International Journal of Water Resources Development

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EIA guidelines for water resources development

projects

Krishna Pal & R. Rajappa

To cite this article: Krishna Pal & R. Rajappa (1993) EIA guidelines for water resources
development projects, International Journal of Water Resources Development, 9:2, 189-204, DOI:
10.1080/07900629308722583

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Water Resources Development, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1993 189

EIA Guidelines for Water Resources Development

Projects

KRISHNA PAL & R. RAJAPPA

Water and Power Consultancy Services (India) Limited, 9 Community Centre, Saket, New
Delhi 110017, India

ABSTRACT This paper is a spin-off of a document developed by Water and Power

Consultancy Services on Sustainable Water Resources Development and Management to
carry out Environmental Impact Assessment Study. In this phase the aims, objectives
and approach to prepare guideline are discussed, taking into account the policy and legal
considerations. The various stages in EIA are reported along with assessment techniques
for sustainable development.

Background
Water resources development has been mainly responsible for India's economic
growth since the country's independence in 1947. Implementation of develop-
ment projects has substantially contributed to the improvement of the quality of
life of the people. The past four decades have seen a period of unprecedented
water resources development in many developed and developing countries.
Many environmental lessons can be learnt from the operational experience in
different parts of the world.
The development of water resources requires planning, design, construction,
operation and management of facilities to control and utilize water efficiently.
Water resources development requires construction of structures which can
control the water flow effectively. The common structural measures required for
effective water control are the following (Linsley & Franzini, 1979):
(a) storage reservoirs to retain excess water from periods of high flows for use
during the periods of low flows. By moderating the flood peaks, flood
damages downstream of the reservoir can also be reduced;
(b) canals to transfer water from reservoirs to fields;
(c) diversion structures (pipes, flow dividers and other engineering facilities) to
ensure effective operation of the systems;
(d) intake structures and distribution systems to meet municipal and industrial
water demands;
(e) collection and treatment of sewage and industrial effluents, and their
environmentally safe disposal, and
(f) river engineering works to stabilize river reaches.
A wide variety of subjects are of significance in major water resources projects,
190 K. Pal & R. Rajappa

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Waterlogging
salinization
erosion/siltation

deforestation water quality

land use conflicts water allocation

Figure 1. Interrelationships among land, water and people.

encompassing physical sciences such as hydrology, water management, land use

and agricultural development; biological sciences such as forests, wildlife and
fisheries; social sciences such as rehabilitation, human health, and general
poverty alleviation and environmental pollution such as water, air, noise and
solid waste pollution. All these issues have a bearing on overall environmental
quality. Some of the environmental impacts and relationships among water, land
and people are shown in Figure 1.
Analysis of past experiences indicates that it is necessary to examine a number
of problem areas in order to ensure that environmental concerns can be effec-
tively integrated in the development process. The guidelines proposed in this
paper are aimed at the fundamental issue of how to ensure that water resources
development and management practices are consistent with conservation and
even enhancement of the environmental quality in developing countries.

Environmental Impact Assessment

In 1969 the USA enacted the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Since
then most countries have enacted, or are now in the process of enacting,
legislation making EIA mandatory. Such legislation should be compatible with
the legal, economic, social and technological frameworks, as well as appropriate
to the expertise available, for each individual country.
At present, there are many definitions of environmental impact assessment
(EIA). For the purpose of the present guidelines, EIA might be considered to
include:
• a prediction of the changes in environmental quality which could result as
direct and indirect consequences of that development activity;
 EIA Guidelines 191

• comparison of various alternatives and identification of the option which

could optimize economic and environmental benefits, as compared to the
costs, and
• an implementable environmental management and post-monitoring plan
programme.

To take care of the above-mentioned aspects, it is necessary to identify the

relevant parameters, collect and process the required data, interpret the results
of the analyses with insight and sensitivity, and present the conclusions and
recommendations in an easily understandable, comprehensive and standardized
format.
EIA is essentially a decision-making tool. It provides information in an
organized manner on relevant environmental issues in an integrated way. The
process is future-oriented and thus attempts to predict the environmental
consequences of the proposed development alternatives (UNEP, 1988). When
properly carried out, EIA provides a more comprehensive evaluation perspec-
tive for rational decision making than without such analyses. The action plan for
EIA for sustainable development is shown in Figure 2.
As indicated in the figure, three studies have to be carried out for water
resources projects, namely technical feasibility, environmental acceptability and
economic viability. There should be close interaction in these studies. The
environmental acceptability for sustainable development is taken up if it is
required as part of environmental legislation.

Aims and Objective of Guidelines

While the guidelines are primarily aimed at disciplines such as water resources
engineers, economists, biologists, sociologists and environmental scientists, they
should also be useful to planners, and decision makers concerned with environ-
mentally sound development and management of water resources projects. The
guidelines aim to provide:

(a) information on the environmental dimensions of water resources develop-

ment;
(b) understanding of environmental issues arising from water development
projects;
(c) knowledge of the main techniques for environmental impact analysis; and
(d) the ability to take decisions on environmental issues (UNEP, 1989).

What the developing countries now urgently need is guidance on operational

methodologies and cost-effective analytical tools to integrate environmental
concepts within development policies, plans, programmes and projects. The
present guidelines clearly indicate that water resources development and envi-
ronmental conservation are not only mutually interacting but also
complementary and, in the long run, mutually reinforcing.
The proposed guidelines are expected to facilitate the appraisal and coordina-
tion among departments, ministries and agencies concerned with the planning,
implementation, regulation and/or funding of water resources project. Further-
more, they could be used for education and training purposes.
192 K. Pal & R. Rajappa

Figure 2. Action plan for sustainable development.

 El A Guidelines 193

Figure 3. Different components of the project cycle and associated environmental

activities.

Approach to Preparation of the Guidelines

Various international and national organizations such as the Asian Development
Bank (ADB), UNEP, the World Bank, and the Ministry of Environment, Forests
and Wildlife (GOI), have issued guidelines on various aspects of this subject. It
should be pointed out that all these documents vary considerably in scope and
quality, as well as in their operational usefulness.
The guidelines presented here are proposed such that for each stage of the
project cycle there would be a matching environmental component, as shown in
Figure 3. This is because environmental inputs must commence with the very
reconnaissance of any project; environmental reconnaissance (ER) with project
reconnaissance; environmental studies (ES) with the feasibility study; environ-
mental management plan (EMP) with final design of the project; and monitoring
and evaluation of environmental impacts during construction and ex-post
phases.

Polio/ and Legal Considerations

Over a period of years, the Government of India has issued various policies and
guidelines, and has enacted many items of legislation which are applicable to
water development projects. Naturally these must be properly considered for
planning and managing water development projects. Though water is primarily
under the jurisdiction of individual States, some of the Acts are applicable to the
194 K. Pal & R. Rajappa

entire country. For example, the Environmental (Protection) Act (1986) empow-
ers the central government to stipulate minimum standards for many
environmental parameters.
Similarly, the National Water Policy (1987) indicates the priorities of water
allocation as follows:
• drinking;
• irrigation;
• hydropower;
• navigation; and
• industrial and other use.
The policy further stresses the importance of conjunctive use of surface and
groundwater, recycling and reuse, and multipurpose use of water.
The National Forest Policy (1988) deals with maintenance of environmental
quality, conservation of natural heritage, and checking of soil erosion to ensure
environmental stability and ecological balance in the forested areas.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act (1989) lists steps for conservation and rehabilita-
tion of endangered and threatened species.
As stated in the National Water Policy, development of water resources
projects involves a number of aspects and issues such as environmental protec-
tion, resettlement of project population and livestock from inundated areas,
public health consequences, etc. Common approaches and guidelines are neces-
sary for all of these issues.

Impact Assessment
The environmental issues involved can be dealt with efficiently and speedily in
terms of impact assessment. To accomplish the appropriate level of detail in the
least possible time, the assessment process can be organized in two tiers:
(1) environmental reconnaissance (ER);
(2) environmental study (ES).

Environmental Reconnaissance
Environmental reconnaissance (ER) facilitates the project authority and regula-
tory agencies to:
(i) decide whether the project should be pursued further or abandoned;
(ii) provide a general idea about the prevailing environment;
(iii) identify significant environmental effects which should be investigated in
detail; and
(iv) generate an initial management and mitigation plan for dealing with major
environmental issues.

Environmental survey. ER should document the ongoing development activities,

current land-use patterns and practices, population, ecology, water and mineral
resources, sources of water pollution and socio-economic conditions in the
project area. The environmental survey should also include information on flora
and fauna, both terrestrial and aquatic, and should give special attention to
unique, rare and/or endangered species, and protected /reserved areas, if any, in
 EIA Guidelines 195

and around the project area. This information could be collected through visual
inspection, enquiries from local people, literature review and records.
Terminal actions. Based on the environmental reconnaissance a checklist should
be prepared so that decision makers can conclude at this stage whether to
proceed to the next stage, which leads to an environmental study (ES), or to
abandon the project. The project could be rejected for any one or more of the
following reasons:
• adverse effect on rare and /or endangered species;
• encroachment into genetic reserves and wildlife parks;
• adverse effect on utilization of other resources such as minerals, and
cultural heritage;
• resettlement requirements for a large number of people and also tribal
population; and
• encroachment into defence establishments of a sensitive and strategic
nature.
The parameters or criteria on the basis of which a project may be abandoned
must be shortlisted with great care and in relation to local conditions. Whenever
an ES is to be carried out, its cost should be estimated. Information should be
provided on the terms of reference for ES.

Environmental Study
It is desirable to carry out an environmental study (ES) concurrently with the
technical feasibility study. The objectives of ES are the following:
(i) assessment and analysis of the positive and negative environmental
impacts of the proposed project;
(ii) selection of a project alternative which may have substantial positive
environmental impacts, and limited adverse impacts;
(iii) preparation of an implementable environmental management and moni-
toring programmes; and
(iv) provision of the basis for making the decision as to whether the project
should proceed as proposed, or whether some modifications are neces-
sary before approval or whether it should be abandoned.
ES will require collection of a great deal of environmental data. This can be
accomplished by:
• field visits to review problems and problem areas;
• data collection, with appropriate sampling and testing;
• collation of data already collected for the project area by various agencies
for different reasons; and
• eliciting information from the local community through interviews and
questionnaire surveys.
Identification and baseline data collection. Guidelines for data collection are pre-
sented in this section. The prerequisites of data collection are:
(i) to identify a manageable number of the parameters which need to be
considered in the quantification of impacts on ER and ES; and
(ii) to outline a process for collecting data on each of the parameters so
identified.
196 K. Pal & R. Rajappa

The objective of data collection is to provide a database to predict the likely

changes that may be expected in the parameters and to monitor such changes.
Generally, for water resources projects irrespective of size (minor, medium or
major) and type (irrigation, hydropower and water supply), these impacts could
be considered through one or more of the following areas:
1. Population 12. Forest
2* Meteorology 13. Wildlife
3.* Water resources 14. Fisheries
4.* Floods and droughts 15.* Seismology
5. Water quality 16. Air quality
6. Water supply and sanitation 17. Noise
7. Drainage 18. Historical and cultural monuments
8.* Soil 19. Public health
9.* Land use 20. Tourism
10. Use of agro-chemicals 21. Socio-economic factors
11. Ecology
* denotes that the parameter is likely to be considered under engineering studies.

Impact prediction. Prediction is essentially a process to forecast the future

conditions expected to occur because of project implementation.
Impacts of project activities can be predicted through many techniques such as
mathematical modelling, overlays/superimposition of activity, or comparison of
impacts observed in similar types of projects elsewhere. The environmental
impacts of water resources projects could include changes in land-use patterns,
settlement patterns, soil erosion, water table, water quality, migration of fish and
wildlife, seismicity. Not all these impacts may be perceptible and/or significant
in every project.
In predictions the standard methods available for various parameters must be
used. For water quality parameters, for example, the best predictions can be
made for dissolved oxygen and biological oxygen demand through mathemati-
cal models by using the Streeter-Phelps equation. Similarly for eutrophication,
the Vollenweider model for nutrient budget for phosphorus is used. Soil erosion
rates could be predicted for the catchment/command area based on the Univer-
sal Soil Loss Equation, and the change in land use by overlays techniques. The
forest loss can be estimated based on cover, diversity and biomass production,
and so on.

Assessment. Environmental assessment can be used effectively for intercom-

parison of the various alternative plans. In order to intercompare alternative
plans, two types of information are essential. These are:
• a summary of positive and negative environmental impacts; and
• an analysis of the economic implications of the impacts that can be
quantified, as well as qualitative statements on unquantifiable impacts.
Environmental impact assessment methods are discussed in various textbooks.
Based on these methods, a checklist should be prepared for the major environ-
mental impacts of each alternative. Different forms of checklists are available.
One such checklist is shown in Table 1. The choice of the TDest' alternative in
environmental terms could be based on evaluating environmental impact units
 EIA Guidelines 197
Table 1. Checklist of environmental parameters for water
resources projects
(a) Environmental impact due to project location:
(1) rehabilitation and resettlement
(2) encroachment into forest
(3) environment into wildlife parks
(4) encroachment on historical/cultural values
(5) soil erosion/siltation
(6) navigation
(7) effects on groundwater
(8) impacts on fisheries and fish species
(9) inundation of mineral resources
(b) Environmental impacts due to project design:
(1) downstream water quality
(2) water quality for irrigation
(3) salinity and waterlogging
(4) impacts of hydraulic structures
(5) seismicity
(c) Environmental impacts due to construction:
(1) soil erosion/siltation
(2) pollution due to construction spoils
(3) waste disposal at workers' camps and associated health risks
(4) dust, odours, fumes and noise pollution
(5) socio-cultural impacts
(d) Environmental impacts due to project operations:
(1) downstream flow variation
(2) change in land-use pattern
(3) downstream water quality
(4) eutrophication
(5) aquatic weeds
(6) impact on soil fertility
(7) waterlogging and soil salinity
(8) improvement in infrastructure
(9) health impacts
(10) changes in settlement patterns
(11) industrial growth impacts
(12) improvement in socio-economic levels

in environmental quality terms. To help transform these impact values before

and after the project into an environmental quality scale, value function curves
have been developed. Generally such curves are developed by:

• organizing the impact measure scale in such an order that the lowest value
of any parameter is 0.0; it increases to a maximum of 1.0 in the positive
direction only;
• dividing the quality scale, from 0.0 to 1.0, into equal intervals and express-
ing the relationship between this interval and the parameter;
• averaging these values in terms of curves by considering the judgements of
all individuals whose opinions are being sought; and
• duplicating the same process with the same group or another group of
individuals to obtain a better consensus on the issues.
198 K. Pal & R. Rajappa

Another important factor that should be considered is weight. The basic steps to
determine the relative weights of different variables are as follows:
• prepare a table indicating the various environmental impacts;
• provide this table to each individual evaluator for assigning appropriate
weights; and
• on the basis of such individual indications of weights, prepare a collective
consolidated weighting.
Such a weighting exercise was carried out and the weight assigned to each
parameter in an irrigation project is shown in Table 2. Based on such results, a
chart like Table 3 can be prepared to evaluate the net environmental impact
units (EIUs) of each alternative. The EIUs before and after the project could be
computed mathematically as follows: £ = X(Vz)l Wi - Z(Vi)2W
Where
E = net environmental impact units
(Vz)l = value in environmental quality of parameter i with a project
(V7)2 = value in environmental quality of parameter i without a project
Wi = relative weight (importance) of parameter
im = total number of parameters

Critical review criteria. An objective assessment can be made based on EIUs for
conditions before and after the project. The more positive EIUs, the better the
project alternative in terms of environmental considerations. Other criteria can
also be adopted based on macro considerations such as:
• loss of irreplaceable natural resources;
• accelerated but irrational use of resources for short-term gains which are
unsustainable over the long term;
• high rehabilitation requirements due to inundation;
• impacts on rare and endangered species;
• loss of biodiversity; and
• accelerated rural-to-urban migration.
It should, however, be noted that assigning relative weights to various environ-
mental parameters as outlined above is still a subjective and qualitative process.
It provides the best collective judgement that is available at any period in time,
which could be of some assistance to the planning and decision-making pro-
cesses related to the environmental issues associated with water projects.
Based on the above study an appropriate environmental impacts solidus
rational management plan should be prepared.

Management Flan
The management plan should ensure that the stress/load on the system is within
its carrying capacity. While deciding carrying capacity the supporting and
assimilative capacity should be considered. The guidelines for management for
water resources, streamflow, water quality, water demands and sanitation,
waterlogging and salinity, eutrophication, aquatic weed and soil erosion control,
watershed, fishery and forest management and rehabilitation and resettlement
 Table 2. Environmental impacts in water resources projects (1000)
Ecology (290) Environmental pollution (166) Human interest (340) Physico-chemical parameters (202)
Water pollution (104):
1. Natural vegetation (67) 1. Streamflow variation (15) 1. Rehabilitation and resettlement (110) 1. Soil erosion (43)
2. Wildlife (28) 2. BOD (8) 2. Water demand and supply (44) 2. Soil fertility (25)
3. Land use (46) 3. Dissolved oxygen (9) 3. Archaeological (16) 3. Bank stability (18)
4. Commercial fisheries (24) 4. Coliform (10) 4. Religious and cultural (17) 4. Sedimentation (40)
5. Terrestrial rare and endangered species (30) 5. Inorganic carbon (4) 5. Employment opportunities (36) 5. Evaporation (10)
6. Aquatic rare and endangered species (30) 6. Nitrogen (8) 6. Irrigation (36) 6. Seismicity (18)
7. Species diversity (27) 7. Phosphate (3) 7. Power supply (22) 7. Temperature stratification (9)
8. Eutrophication (25) 8. Pesticide (10) 8. Flood control (22) 8. Salinity intrusion (18)
9. Aquatic weed (13) 9. PH (8) 9. Highway relocation (7) 9. Reservoir leakage (21)
10. Temperature (5) 10. Public health (13)
11. Total dissolved solids (7) 11. Public sanitation (10)
12. Turbidity (8) 12. Solid waste (9)
13. Toxic substances (9)
Air pollution (32):
1. Carbon monoxide (8)
2. Hydrocarbon (3)
3. Nitrogen oxide (6)
4. Particulate matter (10)
5. Sulphur dioxides (5)
Land pollution (15):
s
1. Soil pollution (15) o
Noise pollution (15) I
3"
200 K. Pal & R. Rajappa

Table 3. Results of application of EES to Kadana Reservoir Project

Environmental impact units
Parameters Without project With project Net change

Forest 50.3 36.7 -13.6

Wildlife 16.8 22.8 6.0
Rare and endangered species 0.0 0.0 0.0
Reservoir fisheries 0.0 12.0 12.0
Downstream fisheries 6.0 3.0 -3.0
Eutrophication 35.6 17.8 -17.8
Aquatic weeds 6.4 3.2 -3.2
Soil erosion 20.0 23.0 3.0
Seismicity 0.0 0.0 0.0
Evaporation 9.0 4.5 -4.5
Waterlogging 17.6 12.6 -5.0
Dissolved oxygen 9.0 6.3 -2.7
Reservoir leakage 6.4 3.2 -3.2
Air quality 32.0 28.5 -3.5
Vector-borne diseases 13.0 8.0 -5.0
Public sanitation 7.0 10.0 3.0
Crop production 6.0 36.0 30.0
Water supply 6.0 44.0 38.0
Flood control 0.0 22.0 22.0
Power generation 0.0 22.0 22.0
Resettlement 55.0 30.5 -27.5
Archaeological treasures 8.0 4.0 -4.0
Recreation / tourism 0.0 5.0 5.0
Total 304.1 354.1 50.0

are discussed in the main document (WAPCOS, 1992). Some guidelines on

management are discussed below.

Streamflow
The dam will change the river flows downstream. It is proposed that:

• minimum flow in the river should not be less than the average 10-day
minimum flow of the river in its natural state;
• priorities and requirements downstream should be taken care of as outlined
in the National Water Policy in respect of drinking water, irrigation,
hydropower, navigation, industrial and other uses such as tourism.

Water Quality
For water to be used for any specific purpose, its quality in reservoirs, rivers,
canals and drainage ditches should receive priority attention. Water quality can
be maintained or enhanced by:

• catchment area treatment to reduce sediment load;

• adequate treatment of effluents to attain the standards prescribed and
consideration of assimilative capacities of receiving water bodies;
• proper control of discharges from non-point sources;
 EIA Guidelines 201

• efficient application of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals to

reduce their losses due to leaching;
• removal and discharge of sediments from reservoirs, to reduce oxygen
demand;
• providing reaeration facilities, whenever economically feasible;
• low-flow augmentation; and
• avoiding discharges of wastes in canals.

Waterlogging
Waterlogging can be prevented by:
• providing adequate drainage;
• conjunctive use of groundwater;
• prevention of leakage and seepage losses; and
• use of water-efficient methods of irrigation and water conservation mea-
sures.
Extensive drainage systems must be constructed in the irrigated areas to prevent
the occurrence of salinity and waterlogging. Various drainage methods that are
effective are:
• surface drainage;
• subsurface drainage; and
• pumping and recycling of water.
IS:8835-1987 provides information on planning and design of surface drains.

Eutrophication
Prevention of eutrophication can be achieved by:
• proper treatment of domestic and industrial wastes to reduce the concentra-
tion of nutrients reaching water bodies, especially quiescent ones;
• efficient application of fertilizers to the crops so that the amount leached is
kept to a minimum; and
• soil conservation measures.

Soil Conservation
The following soil conservation measures should be noted:
• terracing;
• contour cultivation;
• vegetated waterways;
• strip cropping;
• pasture development;
• gully prevention and control;
• afforestation;
• use of check dams; and
• crop rotation.
202 K. Pal & R. Rajappa

Watershed Management
The watershed management plan should include:
• adequate protection from grazing, fires and biotic interferences aided by
artificial reboisement;
• control on cultivation of steep slopes and the provision of contour terracing
and bunding on gentler ones;
• preparation of a detailed management plan based on a topographic survey,
soil survey, land capability classification and land-use pattern, etc.; and
• afforestation of degraded lands and other measures.

Afforestation
The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1990 stipulates strict forest protection measures
and outlines procedures for compensatory reafforestation, if it is necessary to
convert forest lands for other purposes. Under this Act:
• if non-forest land is not available, compensatory forest plantations are to be
established on degraded forest lands, which must be twice the forest area
affected or lost; and
• if non-forest land is available, compensatory forest plantations are to be
raised over an area equivalent to the forest area affected or lost. Canal-side
afforestation and reclamation of mines, quarries and spoil dumps provide
good opportunities to add forested areas.
The guidelines for afforestation sites in forest/non-forest areas are that:
• an entire area should be afforested preferably at one site;
• degraded lands should have first priority;
• both sides of a canal should be afforested;
• species to be afforested should be compatible with the phytogebgraphical
region of the area;
• plantation sites should be surrounded by pastures to avoid encroachment
on these lands; and
• rehabilitation sites, villages and communities should have provisions for
woodlands.

Rehabilitation and Resettlement

The management plan should emphasize the importance of resettlement of the
people displaced due to the project. The rehabilitation needs must be considered
from the socio-economic as well as quality of life and political angles. The
resettlement schemes should include the following:
• loss of land must be compensated by allotment of agricultural land in the
command area on a pro rata basis as per accepted formula of the Revenue
Department;
• grants should be given for construction of houses at least equivalent to what
ever existed before the project in terms of space, quality, locality and value,
as well as for construction of cattlesheds and common facilities such as
schools, hospitals, panchayat houses, etc.;
 EIA Guidelines 203

• compensation for assets destroyed due to submergence should at least be

on the basis of the real cost involved in setting them up again;
• the concept of granting new land for land lost should be accompanied by
appropriate legislation for acquiring land in the command area. Acquisition
of land should be on an equitable basis, i.e., no more than half the holding
of any beneficiary should be acquired unless it is acceptable to that
beneficiary;
• provision should be made for availability of fuelwood and other wood
products for the settlement woodlots; and
• provision made of infrastructural facilities such as water supply, sanitation,
educational institutions, hospitals, etc.

All resettlement must be carried out fairly and sensitively as per policies of the
appropriate state government.

Post-monitoring Programme
It should, however, be noted that if monitoring is carried out regularly, it will
not automatically improve the environmental management of the projects since
monitoring by itself is not enough. The results of environmental monitoring
must be forwarded to planners and decision makers in a timely fashion in order
that rational decisions can be taken and then implemented promptly. Equally
there must be an integrated environmental monitoring and management plan,
within an overall project framework of sustainable water development.
In the past, not only in India but also in all other developing countries, ex-post
monitoring and evaluation of water projects have received virtually no attention.
It should be noted that monitoring requirements are project-specific. The type
of variables that are to be monitored, frequency of monitoring of any variable at
any specific site, and the number of sites where any variable should be
monitored, could vary from one project to another. Thus, for each project,
considerable thought must be given to the development of a cost-effective
environmental monitoring plan> and to its subsequent implementation.

Conclusions
The guidelines set out in this paper should prove useful for project authorities,
studying agencies and decision makers. In addition, they could be utilized by
teaching institutes in the form of a reference book.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Water Resources, GOI and US Agency
for International Development for providing financial assistance to develop the
guidelines. The guidance and encouragement provided by Dr Asit K. Biswas,
President, International Association for Ecological Modelling, is appreciated. We
also thank Mr R.S. Choudhary, S.P. Tyagi Aman Sharma, Vimal Garg, Dr A.K.
Sharma of WAPCOS and Dr Rema Devi, Associate Professor IIT Delhi. We
acknowledge the contribution of Mr Paritosh C. Tyagi, Ex-Chairman, Central
Pollution Control Board, Delhi, for reviewing these guidelines.
204 K. Pal & R. Rajappa

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