A lawyer friend of Dr. Aziz who is deeply pessimistic about the English.
The Nawab Bahadur - The leading loyalist in Chandrapore. The Nawab Bahadur is
wealthy, generous, and faithful to the English. After Aziz‘s trial, however, he gives up his
title in protest.
Dr. Panna Lal - A low-born Hindu doctor and Aziz‘s rival. Dr. Panna Lal intends to testify
against Aziz at the trial, but he begs forgiveness after Aziz is set free.
Stella Moore - Mrs. Moore‘s daughter from her second marriage. Stella marries Fielding
toward the end of the novel.
Ralph Moore - Mrs. Moore‘s son from her second marriage, a sensitive young man.
Miss Derek - A young Englishwoman who works for a wealthy Indian family and often
steals their car. Miss Derek is easygoing and has a fine sense of humor, but many of the
English at Chandrapore resent her, considering her presence unseemly.
Amritrao - The lawyer who defends Aziz at his trial. Amritrao is a highly anti-British man.
Plot:
Two English women, the young Miss Adela Quested and the elderly Mrs. Moore, travel to
India. Adela expects to become engaged to Mrs. Moore‘s son, Ronny, a British magistrate in
the Indian city of Chandrapore. Adela and Mrs. Moore each hope to see the real India during
their visit, rather than cultural institutions imported by the British.
At the same time, Aziz, a young Muslim doctor in India, is increasingly frustrated by the poor
treatment he receives at the hands of the English. Aziz is especially annoyed with Major
Callendar, the civil surgeon, who has a tendency to summon Aziz for frivolous reasons in the
middle of dinner. Aziz and two of his educated friends, Hamidullah and Mahmoud Ali, hold a
lively conversation about whether or not an Indian can be friends with an Englishman in
India. That night, Mrs. Moore and Aziz happen to run into each other while exploring a local
mosque, and the two become friendly. Aziz is moved and surprised that an English person
would treat him like a friend.
Mr. Turton, the collector who governs Chandrapore, hosts a party so that Adela and Mrs.
Moore may have the opportunity to meet some of the more prominent and wealthy Indians in
the city. At the event, which proves to be rather awkward, Adela meets Cyril Fielding, the
principal of the government college in Chandrapore. Fielding, impressed with Adela‘s open
friendliness to the Indians, invites her and Mrs. Moore to tea with him and the Hindu
professor Godbole. At Adela‘s request, Fielding invites Aziz to tea as well.
At the tea, Aziz and Fielding immediately become friendly, and the afternoon is
overwhelmingly pleasant until Ronny Heaslop arrives and rudely interrupts the party. Later
that evening, Adela tells Ronny that she has decided not to marry him. But that night, the two
are in a car accident together, and the excitement of the event causes Adela to change her
mind about the marriage.
Not long afterward, Aziz organizes an expedition to the nearby Marabar Caves for those who
attended Fielding‘s tea. Fielding and Professor Godbole miss the train to Marabar, so Aziz
continues on alone with the two ladies, Adela and Mrs. Moore. Inside one of the caves, Mrs.
Moore is unnerved by the enclosed space, which is crowded with Aziz‘s retinue, and by the
uncanny echo that seems to translate every sound she makes into the noise ―boum.‖
Aziz, Adela, and a guide go on to the higher caves while Mrs. Moore waits below. Adela,
suddenly realizing that she does not love Ronny, asks Aziz whether he has more than one
wife—a question he considers offensive. Aziz storms off into a cave, and when he returns,
Adela is gone. Aziz scolds the guide for losing Adela, and the guide runs away. Aziz finds
Adela‘s broken field-glasses and heads down the hill. Back at the picnic site, Aziz finds
Fielding waiting for him. Aziz is unconcerned to learn that Adela has hastily taken a car back
to Chandrapore, as he is overjoyed to see Fielding. Back in Chandrapore, however, Aziz is
unexpectedly arrested. He is charged with attempting to rape Adela Quested while she was in
the caves, a charge based on a claim Adela herself has made.
Fielding, believing Aziz to be innocent, angers all of British India by joining the Indians in
Aziz‘s defense. In the weeks before the trial, the racial tensions between the Indians and the
English flare up considerably. Mrs. Moore is distracted and miserable because of her memory
of the echo in the cave and because of her impatience with the upcoming trial. Adela is
emotional and ill; she too seems to suffer from an echo in her mind. Ronny is fed up with
Mrs. Moore‘s lack of support for Adela, and it is agreed that Mrs. Moore will return to
England earlier than planned. Mrs. Moore dies on the voyage back to England, but not before
she realizes that there is no ―real India‖—but rather a complex multitude of different Indias.
At Aziz‘s trial, Adela, under oath, is questioned about what happened in the caves.
Shockingly, she declares that she has made a mistake: Aziz is not the person or thing that
attacked her in the cave. Aziz is set free, and Fielding escorts Adela to the Government
College, where she spends the next several weeks. Fielding begins to respect Adela,
recognizing her bravery in standing against her peers to pronounce Aziz innocent. Ronny
breaks off his engagement to Adela, and she returns to England.
Aziz, however, is angry that Fielding would befriend Adela after she nearly ruined Aziz‘s
life, and the friendship between the two men suffers as a consequence. Then Fielding sails for
a visit to England. Aziz declares that he is done with the English and that he intends to move
to a place where he will not have to encounter them.
Two years later, Aziz has become the chief doctor to the Rajah of Mau, a Hindu region
several hundred miles from Chandrapore. He has heard that Fielding married Adela shortly
after returning to England. Aziz now virulently hates all English people. One day, walking
through an old temple with his three children, he encounters Fielding and his brother-in-law.
Aziz is surprised to learn that the brother-in-law‘s name is Ralph Moore; it turns out that
Fielding married not Adela Quested, but Stella Moore, Mrs. Moore‘s daughter from her
second marriage.
Aziz befriends Ralph. After he accidentally runs his rowboat into Fielding‘s, Aziz renews his
friendship with Fielding as well. The two men go for a final ride together before Fielding
leaves, during which Aziz tells Fielding that once the English are out of India, the two will be
able to be friends. Fielding asks why they cannot be friends now, when they both want to be,
but the sky and the earth seem to say ―No, not yet. No, not there.‖
A PASSAGE TO INDIA (MOVIE)

-DAVID LEAN
A Passage to India is a 1984 British period drama film written and directed by David Lean.
The screenplay is based on the play of the same name by Santha Rama Rau, which was based
on the novel of the same name by E.M. Forster.
This was the final film of Lean's career, and the first feature-film he had directed in fourteen
years, since Ryan's Daughter in 1970. Receiving universal critical acclaim upon its release
with many praising it as Lean's finest since Lawrence of Arabia, A Passage to India received
eleven nominations at the Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director for Lean,
and Best Actress for Judy Davis for her portrayal as Adela Quested. Peggy Ashcroft won the
Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal as Mrs Moore, making her, at
77, the oldest actress to win the award, and Maurice Jarre won his third Academy Award for
Best Original Score.
Cast
 Judy Davis as Adela Quested  Roshan Seth as Advocate Amrit Rao
 Peggy Ashcroft as Mrs Moore  Richard Wilson as Collector Turton
 Victor Banerjee as Dr Aziz Ahmed  Antonia Pemberton as Mrs. Turton
 James Fox as Richard Fielding  Sandra Hotz as Stella
 Alec Guinness as Professor Godbole  H.S. Krishnamurthy as Hassan
 Nigel Havers as Ronny Heaslop  Dina Pathak as Begum Hamidullah
 Michael Culver as Major McBryde  Ashok Mandanna as Anthony
 Clive Swift as Major Callendar  Z.H. Khan as Dr. Panna Lal
 Art Malik as Ali  Mohammed Ashiq as Haq
 Saeed Jaffrey as Advocate Hamidullah  Rashid Karapiet as Das
 Ann Firbank as Mrs. Callendar  Ishaq Bux as Selim
Background
E. M. Forster began writing A Passage to India during a stay in India from late 1912 to early
1913 (he was drawn there by a young Indian Muslim, Syed Ross Masood, whom he had
tutored in Latin), completing it only after he returned to India as secretary to a maharajah in
1921. The novel was published on 6 June 1924 It differs from Forster's other major works in
the overt political content, as opposed to the lighter tone and more subdued political subtext
in works such as Howards End and A Room With a View.
A Passage to India deals with the delicate balance between the English and the Indians
during the British Raj. The question of what actually happened in the caves remains
unanswered in the novel. A Passage to India sold well and was widely praised in literary
circles. It is generally regarded as Forster's best novel, quickly becoming a classic of English
literature.
Over many years several film directors were interested in adapting the novel to the big
screen, but Forster, who was criticized when the novel was published, rejected every offer for
the film rights believing that any film of his novel would be a travesty. He feared that
whoever made it would come down on the side of the English or the Indians, and he wanted
balance. However he did allow Indian author Santha Rama Rau to adapt the novel for the
theatre in 1957.
David Lean had read the novel and saw the play in London in 1960, and, impressed,
attempted to purchase the rights at that time, but Forster, who rejected Santha Rama Rau's
suggestion to allow Indian film director Satyajit Ray to make a film, said no.[7] Following
Forster's death in 1970, the governing board of fellows of King's College at Cambridge
inherited the rights to his books. However, Donald A Parry, chief executor, turned down all
approaches, including those of Joseph Losey, Ismail Merchant and James Ivory, and Waris
Hussein, who after adapting Santha Rama Rau's play now wanted to make a feature film. Ten
years later, when Professor Bernard Williams, a film enthusiast, became chief executor, the
rights for a film adaptation became available.
Lord Brabourne, (John Knatchbull, 7th Baron Brabourne), whose father had been Governor
of Bombay and later Governor of Bengal, and who was married to the daughter of Lord
Mountbatten, the last viceroy, had sought the film rights for twenty years. [7] He had produced
Franco Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet and films based on Agatha Christie‘s mysteries
including the 1974 Murder on the Orient Express. In March 1981, John Brabourne and his
business partner, Richard Goodwin, obtained the rights to make a film adaptation of A
Passage to India.[7] The contract stipulated that Santha Rama Rau write the screenplay and it
reserved the right to approve the director.
Brabourne, an admirer of the film Doctor Zhivago, wanted David Lean to direct the film.
Lean was ready to break his 14-year hiatus from filmmaking following mostly negative
reviews received for Ryan's Daughter in 1970. Since then, Lean had fought to make a two-
part epic telling the true story of the mutiny on the Bounty, for which he could not obtain
financing, and had given some thought about doing a film adaptation of Out of Africa, from
the book by Isak Dinesen, which Sydney Pollack ultimately directed in 1985. By September
1981, Lean was approved as director and Santha Rama Rau completed a draft of the script.
Writing
The contract stipulated that Santha Rama Rau would write the screenplay. She had met with
E. M. Forster; had successfully adapted A Passage to India as a play; and the author had
charged her with preserving the spirit of the novel. However, Lean was determined to
exercise input in the writing process. He met with Santha Rama Rau in Berkeley,
Gloucestershire, and over ten days they talked about the novel and discussed the script.
The initial script by Santha Rama Rau pleased neither the producer, John Brabourne, nor
David Lean. They considered it too worldly and literary, the work of a playwright, and
unsuitable for a film. Most of the scenes took place indoors and in offices while Lean had in
mind to film outdoor as much as possible. With India in the title of the film, he reasoned,
audiences would expect to see many scenes filmed of the Indian landscape. Lean commented:
"We are blessed with a fine movie title, A Passage to India. But it has built in danger; it holds
out such a promise. The very mention of India conjures up high expectations. It has sweep
and size and is very romantic". Lean did not want to present a poor man's pre-independence
India when for the same amount of money he could show the country's visual richness.
During 1982, Lean worked on the script. He spent six months in New Delhi, to have a close
feeling of the country while writing. As he could not stay longer than that for tax reasons,
then he moved to Zurich for three months finishing it there. Following the same method he
had employed adapting Charles Dickens‘s Great Expectations, he went through Rau's original
script, and his copy of the novel, picking out the episodes that were indispensable and passing
over those that did not advance the plot. Lean typed out the whole screenplay himself
correcting it as he went along, following the principle that scripts are not written, but
rewritten.
Filming
The Marabar Caves are based on the Barabar Caves, some 35 km north of Gaya, in Bihar.
Lean visited the caves during pre-production, and found them flat and unattractive; concerns
about bandits were also prevalent. Instead he used the hills of Savandurga and
Ramadevarabetta some tens of kilometers from Bangalore, where much of the principal film
took place; small cave entrances were carved out by the production company. [9] Other scenes
were filmed in Ramanagaram (Karnataka) and Udhagamandalam (Tamil Nadu) and in
Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir), with some interiors being shot at Shepperton Studios in
Surrey and in Bangalore Palace. Filming took place from November 1983 to June 1984.
Critical reception
Lean's final film became a critics' favourite in 1984, opening to tremendous praise
worldwide. Vincent Canby of The New York Times called Lean's film "his best work since
The Bridge on the River Kwai and Lawrence of Arabia and perhaps his most humane and
moving film since Brief Encounter. Though vast in physical scale and set against a
tumultuous Indian background, it is also intimate, funny and moving in the manner of a film
maker completely in control of his material . . . Though [Lean] has made A Passage to India
both less mysterious and more cryptic than the book, the film remains a wonderfully
provocative tale, full of vivid characters, all played to near perfection."
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times observed that "Forster's novel is one of the literary
landmarks of this century, and now David Lean has made it into one of the greatest screen
adaptations I have ever seen . . . [He] is a meticulous craftsman, famous for going to any
length to make every shot look just the way he thinks it should. His actors here are
encouraged to give sound, thoughtful, unflashy performances . . . and his screenplay is a
model of clarity."
AFTER watching the first public performance of Santha Rama Rau's dramatization of his
''Passage to India'' at Oxford in 1960, E. M. Forster, then 81 years old, walked onto the stage
to express his pleasure with the performance.
''How good the actors were,'' said Forster. ''And how pleased I am that there were so many of
them. I am so used to seeing the sort of play which deals with one man and two women. They
do not leave me with the feeling I have made a full theatrical meal . . . they do not give me
the experience of the multiplicity of life.''
Later, as P. N. Furbank reports in his fine biography, ''E. M. Forster: A Life,'' Forster called
''absurd'' the play's review in The Times of London that described it as being about ''the
incompatibility of East and West.'' According to Forster, he was really concerned with ''the
difficulty of living in the universe.''
Forster, who died in 1970, might be equally pleased by most of David Lean's respectful,
handsome new screen version, which cites as its sources the play as well as the novel. The
film is very much ''a full theatrical meal,'' and one that conveys a lot of ''the multiplicity of
life'' one seldom sees on the screen these days.
Mr. Lean's ''Passage to India,'' which he wrote and directed, is by far his best work since ''The
Bridge on the River Kwai'' and ''Lawrence of Arabia'' and perhaps his most humane and
moving film since ''Brief Encounter.'' Though vast in physical scale and set against a
tumultuous Indian background, it is also intimate, funny and moving in the manner of a film
maker completely in control of his material. Mr. Lean shares with Forster an appreciation for
the difficulties involved in coping with the universe.
Because of the reputation the novel has acquired as a classic since its publication in 1924, one
tends to forget what a smashingly good story it is - a grandly sorrowful muddle that becomes
a mystery for the saddest, nastiest of reasons.
Set in the fictitious provincial city of Chandrapore in the 1920's, when the British raj was
being threatened by the king-emperor's increasingly impatient Indian subjects, ''A Passage to
India'' is essentially a story of what can happen as a result of a succession of wrong-headed
decisions and dreadful misunderstandings, of trust either given too easily or withheld far too
long.
Though the initial scenes are set in London, the film really begins with the arrival in
Chandrapore of the uncommonly wise, kind and sensitive Mrs. Moore (Peggy Ashcroft), who
has come out from England to visit her son Ronny Heaslop (Nigel Havers), the British
magistrate, and to chaperon Adela Quested (Judy Davis), the proper young Englishwoman to
whom Ronny is unofficially engaged.
Almost immediately the liberal- minded Mrs. Moore and Adela are upset by the cloistered
life of the small, hopelessly genteel British colony at Chandrapore. They are appalled by the
attitudes of their compatriots toward the Indians and by the total lack of interest in what Mrs.
Moore and Adela keep referring to as ''the real India.'' They have scarcely settled in at
Chandrapore before Adela is speaking about the possibility of ''adventures,'' to which Mrs.
Moore, similarly excited, adds that ''adventures do occur, but not punctually.''
They refuse to fall into the routine of cricket, polo and afternoons at the club followed by the
other members of this British station. With the help of the local school superintendent,
Richard Fielding (James Fox), Mrs. Moore and Adela attempt to break the invisible raj-
barrier.
Through Fielding, they meet an eccentric old Brahmin scholar, Professor Godbole (Alec
Guinness), whose words of wisdom, being inscrutable, they hang onto with delight, and an
earnest, eager-to-please young Moslem medical doctor named Aziz (Victor Banerjee), a hard-
working, financially impoverished widower who both admires and loathes the British in
Chandrapore.
Aziz, who must be one of fiction's most appealing and brave comic heroes, gets carried away
by the unexpected friendliness of Mrs. Moore and Adela at a small tea party. He invites them,
along with Fielding and Professor Godbole, to go on an elaborate outing he cannot afford, a
daylong picnic to the Maraban Caves, always called ''extraordinary,'' though for reasons that
no one can satisfactorily explain. The caves are not beautiful. They contain no sculpture or
wall carvings and have absolutely no religious significance. Their importance seems to
predate time.
The disastrous consequences of this outing, which occurs early in the film, set up everything
that comes after, including an uproarious, agonizing courtroom melodrama during which
Aziz is accused of the rape of the once dazzled, now nearly catatonic, Adela.
What happend in the Marabar Caves? That question pursued Forster throughout his life, and
he always avoided answering.
In Mr. Lean's screenplay, which in most ways is remarkably faithful to the novel - it includes
large swatches of very funny Forster dialogue - there is no longer much of a mystery. The
audience knows, or at least thinks it knows, exactly what happened in the caves, which makes
poor Aziz's trial even more outrageous than it is in the novel.
This conscious decision on Mr. Lean's part subtly distorts the original, but it also emphasizes
some surprising revelations about Adela. Even more peculiar is Mr. Lean's decision to
withhold from the audience a scene in the novel that explains Mrs. Moore's seemingly
uncharacteristic actions preceeding Aziz's trial. Though he has made ''A Passage to India''
both less mysterious and more cryptic than the book, the film remains a wonderfully
provocative tale, full of vivid characters, all played to near perfection.
At the film's center is Mr. Banerjee's superb performance as Aziz, a mad mixture of
foolishness, bravery, honor and anger. Miss Davis, the young Australian actress who first
caught American attention in ''My Brilliant Career,'' is far prettier than Forster's Adela, but
she has a particular presence - like that of a younger, less abrasive Glenda Jackson - that
helps make the film work. The film's tone is set by the splendid Miss Ashcroft's Mrs. Moore,
whose self-assurance slowly ebbs as events and life overwhelm her.
Mr. Guinness doesn't exactly underact. There are times when his performance comes
perilously close to a Peter Sellers impersonation, but still he's invigorating company. Equally
good in less flamboyant roles are Mr. Fox and Mr. Havers, and the members of the huge
supporting cast.
The film contains a rather major flaw, one that keeps a very good film from being great.
Though ''A Passage to India,'' which opens today at the Ziegfeld Theater, is essentially a dark
comedy of manners, Mr. Lean sometimes appears to think of it as a romance. In this he's
being as wrong- headed as the unfortunate Adela. This is the only explanation for the terrible
Maurice Jarre score, which contradicts the images and sounds like a reworking of the music
he wrote for Mr. Lean's unsuccessful ''Ryan's Daughter.'' This score has nothing to do with
Forster, India, the time or the story, but it has everything to do with movie-making in the
1960's, when soundtrack music first became a major element in the merchandising of movies,
including Mr. Lean's ''Dr. Zhivago.''
THE BIRDS (NOVEL)
-DAPHNE DU MAURIER
Dame Daphne du Maurier, Lady Browning, (13 May 1907 to 19 April 1989) was an
English author and playwright. Although she is classed as a romantic novelist, her stories
seldom feature a conventional happy ending, and have been described as "moody and
resonant" with overtones of the paranormal. These bestselling works were not at first taken
seriously by critics, but have since earned an enduring reputation for storytelling craft. Many
have been successfully adapted into films, including the novels Rebecca, My Cousin
Rachel, and Jamaica Inn and the short stories "The Birds" and "Don't Look Now/Not After
Midnight".
Plot:
The Birds is a 1952 novelette by Daphne du Maurier first published in her short story
collection, The Apple Tree. It was adapted into the famous Alfred Hitchcock film of the same
name.
The story opens in a small English town in December, where a sudden cold front has shifted
the weather suddenly from autumn to winter. We are introduced to Nat Hocken, who receives
a pension for his wartime disability, which he uses to support his family in addition to part-
time work at a neighbor‘s farm. Described as a solitary man, he spends most of his time
watching birds fly during breaks on the farm. This particular day he notices that they seem
more restless than usual and mentions it to the farmer, Mr. Trigg, who brushes it off as a
reaction to the change in weather and harsh winter to come.
That night, Nat hears a tapping on his window and, curious, opens it. A bird attacks his hand
and leaves. He attributes this attack to the bird‘s fear and confusion and falls back asleep,
before awaking to another tap. He again opens the window in order to shoo the bird away, but
half a dozen birds fly in and attack his face before flying off. He hears screams from his
children‘s room, where the birds have infiltrated as well. He shields his children and attacks
the birds in order to protect them, killing many in the process. As the dawn emerges, the
living birds flee. Still, he attributes their odd behavior to the weather.
The next day he walks his daughter to the school bus and asks the Triggs if they noticed
anything odd, which they deny. He is shaken, but thinks it all a fluke, until he notices hordes
of birds out on the sea, thousands of them circling in agitation. He heads home and his wife
greets him at the door to tell him that violent bird attacks have now been reported throughout
the country. The media blames their behavior on hunger. In response, Nat boards up the
windows and fills the chimney against further bird attacks. He leaves to escort his daughter
home from the bus stop and notices that the birds have moved in from the sea to circle the
sky. Mr. Trigg passes by in his car and Nat asks him to take Jill home. He agrees and invites
Nat to shoot the birds with him. He refuses to board his windows and states that any panic is
overblown. As he nears home, the birds start to attack and he narrowly avoids a diving bird as
he escapes into his house.
Once home, Nat moves the mattress down to the kitchen and prepares to hunker down with
the children for the night. He reinforces the windows and awaits the evening news. A state of
national emergency is declared. The family hears the sounds of planes and feel somewhat
reassured until Nat hears the planes crashing. Still, he tries to keep the mood light for his
children. The attacks subside and Nat figures out that they are tied to the tides, and that he has
some time before the next attack. He ventures outside to find heaps of dead birds everywhere,
which he stuffs into cracks in the boards to keep further attacks at bay.
Nat is shaken awake by his wife, who says there is a horrible smell wafting into the kitchen.
In horror, Nat realizes that the birds are attempting to enter through the chimney. He reignites
the smoldering flame to further halt the birds‘ entry. He goes upstairs and can hear through
the door that the birds have broken into the children‘s room, and so barricades the door.
At last, seven o‘clock comes, and they gather around the wireless for news, but none comes.
Nat leaves the house to gather food and supplies to survive the onslaught of the next tide. He
takes his family with him as his wife refuses to be left alone with the children.
They arrive at the Triggs‘ farm to seek food and finds them dead, having been pecked to
death by the birds. He gathers his family and takes the Triggs‘ car, loading it up with supplies
from the farm. When they return he sets about re-boarding the windows, and laments the lack
of air support. He sees the gulls swarming and returns inside, where his wife says that there‘s
no wireless signal anywhere. The birds begin to attack the house once again, as Nat thinks of
his continued plan to survive and reinforce the house.
As the story ends, they turn on the silent wireless and Nat smokes the last cigarette in the
pack before throwing the empty pack in the fire and watching it burn.
The story is generally considered to be a metaphor for the aerial bombings in London during
the second World War; the relentless attacks from the sky on an innocent and helpless
civilian population. It‘s also a meditation on man‘s helplessness in the face of natural
disaster, and the futility of trying to fight an act of God. While Nat is more prepared than
most, he is still helpless against nature‘s onslaught, and is painted as a bit naïve in his
planning for surviving into the future. A deft display of building tension and hopelessness,
The Birds is considered du Maurier‘s masterpiece.
THE BIRDS (MOVIE)

-ALFRED HITCHCOCK
The Birds is a 1963 American horror-thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, loosely
based on the 1952 story of the same name by Daphne du Maurier. It focuses on a series of
sudden, unexplained violent bird attacks on the people of Bodega Bay, California over the
course of a few days.
The film stars Rod Taylor and Tippi Hedren, in her screen debut, supported by Jessica Tandy,
Suzanne Pleshette and Veronica Cartwright. The screenplay is by Evan Hunter, who was told
by Hitchcock to develop new characters and a more elaborate plot while keeping du Maurier's
title and concept of unexplained bird attacks.
In 2016, The Birds was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the
United States Library of Congress, and selected for preservation in its National Film
Registry.
Cast
 Tippi Hedren as Melanie Daniels
 Rod Taylor as Mitchell "Mitch" Brenner
 Jessica Tandy as Lydia Brenner
 Suzanne Pleshette as Annie Hayworth
 Veronica Cartwright as Cathy Brenner
 Ethel Griffies as Mrs. Bundy, ornithologist
 Charles McGraw as Sebastian Sholes, fisherman
 Lonny Chapman as Deke Carter, innkeeper
 Doreen Lang as Hysterical Mother
 Karl Swenson as Drunken "Prophet"
 Joe Mantell as Cynical Businessman
 Ruth McDevitt as Mrs. MacGruder, owner of bird shop
Plot:
Melanie Daniels (Tippi Hedren), a young socialite known for rather racy behavior and
playing pranks, meets lawyer Mitch Brenner (Rod Taylor) in a San Francisco bird shop. He
wants to purchase a pair of lovebirds for his sister's eleventh birthday, but the shop has none.
He had seen her in court once before when her recklessness resulted in the breaking of a plate
glass window, but she does not know him; attracted, he plays a prank by pretending to
mistake her for a salesperson. She is infuriated when she discovers this, even though she also
likes to play practical jokes. Intrigued by his veiled advance, she finds his weekend address in
Bodega Bay, purchases a pair of lovebirds, and makes the long drive to deliver them. While
he goes into the barn she sneaks the birdcage inside the Brenner family home, with a note. He
spots her on the water through a pair of binoculars during her retreat, and races across the bay
to head her off. She is attacked near shore on the town side and injured by a seagull. He
invites her to dinner, and she hesitantly agrees.
Melanie gets to know Mitch, his domineering mother Lydia (Jessica Tandy), and his younger
sister Cathy (Veronica Cartwright). She also befriends local school teacher Annie Hayworth
(Suzanne Pleshette), Mitch's ex-lover. When she spends the night at Annie's house they are
startled by a loud thud; a gull has killed itself by flying into the front door. At Cathy's
birthday party the next day, the guests are set upon by seagulls. The following evening,
sparrows invade the Brenner home through the chimney. The next morning, Lydia, a widow
who still sees to the family farmstead, pays a visit to a neighboring farmer to discuss the
unusual behavior of her chickens. Finding his eyeless corpse, pecked lifeless by birds, she
flees in terror. After being comforted by Melanie and Mitch she expresses concern for
Cathy's safety at school. Melanie drives there and waits for class to end, unaware that a large
flock of crows are massing in the nearby playground. Unnerved when she sees its jungle gym
engulfed by them, she warns Annie, and they evacuate the children. The commotion stirs the
crows into attacking, injuring several of the children.
Melanie meets Mitch at a local restaurant. Several patrons describe their own encounters with
aggressive bird behavior. An amateur ornithologist dismisses the reports as fanciful and
argues with Melanie over them. Shortly birds begin to attack people outside the restaurant,
knocking a gas station attendant unconscious while he is filling a car with fuel, which spills
out onto the street. A bystander amidst it attempts to light a cigar, igniting a pool of gas and
becoming incinerated. The explosion attracts a mass of gulls, which begin to swarm
menacingly as townsfolk attempt to tackle the fire. Melanie is forced to take refuge in a
phone booth. Rescued by Mitch, she returns to the restaurant, where Melanie is accused of
causing the attacks, which began with her arrival. The pair return to Annie's house and find
that she has been killed by the crows while ushering Cathy to safety.
Melanie and the Brenners seek refuge inside the family home. It is attacked by waves of birds
of all different species, which several times nearly break in through barricaded doors and
windows. During a night-time lull between attacks Melanie hears the sound of fluttering
wings. Not wanting to disturb the others' sleep, she enters the kitchen and sees the lovebirds
are still. Realizing the sounds are emanating from above, she cautiously climbs the staircase
and enters Cathy's bedroom, where she finds the birds have broken through the roof. They
violently attack her, trapping her in the room until Mitch comes to her rescue. She is badly
injured and nearly catatonic; Mitch insists they must get her to the hospital and suggests they
drive away to San Francisco. When he looks outside, it is dawn and a sea of birds ripple
menacingly around the Brenner house as he prepares her car for their escape. The radio
reports the spread of bird attacks to nearby communities, and suggests that "the military" may
be required to intervene because civil authorities are unable to combat the unexplained
attacks. In the final shot, the car carrying Melanie, the Brenners, and the lovebirds slowly
makes its way through a landscape in which thousands of birds are ominously perching.
College, Hyderabad for the examination purpose only)
Note
examinations also.

FACULTY OF ARTS
M.A. English III Semester (CBCS) Examination
Paper I
English Language Teaching: Classroom Techniques and Practical English
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Time: 3 Hours (Max Marks: 80)
Answer ALL the questions from Section-A and Section-B

Each Question carries 4 Marks in Section-A and 12 marks in Section-B
Section—A (Marks: 5x4=20)
1. Write about ‗Error Analysis Theory‘

2. What is a lecture method
3. Write about OHP
4. How to design language tasks from literary texts?
5. What is Group Discussion (GD) and write the role of partictipants in GD?
Section-B (Marks: 5x12=60)
1. (A) Techniques of teaching grammar and vocabulary
(OR)
(B) Techniques of teaching prose, poetry and drama
2. (A) What is Learner Centred Approach and write about the role of students in this
approach?
(OR)
(B) Problems of teaching in large classes
3. (A) What are the teaching aids and how do teachers use them?
(OR)
(B) Computer Aided Language Learning (CALL)
4. (A) Write the important techniques in teaching language through literatre?

(OR)
(B) Stylistic Approach to the Teaching of Literature
5. (A) How to prepare agenda and minutes of meeting?

(OR)
(B) Imagine you had bought a washing machine. Since it is not functing well, write a letter
of
complaint regarding it.
FACULTY OF ARTS
PAPER II
(American Literature—I)
Time: 3 Hours (Maximum Marks: 80)
Answer ALL the Questions from Section-A and Section-B

Each Question carries 4marks in section-A and 12 Marks in Section-B
Section-A (Marks 5x4=20)
1. Transcendentalism
2. Write about the theme of the poem ‗Because I could not stop for death‘
3. Sketch the character of Huckleberry Finn
4. Write the theme of The Glass Menagerie
5. What is Civil Disobedience as per Henry David Thoreau?
Section—B (Marks: 5x12=60)
1. (A) American Frontier

(OR)
(B) Antebellum and Postbellum
America
2. (A) Write the theme of the poems of William Cullen Bryant?

(OR)
(B) Write the summary of Edgar Allen Poe‘s Dream Island
3. (A) Sketch the important characters from Herman Melville‘s Billy Bud
(OR)
(B) Write of Nathaniel Hawthorne‘s The Scarlet Letter?
4 (A) Thematic concern from Arthur Miller‘s All My Sons?

(OR)
(B) Why are Abbie and Eben so attracted to each other?
5. (A) Distinguish between a scholar and bookworm according to Ralph Waldo Emerson
(OR)
(B) Write about William Faulkner‘s Wealthy Jews
FACULTY OF ARTS
PAPER III
Indian Writing in English—I
Time: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 80

Each Question carries 4 marks in section-A and 12 marks in Section-B
Section-A (Marks: 5x4=20)
1) 19 Century Reform Movements in India

2) Write the sense of personal loss from Derozio‘s ‗My Native Land.‘
3) Thematic concern of Zohra
4 ) Skecth the character of Bakha
5) What is the ‗Quest‘ as per Nehru?
1. (A) Write about the Indian National Movement

(OR)
(B) Write of the post Indepedent Indian writers and their works
2. (A) Discription of ‗Our Casuarina Tree.‘

(OR)
(B) What did Sarojini Naidu explain in the poem ‗The Gift of India?‘
3. (A) Write the summary of Rajmohan’s Wife.

(OR)
(B) Write about feministic perspective from Kamala: a Story of Hindu Life
4. (A) Explain the indepence movement from Raja Rao‘s Kanthapura.

(OR)
(B) Mythology in Narayan‘s The Man-Eater of Malgudi. Explain.
5. (A) What did Ambedkar suggest in his essay ‗The Annihilation of Caste?‘
(OR)
(B) The women ideology from Arundhati Roys‘ ―The Ladies Have Feelings.‖
FACULTY OF ARTS
PAPER IV
Postcolonial Literatures

Each question carries 5 marks in section –A and 15 marks in section –B
Section—A (Marks: 4x5=20)
1. What is Colonialism?
2. The main concept in the poems of Judith Wright
3. Feministic point of view from Atwood‘s The Handmaid’s Tale
4. Racial discrimination from Kongi’s Harvest
1. (A) Write about decolonization and neocolonialism?

(OR)
(B) Post-colonialism. Explain with examples.
2. (A) Kamau Brathwaite‘s ‗Limbo.‘

(OR)
(B) Christopher Okigbo‘s ‗Elegy for Alto‘
3. (A) Explain about Igbo culture in Chinua Achebe‘s Things Fall Apart.
(OR)
(B) Colonial consciousness from The Mimic Men
4. (A) Search for identity from Derek Walcott‘s Dream on Monkey Mountain
(OR)
(B) The theme of Drew Hayden Taylor‘s alterNatives
FACULTY OF ARTS
M.A. English III Semester CBCS) Examination
PAPER V
Literature and Film

Answer ALL the questions from Section-A and Section –B
Each question carries 5 marks in section-A and 15 marks in section-B
Section-A (Marks: 5x4==20)
1. What is plot?
2. What is film language
3. Orson Welles‘ movie Macbeth
4. E M Forster‘s A Passage to India
Section-B (Marks: 5x12==60)
1. (A) Write the narrative elements?

(OR)
(B) What are Mise-en-scene and Cinematography?
2. (A) Chidananda Das Gupta ideas about present Indian Cinema.

(OR)
(B) Write Literature, and Social Discourses according to Francesco Casetti.
3. (A) Tragic element in Shakespeare‘s Macbeth

(OR)
(B) How Patrick Garland‘s A Doll’s House different from Henrik Ibsen‘s A Doll‘s House
4. (A) The screenplay of Alfred Hitchcock The Birds

(OR)
(B) The important cinematic elements in David Lean‘s A Passage to India

MA English III Sem Notes From Adi Ramesh

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MA English III Sem Notes From Adi Ramesh

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

M.A ENGLISH III Sem Notes, OU, PU, SU, TU, MGU Compiled by: Dr.

THIRD SEMESTER NOTES

Also useful for UGC NET/ SET in English,

Semester-III, Paper I, II, III, IV & V

1st edition -2021

Dr. Adi Ramesh Babu

Asst. Professor of English

Government City College

Hyderabad- 99590 26160

The author is available at [email protected]

(For 2017-2018 Batch)

Paper I ENG 301 English Language Teaching: Classroom Techniques and

Paper II ENG 302 American Literature—I (5 credits)

Unit V Prose and Short Fiction

Paper III ENG 303 Indian Writing in English—I

Paper IV ENG 304 A Postcolonial Literatures (4 Credits)

Unit III Fiction

Paper V ENG 305 Literature and Film (Inter-disciplinary) (4 Credits)

Unit III Drama and Film

Unit IV Fiction and Film

Eng 302: American Literature—I

Eng 303: Indian Writing in English—I

Bankimchandra Chatterjee's Rajmohan’s Wife 160

Eng 305: Literature and Film

Dr Adi Ramesh Babu is presently working as Assistant Professor, Department of English,

The author is available at [email protected] (99590 26160 WhatsApp only)

ENGLISH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING: CLASSROOM

A) ERRO ANALYSI THEORY; IDENTIFYING AND DEALING WITH

 modality (i.e., level of proficiency in speaking, writing, reading, listening)

1. collecting samples of learner language

In order to analyze learner language in an appropriate perspective, it is crucial to make a

Collection of a sample of learner language Specific sample Incidental sample Factors

Description of errors Comparison of: Learner‘s Reconstruction of idiosyncratic those

Types of errors, Corder (1974):

Psycholinguistics sources of errors: transfer competence intralingual (e.g. overgeneralization,

Richards (1971b) Causes of competence errors

Principles of Helping Students with Learning Difficulties

Devise various learning activities

Design meaningful learning situations

Provide clear instructions

Summarize the main points

Enhance learning interest and motivation

Encourage students' active participation in class activities

Focus on the learning process

Show concern for the performances of individual students

B) TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY

TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING GRAMMAR

2. Help students to say the target language

3. Provide a written record

4. Personalize the target language

5. Help students to guess the grammar rules of the target language

6. Help students to understand the communicative importance of grammar

7. Help students to understand the importance of grammatical accuracy

TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING VOCABULARY

Lewis 1993: iii)

What to Teach While Teaching Vocabulary

What is involved in Teaching Vocabulary?

 songs and games

Limitations of explicit vocabulary teaching

Conclusion: much lexical competence has to be developed through natural communication.

C) TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING PROSE, POETRY AND DRAMA

Teaching Prose focuses on increasing student's comprehension of the material and