Symbols, Art, and Aesthetics

Buddhist symbolism is intended to represent, through art, certain key elements

of the dharma, or Buddhist beliefs. Many of the symbols are also common to
Hinduism, but their meaning may be different.

Early Symbols
Some of the earliest and most common symbols include the
Q Stupa and the relics which could be found inside them
Q Dharmachakra or Dharma Wheel
Q Bodhi Tree
Q Lotus Flower
Q Swastika

Diversity of Buddhist Symbolism

While some Buddhist symbols are found or used in each of the three major
Buddhist schools, others are unique to each and reflect the differences between
schools. As well, there are variations in the interpretation of the meaning and
significance of the symbols.

Theravada Symbolism
In the Theravada schools, Buddhist art and symbolism focuses solely on
representational art and historical meaning. Reminders or memorials of
The Buddha, called cetiya, fall into one of three categories relic, spatial, and
representational.
While The Buddha was not represented in human form until about the first
century, his physical characteristics are described in one of the main texts of
the traditional Pali Canon, the Dīgha Nikāya, in the discourse titled “Sutra of
the Marks.”
Buddha’s primary physical characteristics are described by 32 signs, “The 32
signs of a Great Man,” and another eighty secondary characteristics.

Mahayana Symbolism
In the Mahayana schools, Buddhist figures and sacred objects tend towards
esoteric (secret and mystical, not shared with everyone) and symbolic
meanings. Mudras—symbolic hand gestures—describe the actions of the
characters represented in Buddhist art. Many images also function as mandalas
(literally “circle”—a spiritual and ritual symbol representing the universe).

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 Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhist art frequently makes use of a specific set
of eight auspicious symbols (Astamangala) in domestic and public art. These
symbols have spread with Buddhism and have been incorporated into the art
of many cultures, including Indian, Tibetan, Nepalese, and Chinese art.
The eight auspicious symbols are
Q Lotus Flower Q Wheel of the Dharma
Q Endless Knot Q Treasure Vase
Q Golden Fish Q Parasol (Umbrella)
Q Victory Banner Q Conch Shell

In East Asian Buddhism, the swastika is a widely used symbol of eternity. It

is used to mark Buddhist temples on maps and in the beginning of Buddhist
texts. It is known in classical Tibetan as yungdrung. In ancient Tibet, it was a
graphical representation of eternity.
In Zen, a widely used symbol is the enso, a hand-drawn circle.

Vajrayana Symbolism
A central Vajrayana symbol is the vajra, a sacred indestructible weapon of
the god Indra, associated with lightning and the hardness of diamonds. It
symbolizes emptiness (sunyata) and, therefore, the indestructible nature of
reality.
Other Vajrayana symbols include the ghanta (ritual bell), the bhavacakra, the
mandalas, the number 108, and The Buddha eyes commonly seen on Nepalese
stupas such as at Boudhanath. There are various mythical creatures used in
Vajrayana as well: Snow Lion, Wind Horse, dragon, garuda, and tiger.
The popular mantra “Om mani padme hum” is widely used to symbolize
compassion and is commonly seen inscribed on rocks, prayer wheels, stupas,
and art.
Tibetan Buddhist architecture is centred on the stupa, called in Tibetan chorten.
The chorten consists of five parts that represent the Mahabhuta (five elements).
The base is square which represents the earth element, above that sits a dome
representing water, on that is a cone representing fire, on the tip of the cone is
a crescent representing air, inside the crescent is a flame representing ether.
The tapering of the flame to a point can also be said to represent consciousness
as a sixth element. The chorten presents these elements of the body in the order
of the process of dissolution at death.
Tibetan temples are often three-storied. The three can represent many aspects
such as the trikaya (three aspects) of a Buddha. The ground story may have
a statue of the historical Buddha Gautama and depictions of Earth and so
represent the nirmanakaya. The first story may have Buddha and elaborate

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 ornamentation representing rising above the human condition and the
sambhogakaya. The second story may have a primordial Adi-Buddha in Yab-
Yum (sexual union with his female counterpart) and be otherwise unadorned
representing a return to the absolute reality and the dharmakaya (truth body).

Common Buddhist Symbols

The chart on the following pages provides a summary of the most common
symbols associated with Buddhism and their meaning or significance.

Image Name and Meaning

The Eight Auspicious Symbols (Astamangala) derive from
Mahayana traditions. The exact origins of the eight symbols
are not known, but it is generally believed that they are
based on Indian traditions that predate The Buddha’s life.
Some Buddhist scholars believe the eight auspicious symbols
reflect the eight items the Indian Brahmin offered The
Buddha following his death. There are various teachings and
interpretations with respect to each, but there are also some
general beliefs about the eight symbols.

The wheel to the left depicts the eight auspicious symbols.

Starting from the top and moving clockwise, the eight
symbols are the parasol or umbrella, the infinity knot, the
treasure vase or pumpa, the lotus flower, the conch shell, the
two golden fish, the victory banner, and the Dharma wheel
(Dharmachakra).
The parasol or umbrella is traditionally a symbol of royalty
and protection from the elements. In Buddhism, the Parasol
symbolizes the protection the Dharma gives one from the
distress and confusion caused by our samsaric lives and the
burning heat of our emotions. Even though we may not be
fully awakened, when we seek refuge in The Buddha, Dharma,
and Sangha, we begin to find ease beneath the shelter of
the parasol. It is usually depicted with a dome, representing
wisdom, and a ‘skirt’ around the dome, representing
compassion. Sometimes the dome is octagonal, representing
the Eightfold Path. In other uses, it is square, representing the
four directional quarters.

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 Image Name and Meaning
The infinity knot (aka endless knot or eternal knot) is a
symbol of The Buddha’s mind. It represents The Buddha’s
endless wisdom and compassion and can also represent the
continuity of the 12 Links of Dependent Origination. The
intertwining lines symbolize how everything is connected.

The treasure vase or pumpa traditionally is a symbol of

wealth, abundance, affluence, and prosperity. In Buddhism,
each person is a scared receptacle, a vessel that can be filled
with riches of wisdom and compassion. It may also symbolize
the treasures of health, wealth, prosperity, and all the good
things that come with enlightenment. It is also a reminder
of the potential of following The Buddha’s teachings. From
mindfulness and concentration to compassion and loving-
kindness, these are some of the many gifts and treasures that
come from practicing the dharma.

The lotus flower is an important symbol in Buddhism as well

as Hinduism. It symbolizes purity and encourages us to enjoy
the purity of our mind and actions. In Buddhism, the lotus
has been used in many teachings to impart the true nature
of all mankind. While the roots of the lotus flower are found
deep in the mud, below the murky water of a pond or lake,
it still grows above the water and blossoms into a beautiful,
sweet-smelling flower. The lotus is representative of how
one may rise from suffering to reach enlightenment, beauty,
and clarity. The lotus can appear in several colours, each
with its own meaning: white symbolizes spiritual and mental
purity, pink symbolizes the traditional Buddha, purple is for
mysticism, red symbolizes love and compassion, while blue
symbolizes wisdom.
The conch shell (the right-turning white conch shell)
represents the deep, melodious, and sonorous sound of
The Buddha’s teachings, the Dharma, reaching far and wide,
awakening beings from ignorance.

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 Image Name and Meaning
Two golden fish historically symbolized the Ganges and
the Yamuna rivers. Overtime they have become symbolic of
good fortune or luck. They are also a symbol of how one with
courage and fearlessness may face the ocean of suffering
and may choose their rebirth just as fish swim freely through
water.

The victory banner was originally a military standard of

ancient India. The Victory Banner represents The Buddha’s
victory over Mara, the Lord of Illusion, preceding his
Enlightenment. In Tibetan Buddhism, victory banners
symbolize enlightenment. They symbolize the victory of
humans when they defeat the enemy of elusion.

The Dharma wheel (Dharmachakra) is a symbol common

to several religions with origins in India including Jainism,
Hinduism, and Buddhism. Historically, the Dharmachakra
was often used to adorn Buddhist temples, statues, and
inscriptions, from the earliest period of Indian Buddhism to
today.
In Buddhism, the Dharmachakra represents The Buddha’s
Dharma (His teachings and beliefs), Gautama Buddha himself,
and the path taken to enlightenment. It is also a symbol
related to the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path,
with each spoke representing one of the eight paths. It is a
reminder for Buddhists to help others by ‘turning the Wheel
of Dharma; that is, by giving Dharma teachings.

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 Image Name and Meaning
The vajra (thunderbolt) and tribu/drilbu (bell) are
ceremonial or ritual objects, used in many rites by Tibetan
Buddhist lamas or any Vajrayana practitioner of sadhana
(spiritual exercises).
The vajra (aka dorje) symbolizes great spiritual power, and the
properties of a diamond (indestructible) and a thunderbolt
(irresistible force). It is shaped like a small wand resembling a
scepter, with a ball or round finial on both ends. It is usually
made of copper or silver. It is always held in the right hand
of the person. It is used in cleansing or purification rituals
intended to bring forth enlightenment. It is also used in a
ritual known as Dorje, with the tribu (bell), by lamas and other
practitioners in various rituals.
The tribu symbolizes compassion and wisdom. Traditionally,
the Tribu has a handle corresponding in shape to the dorje’s
finial, as in the image to the left. It is made from the same
metal as the vajra. It is believed that the sound of the tribu
purifies one’s spirit, draws good energy, and banishes evil.

The swastika symbolizes the feet or footprints of The

Buddha and is often used to mark the beginning of texts. In
contemporary Tibetan Buddhism, it often used to decorate
clothing and other objects. With the spread of Buddhism,
it has become part of the iconography of China and Japan.
There, it symbolizes plurality, abundance, prosperity, and long
life.
In the image on the left, the swastika is prominently displayed
on the chest of the statue of Buddha in Kek Lok Si temple in
Malaysia.

The kapala or skull cup is a ritual object (a bowl or cup) made

from the top half of a human skull. The kapala is used by both
Hindu and Buddhist (Vajrayana) tantra rituals. In Tibet, they
are commonly carved or elaborately mounted and adorned
with precious metals and jewels. The kapala is most often
used to make offerings to Buddhist deities.

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 Image Name and Meaning
Prayer wheels are used to take the place of physically
chanting mantras. By spinning a wheel on which prayers
and mantras have been inscribed, the sacred words are sent
out into the universe. The prayer wheels are constructed by
rolling the inscribed paper and then placing the roll inside a
copper or wood container. The container is then attached to
a spindle, which is spun around as shown in the image on the
left.

A phurpa (aka kila, purbha) is a three-sided dagger, similar to

a tent stake. Commonly called a magic dagger, the phurpa’s
blade is not sharp and not intended to be used as an actual
weapon. The phurpa is used to intimidate evil spirits and
overcome challenges. During Buddhist rituals, the adherents
chant mantras while they meditate on frightening away evil
forces with the phurpa.

A mandala, which literally means a circle, is a spiritual and

ritual symbol common to several Indian religions including
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. A mandala is essentially a
symbolic geometric object that represents the universe.
Most mandalas include a square with four gates containing a
circle with a centre point. Each gate is in the general shape of
a T, as may be seen in the image of the Tibetan mandala on
the left.
In the spiritual traditions where mandalas are used, they may
have several purposes, including
Q to help focus the attention of practitioners
Q to be a tool for spiritual guidance
Q to establish a sacred space

Q to be an aid to meditation

In Buddhism, the mandala functions as a sacred space open

to Buddhist deities and spiritual forces, and is also used as a
focal point during meditation.

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 Image Name and Meaning
The lion is a symbol of royalty that refers to Buddha’s
life and position in society before seeking and attaining
enlightenment. It is also symbolic of the power of his
teachings and will often be compared to the roar of a lion.
The lion is one of Buddhism’s most important symbols and
may often be found at the entrance to and within Buddhist
temples and monasteries.

An empty throne in early Buddhist art represented The

Buddha. In the earliest phase of Buddhist art, which lasted
until the first century CE, The Buddha was only represented
through symbols such as an empty throne, the Bodhi tree, a
riderless horse with a parasol floating above an empty space,
Buddha’s footprints, and the dharma wheel. The throne also
symbolized the royal heritage of Siddhartha Gautama.

The Four Guardian Kings are four heavenly kings or

guardian gods, each of whom watches over one of the four
directions of the world.

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 Image Name and Meaning
The footprint of The Buddha is an imprint of Gautama
Buddha’s one or both feet. There are two forms: natural,
as found in stone or rock, and those made artificially.
Many of the “natural” ones, of course, are acknowledged
not to be actual footprints of The Buddha, but replicas or
representations of them, which can be considered Cetiya
(Buddhist relics) and also an early aniconic and symbolic
representation of the Buddha. The footprints of The Buddha
abound throughout Asia, dating from various periods. They
often bear distinguishing marks, such as a Dharmachakra at
the centre of the sole, or the 32, 108, or 132 auspicious signs of
the Buddha, engraved or painted.

The Bodhi tree Refers to a large and very old sacred fig tree
that was located in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India, under which
Siddhartha Gautama (Gautama Buddha) the spiritual teacher
and founder of Buddhism achieved enlightenment or Bodhi.
In Buddhist religious art, the Bodhi tree is recognizable by
its heart-shaped leaves, which are often prominent in the
painting or sculpture.
The Sacred Fig growing at the Mahabodhi Temple is believed
to be a direct descendant of the original Bodhi Tree. This
temple and the tree is a popular destination for pilgrims,
and it is considered to be the most important of the four
main Buddhist pilgrimage sites. Other Bodhi trees which
have special significance in the history of Buddhism are
the Anandabodhi tree in Sravasti and the Bodhi tree in
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Both of these are believed to be
descended from the original Bodhi tree The nun Sanghamitta,
daughter of Asoka, was said to have brought a branch of the
original Bodhi tree, where it was planted at Anuradhapura.

The Buddha eyes or wisdom eyes can commonly be

found on all four sides of Buddhist stupas or shrines. It
symbolizes the all-seeing and omniscient eyes of Buddha
and is representative of Buddha’s presence all around. The
curly line below the eyes in the middle (where the nose is
on a face) is the Sanskrit numeral one that symbolizes the
unity of everything and also signifies that the only way to
attain enlightenment is through Buddha’s teachings. The
dot between the eyes is indicative of the third eye, which
represents spiritual awakening.

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 Image Name and Meaning
The statues and representations of Buddha, in Buddhism
as in Hinduism, have a number of stylized, ritualistic hand
gestures known as mudras. Each mudra has a specific
meaning and significance. Often, statues or paintings of The
Buddha depict a specific mudra. Therefore, if you know what
to look for, you can ‘read’ the meaning of a Buddha statue or
other depiction by looking at the pose, posture, and the hand
gestures displayed. Each traditional pose is specifically related
to an important event in the life or past lives of the Historical
Buddha.
Such representations of The Buddha may also be known as
an Attitude and there are over 100 poses illustrating the life of
the Buddha.
The first image on the left is of a statue of Buddha in the
abhaya or “no fear” mudra pose. The second image is of
a statue depicting the dhyana or samadhi pose symbolic
of meditation and deep contemplation. The third image
depicts The Buddha in the vitarka mudra pose, symbolic of
transmission, learning, and intellectual discussion.
For more information on Buddhist mudras, see
Q https://tricycle.org/magazine/mudra/
Q www.buddhas-online.com/mudras.html
Q www.buddhanet.net/mudras.htm

Frequently, The Buddha is depicted with curly, short hair,

apparently symbolic of Siddhartha after he had cut off his
topknot to renounce his privileged past. However, more
often, his hair is neither shown as being shaved nor long, In
such cases the hair is believed to be symbolic of moderation,
somewhere between the extremes of indulgence and
mortification.
Other distinguishing features and their significance include
Q Half-closed or veiled eyes symbolize a state of meditation
or looking outward and inward.
Q Elongated earlobes to hear what is needed in the world.
Q A dot on the forehead symbolizes wisdom and a third eye
to see unity.
Q A full mouth refers to eloquence in speech.
Q Long arms signify generosity.
Q Slender fingers symbolize mindfulness, precision, and
purity in every act.
Q Round heels represent an even temperament.
Q Fine webs between toes and fingers signal
interconnectedness.

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 Image Name and Meaning
A butter lamp consists of a base and a basin on top for
burning vegetable oil (ghee) or the traditional yak butter.
Frequently, butter lamps are decorated with Buddhist designs
and symbols. The lamps vary in size and shape: they may be
small basins made from simple materials or large basins that
may be gilded and well decorated with Buddhist symbols,
such as the lotus.
Buddhist monks and nuns will tend to the butter lamps that
are theirs and those which are brought by local community
and pilgrims as offerings
Buddhists believe that they do more than provide light, the
lamps also enlighten and purify the mind. They are central
to Tibetan Buddhist religious practices and ceremonies, such
as the Monlam Prayer Festival. Butter lamps may be used for
meditation to help focus the mind.
The butter lamp’s flame and glow represents the pursuit
of enlightenment. The flickering of the lamp may also
be symbolic of the impermanence of things and life. The
darkness that comes with the extinguishing of the flame may
be symbolic of the challenges which all living things may face
and with which all may struggle.

The begging bowl or alms bowl (in Pali, patta; in Sanskrit

patra) is one of the most important objects in the daily lives
of Buddhist monks and nuns. As a practical vessel, it is used to
collect alms or offerings of food or money from lay supporters
and pilgrims. On a symbolic level, the begging bowl is
associated with the historical Buddha.
Therefore, the begging bowl is the primary symbol of the
life that Buddhist monks and nuns have chosen and of The
Buddha’s teachings on non attachment.
According to the Vinaya, monks may use bowls made of
either iron or clay, and of various sizes.

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 Buddhist Dress
Buddhist monks generally shave their heads and wear a robe whose colour
and components vary dependent on the specific school, nation, or region;
however, all trace their origins to the Buddhist robes that Buddha and his
disciples wore. Originally the robes of Buddhist monks were constructed of
discarded fabric. The pieces of fabric were then stitched together to form three
rectangular pieces of cloth. These three pieces of rectangular cloth were then
fitted over the monk’s body in a specific way. The three main pieces of cloth
that constituted the traditional Buddhist robe were called the antarvasa, the
uttarasanga, and the samghati. Together they form the “triple robe,” or ticivara.
The ticivara is described in some detail in the Theravada Vinaya. (The Learn
Religions website offers an article with colourful images and descriptions of
Buddhist monks’ robes in various countries and schools, see
www.learnreligions.com/the-buddhas-robe-p2-4123187.)
The name for the robes vary by school and by region, reflecting the languages
spoken by Buddhists in Asia. In the beginning, they were known as kasaya
in Sanskrit and kasva in Pali; however, with the spread of Buddhism to other
countries they became known by many other names, such as jiasha (Chinese),
kesa (Japan), gasa (Korean), ca-sa (Vietnamese), and chogo (Tibetan). Kasaya is
a general term that refers to all robes, including those depicted on Buddhist
statues and those worn by monks or nuns.
As stated earlier, the kasaya is traditionally made by the aspiring novice, nun,
or monk by stitching together fabric and discarded clothing offered by lay
people. In India, where the climate is warm and temperatures are generally
high, monks needed only one outer garment. However, in countries such as
Japan and China, where the climates are harsher and temperatures can be
much colder, other garments were needed and worn underneath the kesa.
Therefore, in Japan and China, kesa usually refers to the outermost robe, which
became a symbol of faith, an ornament, and not really to serve as protection
against the elements. Today, Buddhist robes may be brown/tan, orange, red,
maroon, grey, or black and comprised of more than three pieces of clothing.
Buddhist nuns also shave their heads and wear a robe which is usually brown,
maroon, white, grey, or pink.
Most lay Buddhists dress according to the customs and traditions of the
nations they live in and are indistinguishable from the majority. Nonetheless,
within some countries and traditions, lay people will dress in white as was the
custom in Buddha’s time. Visitors to Buddhist temples or monasteries should
dress and behave modestly, as is customary in any religious place or building.

Hats and Head Coverings

In addition to robes, especially in Tibet, some schools of Buddhism have
elaborate ceremonial hats or head coverings that monks, especially senior
monks or masters, will wear for special ceremonies and rituals. In Tibet, some

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 of the sects are known or distinguished by the colour of their hats or head
coverings. These include
Q Yellow hat: the Gelugpa sect
Q Red hat: the Nyingma, Sakya, and Kagyupa sects
Q Black hat: the Karma Kagyupa sect
In Japan, gasa—or traditional hats—were used by Zen monks. These vary in
shape and size.

Food, Drink, and Fasting

Within Buddhism there are differences of opinion on whether vegetarianism
is a requirement of Buddhist practice and, as such, practices vary between
schools and countries. Traditions vary over whether or not The Buddha
prohibited the eating of meat.
It is believed by most Buddhists that vegetarianism was not a part of the early
Buddhist tradition and The Buddha himself was not a vegetarian. The food
Buddha ate was offered as alms by the community or from being invited to the
houses of his followers and admirers. In either case, he ate what he was given.
Before his enlightenment he did experiment with various diets including a
meatless one; however, it is believed that he eventually abandoned them as he
did not find that they contributed to his spiritual development.
Over time, Buddhists began to feel uncomfortable about meat eating. By the
beginning of the common era, eating meat had become regally unacceptable,
particularly amongst the followers of Mahayana Buddhism, although it
remained a point of some controversy.
In contrast, Tantric (Vajrayana) text, dating from the seventh and eighth
centuries onward, frequently approved of both drinking alcohol and eating
meat and both were considered appropriate to offer to gods.
In contemporary times, many Mahayanists are vegetarian and many
Theravadins are not, although the situation is complex. Generally, Theravadins
have no dietary restrictions, but frequently monks and lay people in Sri Lanka
are strict vegetarians. Others avoid eating meat but will eat fish. Chinese and
Vietnamese monks and nuns are strict vegetarians and the lay community
is expected to follow their example but many do not. Tibetan and Japanese
Buddhists are rarely vegetarians.
Buddhists who insist on vegetarianism do so because the Buddhist code
of virtue includes compassion to animals. Thus, eating meat supports an
industry that causes cruelty and death to millions of animals. Such Buddhists
would argue that a truly compassionate person would wish to reduce all this
suffering by refusing to eat meat.

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 The argument that vegetarianism is not necessary is based on several points as
follows:
Q If The Buddha had believed that vegetarianism was a requirement of
Buddhist practice he would have said so explicitly, but he did not (at least in
the Pali Tipitaka).
Q Unless the individual is directly involved in killing the animal by eating
meat, they are not responsible for the animal’s death. They may point out
that in this sense the non-vegetarian is no different from the vegetarian. A
vegetarian is able to eat vegetables or fruit because the farmer has planted
and harvested the crops and in so doing may kill many creatures.
Q Although vegetarians may not eat meat, they may use numerous other
products that lead to or are the result of animals being killed (soap, leather,
serum, silk, etc.).
Q Cultivating virtuous qualities such as understanding, empathy, patience,
generosity, and honesty and bad qualities like ignorance, vanity, pride,
hypocrisy, jealousy, and indifference are not dependent on what one eats
and therefore diet is not a significant factor in the spiritual development of
the person.
Each person has to make up his or her own mind as to their position on
vegetarianism.
Monks and nuns in most schools of Buddhism, with the exception of
Mahayana Buddhism, will usually eat meat. A large part of this has to do with
the Buddha’s requirement that the Sangha, or monastic community, live off the
generosity of the lay people. For a member of the Sangha to refuse offerings of
meat, would be making it difficult for lay people to support them. With few
exceptions, monastics are not likely to refuse certain foods unless there are
good reasons for doing so. With respect to meat, they may refuse an offering
if they see, hear, or suspect the animal was killed specifically for them or if it
is a type of meat The Buddha forbade monks to accept, such as human or tiger
meat. As well, it would be considered rude to reject an offering of meat from a
faithful but poor family who had used their meagre resources to buy meat to
offer to a monk or nun, only to have their offering rejected.
In summary, many Buddhists are vegetarian, however, they generally do not
take offence at others eating meat.

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