Middle East
Middle East
• After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), Palestine was placed under a League of Nations (now UN)
mandate
• It was then placed under a British mandate to become a caretaker administration until they could goven
themselves
The problems started at the dawn of the 20th Century. The Jewish people were described as a 'Diaspora' which means a
people who were forced out of their homeland and spread all over the world.
More and more Jews wanted their own homeland in which to live. They believed that their homeland should be in
Palestine which was their 'Promised Land'. People who believed in this were called Zionists
However, the land was and had been inhabited by Palestinian Arabs for centuries and they believed that the Jews were
taking over their land. This led to riots and eventually led to Sectarian Violence, rather like what happened in India.
In response to this, the Jewish people set up the Haganah (MUST REMEMBER THIS) who were the Jewish Defense
Force. This is important as it later became the Israeli army.
After World War 2, the Jewish people and the Zionists gained a lot of sympathy from the West and support grew for the
idea of a Jewish homeland. As violence escalated due to clashes between Jews and Arabs and because of the Jewish
guerilla groups Stern and Irgun (again, important, they helped form Israeli army), the British pulled out and gave their
mandate back to the UN.
The UN tried to partition Palestine but was rejected by the Arabs. When the British pulled their troops out on May 14th,
1948, David Ben Gurion announced the state of Israel. On May 15th, 1948, the Arab neighbours attacked.
• Army was based on the experience of Haganah, Stern and Irgun and was well trained
The reasons for Israel's success and the Arab's defeats set a trend.
Arab Countries - Had to host Palestinian refugees -> humanitarian issue -> economic issue -> political issue. Led to
FEDAYEEN e.g Al Fatah. Launched attacks on Israel.
Embarassed by defeat -> Military coup in Egypt -> Nasser
3 Issues resulted - SECURITY, LAND, REFUGEES. Always present. Israel wanted Security, Arabs wanted Land
and to deal with Refugees. Key issues in conflict for Middle East.
Nasser became president of Egypt (mind the spelling) after the coup and he harboured the Fedayeen who then went on to
raid Israel. In addition, he started buying Russian weapons from Czechoslovakia which was a Warsaw Pact country (AKA
Soviet).
He also nationalised the Suez Canal which basically meant he took it over and therefore had control of what goes through
it. Nasser also blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba which was a major economic blockade as Israel used it as a trading port or in
other words, Israel lost a lot of money.
Causes/Aims
Israeli aims/causes - Egypt harboured the Fedayeen and blocked the Gulf of Aqaba. Allied with Britain and France as they
are big powers, more influence, bigger chance of success.
British and French aims/causes - Angry at Nasser because he nationalised the Suez Canal
Nasser had power to hold Europe at ransom by stopping flow of oil and trade.
Could be to reassert influence (France got its ass kicked in Word War 2 and Britain wouldnt have done much better
without the US), wanted to show that they could still do things on their own without depending on the US Only
interpretation, this is not fact
Course
Unique features of the war: Israel, France and Britain allied. Moche Dayan's tactics, had surprise.
Israel - Had element of surprise, used tanks and paratroopers, very mechanised and very rapid (For you geeks out there,
you could compare it to the Blitzkrieg tactics of WW2, remember back in year 9?). Remained in Sinai for 6 months. Had
good leadership - Dayan, good weapons, good training, well motivated.
Britain + France - Sent an ultimatum to Egypt and Israel to withdraw from Suez Canal. Armed forces landed near Port
Said, secured the Canal, airforce attacked the Egyptians. Forced to withdraw later due to international pressure, mainly
from US.
Arab Nations - Nasser refused the ultimatum, blocked the canal after British and French forces landed. Could not back
down because if he did, he would look like a weakling and probably be replaced in another coup. Also had to defend
Egyptian sovereignty and appease the Arab Nationalists. He was getting his ass kicked though until Britain and France
were forced to withdraw.
USA - Furious at being kept in the dark, forced UK and France to withdraw, crippled UK currency (So much for Britain and
France attempting to show independance from the US).
USSR - Threatened to support Egypt and attack UK and France and therefore lead to Cold War escalating to World War
3.
This war shows escalation at it's height, Superpowers and Colonial Powers all become involved in this regional conflict,
threat of escalating to World War 3.
Results
Britain + France - They were humiliated and chastened, set off the end of their empires.
US - Increased and consolidated it's influence. Eisenhower (President of US) doctrine - offered aid against Communism,
reserved the right to intervene. Sent $Billions of aid to Israel.
USSR - Increased and consolidated influence. Sent $Billions of aid to Egypt and Syria.
Israel (Winners) - UN sent to Sinai, created buffer zone against fedayeen, got Gulf of Aqaba opened. Israel achieved its
aims, greater security.
Arab Nations - Egypt 'lost Sinai' (UN basically took over it). But increase in prestige for Nasser in Arab World - seen as
having fought off France and UK even though he got his ass handed to him and only won due to international pressure.
Led to increase in Arab Nationalism -> Egyptian + Syrian union, long term threat to Israel, led to 6 Day war.
Context
The PLO was set up in 1964 and it started raiding Israel through bases in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan, all of which
bordered Israel. They did not have bases in Egypt because the UNEF had created a buffer zone in the Sinai.
Aims/Causes
Israel - Needed to retaliate against PLO. Also saw threat of Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian alliance. Launched a pre-
emptive strike for security.
Arab Nations - Nasser started making threats, deployed troops near Israel. Ordered UNEF to leave Egypt - allowed
Egyptians to fight Israel. Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait mobilised. Egypt better armed due to Soviet aid.
Course
In short, the Arabs got their asses kicked.
Israel - Moche Dayan's tactics, had surprise. Air force annihilated Arab air force. Complete control of the skies -> basically
bombed the Arab armies back to the stone age. Tanks, etc captured Sinai, Jerusalem and West Bank, Golan Heights.
Table on P20 of textbook, map on P22. Could reflect priorities, Egypt 1st. 300,000 Israeli troops vs 180,000 Arab troops,
proved conscription worked.
Effects
Israel:
• Gained Land for settlement - Jerusalem + W. Bank (religious and historical significance), led to more Arab and
Palestinian refugees
• Land for Security and Peace - Golan Heights and Sinai. Sinai provided buffer zone against Egyptian invasion,
Golan Heights provided defenses.
Also gained the Gaza Strip.
Superpowers - $Billions of aid to Israel from US, $Billions of aid to Arab Nations from USSR.
UN - Resolution 242 (P21 of text book) - Israel must give back land taken in 6 Day war. Arab Nations must recognise
Israel.
Context
The Arabs were humiliated in the 6 Day War, wanted vengence. Fights kept breaking out between Israel and Egypt.
Nasser died in 1970, Anwar Sadat took over as President and wanted to show that Israel was vulnerable. He could also
have wanted to have peace but first needed to gain the upper hand.
Causes/Aims
Arab Nations - Pre-emptive strike, revenge for 6 Day War. Sadat became new President, wanted to regain Israel and
negotiate peace (?), show Israel it was vulnerable.
Course
Israel - Complacent (?) but counter attacked, crossed Suez Canal and encircled Egyptian Army. Pushed back Syrians
from Golan Heights.
Arab Nations - Surprise attack on Yom Kippur (Jewish Religious Festival). Egypt advanced over the Suez Canal but went
too quickly, outran supplies. Syria attacked Golan Heights with massive forces. OPEC oil embargo on the West to stop
their support of Israel. Eventually got pushed back by Israel.
Superpowers - USA and USSR supplied weapons at first, then forced a ceasefire due to the period of 'Détente', real
prospects for peace, believed Cold War possibly going to end.
Consequences
Israel - Maintained control of Sinai but it was shocked, took heavy and disproportiante losses, could not sustain at the
rate.
Arab Nations - Proved Israel was vulnerable, led to boost in popularity of Sadat and led to Camp David agreements and
peace.
The PLO
Aim - To eliminate/destroy the state of Israel, reclaim land and for refugees to return to Palestine and for a Palestinian
State to be recognised. Unite all Palestinians and all their representative groups under one umbrella (Palestininans had
been scattered).
Methods:
• Mobilise and recruit, especially in refugee camps - refugees bitter, angry, disillusioned, desperate, hopeless
(lost homes, jobs, land, refugee camps = poor conditions, dependant on hosts).
• Armed struggle, - PLO = Paramilitary Guerillas. Policy at first was to provoke Israel into reprisals. Reprisals
would then lead to Crushing Arab Victory (yeah right)
PLO seen as going backwards, failing -> Increase in extremist and militant groups set up which led to increase in
frustration and impatience. They needed to grab attention and publicise their cause -> international targets rather than just
Israeli targets.
This led to events such as Dawson's Field, Jordan, 1970 . The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)
hijacked 4 planes and blew them up in front of the world's media after evacuating the passengers. Had shock factor and
contributed to the expulsion of the PLO (event embarrassed Jordan, the world saw Jordan as a terrorist nation).
Another example is the 1972 Munich Olympic massacre. Black September (a group named after the month the PLO
was expelled from Jordan) attacked and took hostage Israeli athletes participating in the Munich Olympics. At the end,
they killed a total of 11 athletes and 1 German police officer.
After being expelled from Jordan, the PLO set up their bases in Lebanon, particularly Southern Lebanon. Sheer number of
refugees and Palestinians changed the demographics of Lebanon (they basically flooded the country) and provoked
Israeli reprisals.
At first, in Lebanon, there was an equilibrium between Muslims and Christians. After the PLO arrived, it upset the
equilibrium and sparked off a civil war between Muslims and Christians.
Significance
1st Arab-Israeli peace treaty, ended the Israeli-Egyptian conflict. From hindsight, we can see that it withstood the test of
time. BUT it did not include Lebanon, Syria or Jordan AND it left the question of the Palestinians unaswered. Egypt seen
to have abandoned the Palestinians (Led to Sadat being assassinated). Despite claims that Israel would grant Gaza Strip
and West Bank self-government, nothing happened. Israeli settlements on the West Bank continued.
In the end, it partially solved the issue of security for Israel but the other 2 issues, land and refugees remained unsolved.
However, it did not end the wars, it only ended Egypt's involvement and the other Arab nations were still hostile.
Sorry about my notes on the War of Lebanon, theyre very brief since I did them myself for once and the teacher did not
elaborate very much on the War.
Israel- Wanted to destroy PLO bases in Lebanon. Saw oppurtunity to turn Lebanese Christians into allies (The old saying
"The enemy of my enemy is my friend"). Also, civil war in Lebanon meant that the border was porous (not secure) which
meant it would be easier for PLO to launch attacks. Issue of security.
Course
Israel - Invaded South Lebanon, defeated PLO and withdrew afterwords due to pressure from the US.
PLO - Defeated by Israel, retreated northwards.
Israel - Wanted to drive PLO out of Lebanon, attempted assassination of Israeli ambassador in London.
Course
Israel - Massive invasion, destroyed PLO forces and headed north. Surrounded and besieged Beirut (captial of Lebanon),
started shelling PLO held areas. Withdrew in 1985 due to US intervention.
PLO - Crushed by Israel, retreated to Beirut. After US intervention, they were expelled/exiled to Tunisia.
Why? - Frustration and anger with Arafat and PLO and Arab neighbours who seem to have failed Palestinian cause, they
were going backwards while Israel was going forwards.
Palestinians began passive resistance, however it escalated and grew more extreme because they werent going
anywhere. Started using guns.
Israeli army was at Gaza Strip policing the area, became target of Palestinians. Israelis retaliated by firing rubber bullets,
hit and killed some children because they were out in the front line of Palestinians.
Led to search for peace. PLO and Arafat: 1988, would recognise state of Israel in return for a state of Palestine. Could be
because of after 40/25 years of failure, better to get something than nothing. Intifada showed that they were losing
influence, needed to regain influence and initiative.
-> Conflict with radical Palestinian groups eg. Hezbollah (founded after 1985 Lebanon), Hamas, Islamic Jihad.
Complication in peace process: 1990 Gulf War, Saddam Hussein. USA led army in Iraq, freed Kuwait and withdrew.
Hussein possibly wanted to be Pan-Arab leader, Arafat may have believed that Hussein would unite Arabs and destroy
Israel. PLO supported Iraq but it backfired.
Israel 1992 election, labour party won, brought Yitzhak Rabin. Positive response to Arafat's new policy, wanted to stop
Intifada as young men died from years of conflict, also costed a lot of money to garrison units in the Gaza Strip.
Peace movement and international opinion affected Israel's outlook as it was a democracy. Internation context also
affected it, eg. South Africa and end of Apartheid, collapse of USSR - end of communism, took away backing of Arabs,
Arabs no longer a big threat. The context and the internation opinion influenced Clinton.
Rabin was former chief of staff in 6 Day war and defense minister, gives him credibility and allowed him to go forward with
the peace process.
Arafat
Wanted to re-establish authority and influence with Palestinians, also wanted to get something rather than nothing.
Frustration after 25-50 years of conflict, there was the unresolved issue of land and refugees.
Rabin
Wanted Peace with security. Cost (lives and money) of Intifada, Lebanon and continuous threat of war was growing,
wanted it to end.
Clinton
Facilitator/middleman, rather like Carter. Wanted to bring stability to strategic area (main source of oil). Wanted to reduce
the regional conflict and therefore the risk of escalation.
Also saw an oppurtunity - end of Cold War, USSR collapsed in 1990 and USSR too busy internally. Gave US free hand in
the Middle East. He also believed in conflict resolution.
Features
Process
1991 - Held in Madrid. USA, Israel, Jordan, Palestinians participated but no PLO. Exploratory talks (no serious demands,
just finding out about the other side) led to Israel stopping new settlements in West Bank and release of 800 Palestinians.
Israel possibly might not have believed Arafat's ability to police Palestinian groups, therefore willing to give PLO
something but not everything, put PLO on something like a probation, wanted to see if PLO could deliver.
END OF SYLLABUS