The factors affecting the location of industries are land, availability of raw material, water,

transport, capital, power, market and labor. Industries are located where all these factors are
easily available.

An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and outputs.

Inputs can be the amount of capital, costs of land, labor, infrastructure, and of course raw
materials.
The processes inclue a wide range of activities that turn a raw material into a finished product.
The output can be the final product and the profit/income earned from it.

Industrial regions in india - mumbai-pune cluster, bangalore-tamil nadu, chottanagpur belt,

hooghly region, ahmedabad-baroda region, visakhapatnam-guntur, gurgaon-delhi-meerut and
kollum-thiruvantapuram.

One of the worst industrial disasters occured in bhopal 3rd dec 1984 at 12.30 am.
Toxic gases like methyl isocyanate, hydrogen cyanide leaked out of the pesticide factory of
union carbide.
Thousands who survive still suffer from gastrointenstinal disorder, imparied immune system and
blindness.

Iron and steel industries also have inputs and outputs involved.
This is a feeder industry, meaning the products of this industry is a raw material for other
industries.
The inputs are capital, site, infrastructure, iron ore, coal and limestone, labour.
The process of converting iron ore into steel involves dumping the raw materials into a blast
furnace where it undergoes smelting. It is then refined.
The output obtained is steel which may be used as raw materials for other industries.

Steel is often called the backbone of modern industries because almost everything we use is
made out of steel or with tools and machinery made out of steel. Steel can be easily cut into
wires and shaped into different objects.
Huge machinery, automobiles, railway coaches are made of steel.
Pins and needles we use is made of steel.
Building materials used for infrastructure is made out of steel,
Oil wells are drilled with steel machinery.
Pipelines used to transport oil is made with steel.
Minerals are mined with steel equipment.

Before 1800 A.D. iron and steel industries were located at places where water supply, raw
material and power supply was available.
Later on, iron and steel industries shifted to places with market, canals and railway roads.
From the 1950’s and after iron and steel industries expanded and developed and are now
located on areas of flat land near sea ports, because iron ore has to be imported overseas.
Sakchi was chosen to set up the TISCO steel plant for many reasons.
It was only 32 km away from kalimati station and on the bengal-nagpur railway line.
It was close to iron ore, manganese, coal deposits as well as to kolkata which provided a huge
market.
Sakhchi got its coal form jharia coalfields and iron ore, limestone, dolomite from odisha and
chhattisgarh,
He rivers subarnarekha and kharkhai provide water supply.
Government initiatives later on provided adequate capital for late developments.

The development of iron and steel industries opened the door to rapid industrial development in
india.
All sectors of the indian industry depend on the iron and steel industries for their basic
infrastructure.
The india iron and steel industries have large integrated steel plants as well as smaller steel
mills.
It also includes secondary producers and ancillary industries,

It is only 32 km away from the kilamati station and on the kolkata-nagpur railway line,
It is close to iron ore, coal and manganese deposits and kolkata which provide a huge market.
It gets its coal from jharnia coalfields and dolomite etc. etc. from odisha and chhattisgarh.
The rivers subarnarekha and kahrkhai provided water supply.
Later gov. Initiatives provided enough capital for its development.

Agro based industries

Produce have expiry dates
Plant and animal waste,
Intensive labour
Smaller investments
Small in size
Yes the different levels of courts are connected to each other
In india we have an intergrated judicial system, the laws made by the higher courts is binding to
the lower courts.
Another way to understand this integration is through the appellate system. If you believe the
verdict passed by the lower courts is not just, you can approach a higher court.

Yes the supreme court in the 1980s devised a mechanism of public interest litigtaion to make
the courts accessible to everyone.
All citizens of india can approach the courts. This implies every citizen has a right to the courts.
The courts play a very significant rule in protecting our fundamental rights.
If any citizen believes their fundamental rights have been violated they can approach the court
for justice

While the courts are made accessible to all, in reality a vast majority of people find the courts
inaccessible.
Large court procedures invlove a lot of paperwork, require a lot of money and are overall time
consuming.
To an illiterate person who depends on daily wage the idea of approaching the court for justics
seems remote.

There are 3 different levels of the judiciary

There are several lower courts and there is only one at the apex level. The courts that people
mostly interact with are the tehsil courts or the district courts. They are usually located in towns
and hear many kinds of cases.
Each state is divided into districts presided over by a district judge,
Each state has a high court which is the top-most court in that stae,
At the top is the supreme court, central level located in delhi. It’s the court at the apex level and
is presided over by the chief justice of india.
The decisions made by the supreme court is binding.

We often hear cases about the rich and the powerful trying to interfere with courts.
Our courts have a system of independent judiciary by the indian constitution.
One aspect of this is the separation of powers. This is a key feature in the constitution.
This means that other branches of the government, the executive and the parliament cannot
interfere with the judiciary or try to influence them
The courts are not under them and do not act on their behalf
They are independent

Role of the judiciary

Dispute resolution- the courts can resolve disputes between citizens, between citizens and the
government, between 2 state governmanets, between centre and state gov.
Judicial review - as the final interpreter of the constitution, the judiciary can strike down laws
they find that don’t adhere to the constitution or are a violation of the basic fundamental rights.
Upholding the law and establishing fundamental rights - every citizen of india can approach the
supreme or high court if they believe their basic fundamental law has been violated.
For eg. hakim sheikh, an agricultural labourer fell from a running train and injured himself. Is
condition got worse when no hospital admitted him. On hearing this case, the supreme court
showed that in article 21 provides every citizen with the right to life, which also covers the right
to health. It directed the gov. Of west bengal to pay him compensation for his loss.

We often hear about the rich and powerful trying to influence the courts,
The constitution of india has protected us from these kind of situations by providing the
independence of judiciary.
One aspect of this is the separation of powers. It means that the other branches of the gov. The
parliament and the executive cannot interfere with the judiciary.
It is not under them and doesn act on their behalf.
Independent.

Separation of powers is a key concept of the functioning of courts in india. It means that the
other branches of the gov. The legislature and the executive cannot interfere or influence with
the work of the judiciary. Behalf. Independent.
It is important because-
All the judges of the courts are appointed with very little interference from the govs. Once
appointed its very difficult to remove a judge,
It is the independence of the judiciary that allows it to keep a check on the other branches,
making sure there is no misuse.
Fundamental rights,

The judiciary has played a crucial role in protecting the fundamental rights of citizens of india
and keeping a check on the powers .
The members of the constituent assembly have quite correctly envisioned a system of courts
with an independent judiciary as a key feature of our constitution,

Better than the movies

The process by which living organisms produce young ones similar to themselves is called
reproduction.

Reproduction ensures the continuation of a species.

Sexual reproduction - the process in which organisms produce young ones similar to
themselves with the help of sex cells/gametes.
Eg - humans do it all the time without this purpose.

Oviparous- lay eggs, viviparous do not. ()

Internal fertilization- inside the woman body. (fusion of male and female gamete)
External fertilization-outside the woman body.

When the sperms come in contact with the egg, on of the sperms fuses with the egg to form a
fertilized egg. This fusion of the male and female gametes is called fertilization. The nuclei of the
gametes fuse to form a single nucleus of the zygote or fertilized egg.

Fishes and frogs lay hundreds of eggs at a time because their eggs are very delicate. Many get
spoilt by water movement, winds, rainfall etc. or get eaten by other animals. Thus the huge
production of eggs is to increase the chances of fertilization.

Female reproductive organs are-

- ovaries / responsible for the production of the female hormone oestrogen which cause
bodily changes in females
/ the ovaries release the female sex cell/ female gamete/ the egg or the ovum.
/The ovaries release one egg every month into the oviduct.
- Fallopian tubes or the oviducts / tube-like structures connected to either end of the
uterus.
/ it has finger-like projections at the ends.
- Uterus / connected to the ends of the fallopian tubes.
/ its where the development of the baby takes place.
- Vagina / the outer organ to receive the sperms

Male reproductive organs are-

- A pair of testes/ reponsible for the production of testosterone which causes bodily
changes in males
/ releases millions of sperms every month
/ produces the male sex cell/ male gamete/sperm
/ located outside the body in a skin-bag like scrotum
- 2 sperm ducts or vas deferens/ responsible for carrying the sperms from the testes to
inside the body.
- penis/ a muscular organ made of special tissues through which runs a tube called
urethra.
 - Seminal vesicle and prostrate gland/ located outside the near the testes and secretes
the fluids to carry the sperm.

In some females oviducts are blocked.

So, the sperm is unable to reach the egg and cause fertilization.
In these cases, doctors collect freshly releashed sperms and egg and keep them together for a
few hours in a test tube.
In case fertilization happens, the zygote is allowed to develop for a week and then is placed in
the mother’s uterus. It continues developing there and is born like any other baby
Babies born through this way are called test-tube babies.

Fertilization results in the formation of a zygote. The zygote rolls down the oviduct and starts
dividing, forming balls of cells which then group together to form tissues, organs etc. this
developing structure is called an embryo. The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus
for further development.

The embryo continues developing. It gradually forms hands, legs, eyes and other body parts.
The stage of the embryo when all the body parts are recognizable is called the foetus.

Growing up is a natural process. The period of time when the body undergoes change, reaching
reproductive maturity is called adolescence.

Puberty - the change or time in life when a person becomes capable of reproduction and
reaches sexual maturity is called puberty.

As the child grows gradually, into youth stage, the body organs enlarge. This enlargemnt is
caused under the influence of hormones. Growth hormones are released by the pituitary gland
located in the brain. Thus the changes are seen in the body.

In boys-
-testosterone starts being produced by the testes
-the voice box/larynx enlarges causing the voice to deepen (can be seen as a protruding part
from the throat)
-hair grows in pubic regions and in armpits.
-increased secretions of the sebaceous glands cause increase in acne and pimples.
-their chests widen and muscles grow more prominently than in girls.

In girls-
- Estrogen
- Menstruation
- Breasts develop. Mammary glands or milk producing glands develop under the breasts.
- The hips widen.
- Ovaries begin to mature and release one egg every month.
 - Hair begins to grow in oubic regions and in armpits
- Increased activity of sebacious glands causes more acne and pimples.

Certain chemicals are secreted by our body for the proper growth and functioning. These
chemicals are called hormones.
Hormones are produced in special glands called the endocrine glands.
The endocrine glands have no ducts and release their secretions directly into the blood streams
to reach the target site,
Hormones are required in less quantities.
The main pituitary glands control the excretions from the other glands. It is located at the base
of our brain.

Major endocrine glands are-

- Adrenal gland
- Thyroid gland
- Ovary gland
- Testis gland
- Pituitary gland
- Pancreas gland
- Thalamus gland
- Hypothalmius gland.

1. Pituitary gland - located at the base of the brain - secretes several hormones such as
growth hormone and TTH (thyrothropic hormone) - it is also called the master gland. - it
controls growth - controls the activities of other glands - stimulates the thyroid gland to
produce thyroxine.
2. Thyroid gland - neck - thyroxine - it stimulates respiratory functioning and growth -
excess thyroxine can cause goitre.
3. Adrenal gland - located above the kidneys - secretes adrenaline - helps in maintaining
the salt levels in our body - secretes adrenaline which helps us cope with stress when
we are worried, embarrassed etc.
4. Pancreatic gland - located above the stomach - secretes insulin - insulin helps maintain
the blood sugar levels - lack of insulin causes diabetes.
5. Ovary gland - estrogen - located in the lower abdomen - produces estrogen which
promotes the bodily changes in females. - ova
6. Testis gland - located outside the body near the scrotum - testosterone - bodily changes
in male - sperm.

In females, the reproductive stage starts from around 12 years old (at puberty) and goes on till
about 40-45 yrs of age.
The ova begins to mature. Once a month the ovaries release a matured ova into the oviduct.
The uterus walls begin to thicken incase fertilization occurs, to receive the egg. If fertilization
occurs, it results in pregnancy.
If it doesn’t, the unfertilized egg, the uterus walls along with the blood vessels are shed off. This
causes bleeding in women.
It is called menstruation.

Menarche - the first menstrual cycle begins at puberty is termed as menarche.

Menopause - stoppage of menstrual cycle. Happens at around 45-50 yrs of age.

Endocrine glands are also called ductless glands because they don’t have ducts and pour their
secretions directly into the blood stream.

In puberty girls -Estrogen

- Menstruation
- Breasts develop. Mammary glands or milk producing glands develop under the breasts.
- The hips widen.
- Ovaries begin to mature and release one egg every month.
- Hair begins to grow in oubic regions and in armpits
- Increased activity of sebacious glands causes more acne and pimples.
Boys -
-testosterone starts being produced by the testes
-the voice box/larynx enlarges causing the voice to deepen (can be seen as a protruding part
from the throat)
-hair grows in pubic regions and in armpits.
-increased secretions of the sebaceous glands cause increase in acne and pimples.
-their chests widen and muscles grow more prominently than in girls.

As these features distinguish male and female they are called secondary sexual characteristics.

Sex hormones help people to develop sex organs to enable reproduction.

These hormones cause reproductive maturity.
Same shit same shit.

No a woman is not reponsible for the birth of a girl. This is because there are 2 types of sperms,
X and Y chromosome. If the sperm with Y chromosome fuses with the egg, it causes a boy and
if a X chromosome fuses with the egg it causes a girl.

Inside the fertilized egg or zygote there is instructions for determining the sex of the baby.
They are encoded in threadlike structures called chromosomes. Every human and 23 pairs of
chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells. 2 chromosomes out of those are the sex
chromosomes.
Females have only XX sex chromosomes while males have XY sex chromosomes.
Due to this, 2 kinds of sperms are produced, sperms with X chromosome or Y chromosome.
The male and female gametes have only one set of chromosome.
The female gamete only has X chromosome.
So, when a sperm containing the X chormosome fuses with the egg that has X c, it results in the
birth of a girl.
When a sperm containing Y c fuses with the egg that has X c, it results in the birth of a boy.

Hen exhibits internal fertilization - feritlized zygote rolls down oviduct- protective layers of
sheath, layers - including hard outermost shell - after the hen lays the egg, she sits on it to keep
it warm 0 rest of the development takes place inside the shell - 3 weeks later chick bursts forth
ready to be turned into kfc in the next couple of months.
Industries
1 - (a) Secondary activities or manufacturing is the process of changing raw materials so that
the final product has more utility and value.
Example - wood pulp is used to make paper, which is then used to make notebooks. This
represents 2 manufacturing processes.
(b) the paper made from the wood pulp and textile made from cotton have had more value
added to them during each stage of the manufacturing process. So the final product has more
value and utility added to it than the raw material.

2 - Industry refers to an economic activity related to the production of goods, extraction of

minerals or provision of services. Example - the tourism industry (provision of services), iron and
steel industry (extraction of minerals), textile industry (production of goods)
Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size and ownership.

3 - industries may be classified on the basis of raw materials. They are grouped into
agro-based, mineral based, marine-based and forestry-based industries.
- Agro-based
Agro based industries are industries that use products derived from plants and animals
as their raw material.
Examples - food processing, cotton textile, etc.
- Mineral-based
These industries use mineral ores as their raw materials. The products of these
industries feed the other industries, they are also called primary industries.
Examples - Iron made from iron ore is a product of a mineral based industry. This iron is
used as a raw material of other industries such as heavy machinery, building materials
and railway coaches.
- Marine-based
Marine based industries use products derived from the oceans and seas as their raw
materials.
Example - fish oil, seafood processing etc.
- Forestry-based
Forestry industries use materials derived from the forests as their raw materials.
Examples - pharmaceuticals, furniture, buildings, pul and paper industries etc.

4 - on the basis of the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume
of production, industries can be classified into cottage industries, small-scale and large-scale
industries.
- Cottage industries or household industries.
These are a type of small-scale industry where all the products are made by hand, by
the artisans.
Example - basket weaving, pottery etc.
 - Small scale industries
Compared to the large-scale industries, the amount of capital invested and technology
used is lesser.
Example - silk weaving and food processing industries.
- Large scale industries
The amount of capital invested is huge, the technology is superior and the quantity of the
final products are larger.
Example - automobile industries, heavy machinery etc.

5 - industries can also be classified on the basis of ownership into private sector, public sector,
joint sector and co-operative sector industries.
- Private sector
These industries are owned and operated by individuals or groups of individuals.
- Public sector
These industries are owned and operated by the government. Also known as
state-owned industries.
Example - hindustan aeronautics limited, steel authority of India limited.
- Joint sector
These industries are owned and operated by the government and individuals or groups
of individuals.
Example - maruti udyog limited
- Co-operative sector
These industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials
or the workers or both.
Example - Anand Milk Union Limited, Sudha Dairy.

6 - The factors affecting the location of industries are power, land, capital, raw material, water,
transport, labour and market. Industries are situated where all these factors are satisfied.

7 - An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and outputs.

The inputs are the raw materials, capital, labour, infrastructure and costs of land.
The processes include a wide range of activities that convert the raw material into the final
product.
The outputs include the final product and the profits earned from selling it.
Example, in case of the textile industry,
The inputs are cotton, human labour, factory and transport cost.
The processes might be ginning, weaving, spinning, dyeing, and printing.
The output is the shirt you are wearing.

8 - (a) Industrial regions emerge when there are many industries located close to each other
and share the benefits of their closeness.
Major industrial regions tend to be near sea ports or coalfields, in temperate areas.
Major industrial regions in india are Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram, Visakhapatnam-guntur,
Hooghly region, Mumbai-Pune cluster, Ahmedabad-Baroda, Chota Nagpur industrial belt,
Bangalore-Tamil Nadu, Gurgaon-Meerut-Delhi industrial belt.

9 - (a) Industrial disasters happen due to technical failures or irresponsible handling of

hazardous materials.
(b)
- On December 3rd, 12.30 am in Bhopal 1984, a technological accident caused highly
poisonous gases like Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas along with highly toxic hydrogen
carbide and other gases to be leaked out of the pesticide factory in union carbide.
The official death toll was 3,598 in 1989. Thousands of others were injured and those
who survived still suffer from ailments like gastrointestinal disorders, blindness or
impaired immune system.
- In another incident a gas well blowout occurred in Gao Qiao, Chongqing in China. On 23
December 2005. Many people died because they were unable to escape in time.
- Those who did escape in time still suffered from burns to their eyes, skin and lungs. Over
64,000 people were evacuated and 9,000 were injured. The death toll was 243.
(c)
- heavily populated residential areas should be separated from industrial areas.
- People living near industrial ares should be made aware of the toxic substances stored
there and the effects in case an accident occurs.
- Fire warning and fighting systems should be improved.
- The system of disposal of toxic industrial wastes should be improved.

10 - Emerging industries are called sunrise industries. These include information and
technology, wellness, hospitality and knowledge industries.
Iron and steel and textile industries are old industries while information and technology
industries are new.

11 -
- The iron and steel industries also comprise various inputs, processes and outputs.
- This is a feeder industry and the outputs from these industries provide raw materials for
other industries.
- The inputs include raw materials such as iron ore, limestone, manganese and coal,
along with labour, site, infrastructure and capital.
- The process of turning iron ore into steel has various stages. First the iron ore is put into
a blast furnace where it undergoes smelting. Then it is refined.
- The output obtained is steel which may be used as raw material for other industries.

12 -
Steel is often called the backbone of modern industry. Steel is tough and can be easily shaped
into various objects, cut or made into wire.
- Almost everything we use is either made of steel or has been made with tools or
machinery made out of steel.
 - Steel is used for making safety pins and needles.
- ships , trains, trucks, planes and other automobiles are also made of steel.
- Steel is used to make heavy machinery.
- Oil wells are drilled with steel structures.
- Pipelines used for transporting oil are made of steel.
- Minerals are mined with steel equipment.
- Farm machines are made out of steel.
- Buildings are built with steel framework.

13
- Before 1800 A.D. The best place for iron and steel plants was where water supply,
power supply and minerals were easily available.
- Later on the ideal location for steel plants was near coal fields and close to canals and
railway lines.
- After the 1950's, steel industries expanded so the ideal place was in areas with empty
fields and near sea ports, since iron ore has to be imported overseas.

14
Sakchi was chosen to set up the steel plant for various reasons.
- It was only 32 km away from the kolkata-nagpur railway line and Kalimati station.
- It was close to deposits of iron ore, manganese, coal as well as to Kolkata, which
provides a large market.
- Most of the TISCO coal used was from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone,
dolomite and manganese was transported from odisha and Chattisgarh.
- The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers provided water supply.
- Government initiatives provided enough capital for its later development.

15
- The development of iron and steel industries lead to the industrial development in India.
- Almost all sectors of other industries are heavily dependent on the iron and steel
industries for their raw materials.
- In addition to this, the iron and steel plants in India have large integrated steel plants as
well as smaller steel mills.
- It also includes secondary producers, rolling mills and ancillary industries.

16
Sometimes the government provides industries with subsidised power, lower transportation
costs and other infrastructure for industries to be located in backward areas. This leads to
development of towns and cities.

17
18
Public sector - owned and operated by the government. Social welfare is the main objective.
Example- Hindustan Aeronautics limited,

Joint sector - owned and operated by the government and individuals so it is run jointly.
The objective is both social welfare and profit.
Example - maruti udyog limited.
Reaching the age of adolescence

Adolescence
Growing is a natural process. The period of time when the body undergoes change
reaching sexual maturity is known as adolescence.

Puberty
The change or phase of life when a person reaches sexual maturity and becomes
capable of reproducing is called puberty.

Changes at puberty

Changes at puberty in boys

- Their larynx or voice box begins to enlarge. It can be seen as a protruding part
from their throat. This causes their voices to deepen. Sometimes the muscles
grow out of control and the voice becomes hoarse or cracks.
- Their shoulders and chests become broader and their muscles grow more
prominently than in girls.
- Hair grows in underarms and in pubic regions.
- The testis begins to produce the male hormone, testosterone
- Increase in the secretions of sweat glands and sebaceous glands causes
increase in acne and pimples.

Changes at puberty in girls

- Hair grows in underarms and in pubic regions.
- Increase in the secretions of sweat glands and sebaceous glands causes
increase in acne and pimples.
- The ovaries enlarge and the eggs begin to mature. The ovaries start releasing
mature eggs.
- The female hormone oestrogen is released by the ovaries. It causes the breasts
to develop and the mammary glands (milk secreting glands) develop under the
breasts.
- The region below the waist begins to widen.
- menstruation.

Other changes include, increase in height, getting emotional and intellectual maturity
etc.
Secondary sexual characteristics
At puberty, girls develop wider hips. Their breasts began to develop due to estrogen
and their voices become shriller. For boys, their voices deepen, they begin to grow
facial hair, their muscles grow more prominently, the voice box can be seen protruding
from their throats and their shoulders and chests become broader. In both boys and
girls, hair is developed under the arms and in the pubic region. As these features
distinguish male from female, they are called secondary sexual characteristics.

Role of hormones in initiating reproductive function

Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream to reach a particular bodysite
or the target site.
The testes and the ovary glands secrete hormones. These hormones are responsible for
male and female secondary sexual characteristics. The sex hormones are released
according to the control of hormones from the pituitary glands which makes the ova
mature and sperms form in the testis.

Endocrine and exocrine glands

Endocrine glands are glands without ducts. They release their secretions directly into
the bloodstream.
Examples - pituitary, adrenal, pancreatic glands.
Exocrine glands have ducts to release their secretions.
Example - sweat glands, sebaceous glands etc.

Reproductive phase of life in humans

The reproductive phase lasts longer in men than in women.
In women, it starts at puberty (10-12) and ends at around 45-50yrs old. The ova begins
to mature with the onset of puberty. One ovum matures and is released by the ovaries
once every 28-30 days. The walls of the uterus begin to thicken so as to prepare for the
embryo if fertilisation occurs. If it does, then it results in pregnancy.
If fertilisation does not occur, the matured egg, along with the lining of the uterus with
all the blood vessels is shed off.
This causes bleeding in women and is called menstruation.
The first menstrual cycle at the onset of puberty is called menarche.
At 45-50yrs when the menstrual cycle begins to stop it is termed as menopause.
Sex of the baby
Inside the fertilised egg or zygote, the instruction for the sex of the baby is written.
This information is present in long thread-like structures called chromosomes.
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of those, the last 2 are the sex
chromosomes. The X and Y chromosomes.
- The sperm and the egg carry one chromosome each.
- The egg carries the X chromosome because women only have the X X
chromosome. Men have the X Y chromosome.
- One kind of sperm carries the X chromosome and another kind carries the Y
chromosome.
- So if a sperm containing X chromosome fuses with the egg with a X
chromosome, it’s a female child.
- If a sperm containing Y chromosome fuses with the egg with a X chromosome,
it's a male child.

Hormones other than sex hormones

Pituitary gland - base of the brain - growth hormone (GH) and thyrotropic (TTH) -
stimulates the production of thyroxine in the thyroid gland, controls growth, regulates
the functioning of all other glands.

Thyroid gland - throat - thyroxine - stimulates respiration and growth rate - deficiency
can inhibit thyrotropic (TTH) and cause goitre.

Adrenal gland - above the kidneys - adrenaline - maintains the level of salt in the body -
helps the body manage the stress when we are worried, embarrassed or angry.

Pancreatic gland - in the abdomen near the stomach - insulin - sugar metabolism - low
insulin causes diabetes.
Petroleum and Natural Gas [pT-2]

(1) Petroleum is a dark, oily, viscous liquid.

It has an unpleasant odour.
It is a mixture of various substances like, paraffin wax, kerosene, bitumen, petrol,
petroleum gas, lubricating oil etc.
It is commonly called crude oil.
Due to its immense importance, a nation’s economy depends to a great extent on
petroleum wealth. Hence it is also known as Black gold.
(2) Petroleum was formed from the bodies of organisms living in the sea.
When these organisms died, their bodies got buried under the bottom of the sea,
covered with layers of sand and clay.
Over millions of years, the absence of air and under great heat and pressure gets
converted into petroleum.
Petroleum is lighter than water and floats over it.
It is always found trapped between 2 impervious rocks.
Natural gas is found above petroleum, trapped between the rock caps and petroleum.
Since gas and oil are lighter than water, they float above it and do not mix with it.
(3) Paraffin wax-candle, vaseline etc.
Diesel-fuels for heavy motor vehicles, jet aviation and electricity generators.
LPG-used in households and industries.
Kerosene-fuel for stoves, lamps etc.
Petrol-fuel for vehicles, aviation fuel, solvent for dry cleaning.
Lubricating oil-lubrication.
Bitumen-roading, paints.
(4) Natural gas was formed over a million years ago, when the dead bodies of organisms
got buried under layers of sand and clay underneath the sea. Over a million years under
great heat and pressure and in the absence of air, the organisms got converted into
natural gas and petroleum.
Natural gas is a very important fossil fuel as it is less-polluting and can be easily
transported through pipes.
Natural gas stored under great pressure is called compressed natural gas of CNG.
(5) CNG is used as a fuel for power generation.
CNG is now being used as a fuel for vehicles as it is less-polluting and cleaner.
CNG is cleaner than other fossil fuels.
CNG can be used in households and in industries directly and it can be easily
transported through pipelines.
Natural gas is also used in various industries as a starting material for chemicals and
fertilisers. India has vast reserves of natural gas.
(6) India has a network of pipelines for natural gas laid in Vadodara in Gujarat, in some parts
of Delhi and in other places.
(7) Natural gas in India is found in Tripura, Maharashtra, near the Krishna-godavari delta
and in Rajasthan.
(8) The advantages of using CNG (compressed natural gas) and LPG (Liquefied Petroleum
gas) as fuels are-
-they can be easily transported in cylinders and pipes.
-they are more efficient than other fossil fuels.
-their prices are lower.
-CNG and LPG are less polluting compared to other fossil fuels. They don't give out
smoke when burning unlike coal.
-these fossil fuels also produce a lot of heat compared to coal and other fuels.
(9) Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels. It requires dead organisms which are millions of
years old getting converted to fossil fuels to create them.
Moreover the burning of fossil fuels is a major source of air pollution.
On the other hand, fossil fuels are limited and will only last a few hundred years.
The burning of fossil fuels is also linked to global warming, therefore it is necessary we
use these fossil fuels when it is absolutely needed.
This will result in a better environment, lower risk of global warming and the fossil fuels
lasting for a longer period of time.
(10) Petrochemicals are substances obtained from petroleum and natural gas.
Petrochemicals can be used for detergents, solvents, fibres (acrylic, nylon, polyester) for
making polythene and other man-made plastics. Hydrogen gas is obtained from natural
gas and is used in the production of fertilisers (urea)
Due to its great value, a nation’s economy can be dependent to a great extent on
petroleum wealth. This is why petroleum is known as ‘black gold’
(11) In india the Petroleum Conservation Research Association advises people to save
petrol while driving by-
-making sure that the pressure inside the tires is right.
-ensuring regular and proper maintenance of vehicle.
-trying to drive at a moderate and constant speed for as long as possible.
-by turning of the engine at traffic signals or at places where you have to wait.
Reproduction in animals

Modes of Reproduction
Reproduction - the process by which living organisms produce young ones that are similar to
them is known as reproduction.
Reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species.

There are 2 types of Reproduction-

Asexual Reproduction - The reproduction that occurs without the sex cells or gametes is called
asexual reproduction.
Examples - budding in hydra, binary fission in amoeba.

Sexual Reproduction - The reproduction that occurs with the help of the sex cells or gametes is
called sexual reproduction. Examples - humans, dogs, cows, etc.

Sexual Reproduction
The reproduction that occurs with the help of the sex cells or gametes is called sexual
reproduction. Examples - humans, dogs, cows, etc.

Male Reproductive organs

The male reproductive organs are-

a pair of tests.
- They are responsible for the production of the hormone testosterone which is
responsible for the bodily changes in males.
- The testis produce the male sex cells/male gametes/sperms
- Testis produce a million sperms.
- They lie outside the body in a skin-like bag called the scrotum.
2 sperm ducts or vas deferens
- These are responsible for carrying the sperms from the testis to inside the body.
Penis
- It is a muscular organ made of special tissues and through it runs a tube called the
urethra.
Seminal Vesicle and Prostate gland
- These are special glands located along the sperm ducts to produce the secretions to
carry the sperms.

Female reproductive organs

The female reproductive organs are-
Vagina
- It is the exterior part that receives the sperm
Ovaries
- The ovaries produce the female sex cells/female gametes/egg
- The ovary produces one egg per month.
- It is responsible for producing the hormone oestrogen, which causes bodily changes in
females.
2 oviducts or Fallopian tubes.
- These are tube-like structures connected to either side of the uterus with finger-like
projections in the end.
Uterus
- It is situated at the end of the oviducts.
- It is where the development of the baby takes place.

Fertilisation
When sperms come in contact with an egg, one of the sperms may fuse together with the egg.
The fusion of the male and female gametes is called fertilisation. During fertilisation, the nuclei
of the male and female gamete fuse together to form a single nucleus. This results in the
formation of a fertilised egg of the zygote.
Zygote
The fertilised egg formed after the fusion of the male and female gamete is called the zygote. It
is a constantly developing structure.

Internal fertilisation
Fertilisation that occurs inside the body of the mother is called internal fertilisation.
Examples - humans, dogs.

External fertilisation
Fertilisation that takes place outside the body of the mother is called external fertilisation .
Examples - aquatic creatures like tadpoles, etc.

IVF
IVF stands for in vitro fertilisation.
Sometimes the oviducts in a woman are blocked.
So, the sperms cannot reach the eggs and fertilisation doesn’t occur.
In these cases, doctors collect freshly produced sperms and eggs and keep them together in a
test tube for a few hours.
Incase fertilisation takes place, the zygote formed is allowed to develop for a week. Then, it is
transferred into the body of the mother, and gets embedded onto the wall of the uterus.
When the embryo is completely developed, the mother gives birth to the baby and the baby is
born like any other baby.
Babies born through this technique are called test-tube babies.
Development of Embryo
The zygote continues developing. It rolls down the oviduct and gets embedded onto the walls of
the uterus. There, the zygote starts dividing repeatedly into balls of cells, which then group
together to form tissues and later organs. This developing structure is called the embryo.

Foetus
The embryo continues developing. It slowly develops body parts such as hands, legs, heads,
eyes etc. the stage of the embryo when all the body parts can be identified is known as the
foetus.

Viviparous and Oviparous animals

Animals that give birth to live young ones are called viviparous animals. Example - humans.
Animals that lay eggs are called oviparous animals. Example - hens.

Hens
After the zygote is formed, it rolls down the oviduct. There it gets covered with sheaths or layers
of hard shells, including the outermost, hardest shell. After it is completely covered, the hen lays
the egg. The hen sits on the egg to keep it warm. It takes about 3 weeks for the embryo to finish
developing. After the development is complete, the chich bursts open from the shell.

Frogs
During the spring or rainy season, frogs move towards streams and ponds. When the male and
female come together, the female lays hundreds of eggs in the pond. Unlike the eggs of a hen,
these are not covered with a hard outer shell and are relatively delicate. A jelly-like structure
holds the eggs together and provides protection. As the eggs are laid, the male deposits sperm
over them. Each sperm swims randomly and come in contact with an egg, resulting in
fertilisation,
Why these many eggs? Because a lot of the eggs get destroyed by wind, rainfall and exposure
to water movement. There are many organisms that even feed on the eggs.