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Physics Digest
Physics Digest
Salient features :
1. A complete reference book on Physics XII (Part I) based on the Board’s new textbook.
2. M
odel answers to all the Textual Questions and additional questions that exhaustively cover every
concept in the textbook.
3. C
omplete answers to stimulating In-Text questions under the heads ‘Can you tell?’, ‘Use your brain
power’, etc.
4. Model solutions to all the Textual Problems.
5. A
dditional graded and varied solved numerical problems, supplemented by a large number of problems
for practice with answers that include important problems from NCERT textbook for reference.
6. A
nswers to all the Textual Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs), supplemented by adequate collection of
well-formulated MCQs helpful for Std. XII Board examination as well as other competitive examinations.
7. Neat, fully-labelled, authentic and easily-reproducible diagrams in two colours.
8. Formulae at a Glance and Memory Map for instant revision.
9. WWW links to authentic study material for interesting online learning.
10. V
ery useful book to understand the subject well and to prepare thoroughly for HSC Board Examination
as well as other competitive examinations like NEET, JEE MAIN, MHT-CET, etc.
By
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2
PREFACE
Dear Friends,
It gives us great pleasure to present you this first edition of Navneet Physics Digest (Part I) prepared
according to the new Textbook and the latest question paper pattern for Standard XII.
We understand that the Standard XII is very crucial in a student’s career. As always, Navneet Digests
will help you to triumph.
This Physics Digest contains model answers and solutions to all the questions and problems given in
the Board’s Textbook. There are also additional graded and varied questions with answers and solved
problems so as to cover every concept in the Textbook. Besides these, all the stimulating in-text
questions / informations under ‘ Can you tell ? ’, ‘ Do you know ? ’, ‘ Use your brain power ’, etc. are
included (with answers wherever necessary). In short, this Physics Digest contains a lucid exposition
of the syllabus in simple and clear language.
Wherever necessary, the answers have been illustrated with neat, accurate, easily reproducible
diagrams, labelled as per the evaluation guidelines. Each diagram is given in an attractive two-colour
style drawing your focus to its important feature(s).
Sufficient number of Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been given which will be useful for
Std. XII Board examination as well as other competitive examinations. A large number of well-graded
Problems for Practice with answers, Weblinks, Formulae at a Glance and Memory Map are also
given at the end of each chapter. You should use the Formulae at a Glance before attempting numerical
problems and multiple choice questions. Memory Map gives you the overview of a chapter. You should
use this for a systematic approach to your study as well as for effective revision.
The Internet my friend section include few links to authentic online study material, lectures,
demonstrations and simulations. Follow these WWW links for a better understanding of the subject
and additional knowledge that will serve you in good stead for any entrance examination.
We have taken utmost care to see that this Digest proves to be very useful to the students as well as
the teachers. Suggestions for improvement of the Digest are always welcome and will be gratefully
acknowledged and appreciated.
We hope this Digest with all its important features will help you to secure a high percentage of marks
in the coming examination. We wish you all the best.
– The Publishers
3
CONTENTS
Page No.
1. Rotational Dynamics … 5
4. Thermodynamics … 199
5. Oscillations … 234
4
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS Ravi
FINAL
1 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Exercises Page No.
1.1 Introduction … 5
1.2 Characteristics of circular motion … 5
1.2.1 Kinematics of circular motion … 5
1.2.2 Dynamics of circular motion : Centripetal force and centrifugal force … 14
1.3 Applications of uniform circular motion … 17
1.3.1 Vehicle along a horizontal circular track … 17
1.3.2 Well of death … 17
1.3.3 Vehicle along a banked circular track … 17
1.3.4 Conical pendulum … 29
1.4 Vertical circular motion in Earth’s gravity … 32
1.4.1 Point mass undergoing vertical circular motion in Earth’s gravity … 32
1.4.2 Sphere (globe) of death … 32
1.4.3 Vehicle on a convex bridge … 32
1.5 Moment of a inertia (MI), Kinetic energy of a rotating body … 42
1.5.1 MI of a uniform ring … 45
1.5.2 MI of a uniform disc … 45
1.6 Radius of gyration … 45
1.7 Theorems of parallel axis and perpendicular axes … 45
1.8 Angular momentum … 61
1.8.1 Expression for angular momentum (in terms of MI) … 61
1.9 Expression for torque (in terms of MI) … 63
1.10 Conservation of angular momentum … 66
1.11 Rolling motion … 71
1.11.1 Linear acceleration and speed of a body rolling down an inclined plane … 71
Multiple Choice Questions … 78
Problems for Practice … 81
Formulae at a Glance … 86
Memory map … 90
Internet my friend … 91
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 5
; Ravi
equal to the radius of the circle. However, its direction Infinitesimal angular displacement in an in- FINAL
changes as the position of the particle changes along the finitesimal time interval t;0, is given a direction
circumference.] ■
perpendicular to the plane of revolution by the right
Q. 3. What is the difference between rotation and hand thumb rule. ■
revolution ? (1 mark)
Q. 6. Explain angular velocity. State the right hand
Ans. There is no physical difference between them. It is
thumb rule for the direction of angular velocity.
just a question of usage. Circular motion of a body
(2 marks)
about an axis passing through the body is called
Ans. Angular velocity : The time rate of angular dis-
rotation. Circular motion of a body around an axis
placement of a particle performing circular motion
outside the body is called revolution. ■
is called the angular velocity.
Q. 4. State the characteristics of circular motion.
;
(2 marks) (i) If the particle has an angular displacement
Ans.
in a short time interval t, its angular velocity
(1) It is an accelerated motion : As the direction of ; ;
; d
velocity changes at every instant, it is an accelera- : lim :
t ; 0 t dt
ted motion.
;
(2) It is a periodic motion : During the motion, the (ii) is a vector along the axis of rotation, in the
;
particle repeats its path along the same trajectory. direction of d , given by the right hand thumb
Thus, the motion is periodic. ■ rule.
Q. 5. Explain angular displacement in circular motion.
Right hand thumb rule : If the fingers of the right
(2 marks)
hand are curled in the sense of revolution of the
Ans. The change in the angular position of a particle
particle (Fig. 1.2), then the outstretched thumb gives
performing circular motion with respect to a refer-
the direction of the angular displacement.
ence line in the plane of motion of the particle and
passing through the centre of the circle is called the
angular displacement.
; d
[Note : Angular speed, : : is also called
dt
angular frequency.] ■
As the particle moves in its circular path, its circular motion. (2 marks)
angular position changes, say from at time t to Ans. Consider a particle performing circular motion in
at a short time t later, Fig. 1.1. In the interval t, the an anticlockwise sense, along a circle of radius r.
;
position vector r sweeps out an angle : 9 . In a very small time interval t, the particle moves
is the magnitude of the change in the angular from point A to point B through a distance s and
position of the particle. its angular position changes by .
perpendicular, so that in magnitude v:r. ■ Q. 13. If the angular speed of a particle in UCM is 20
Q. 9. Define uniform circular motion (UCM). (1 mark) rad/s, what is the period of UCM of the particle ?
motion if it moves in a circle or a circular arc at Ans. The period of UCM of the particle,
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 7
; Ravi
Q. 14. Why is UCM called a periodic motion ? (1 mark) If is the constant angular velocity of the FINAL
Ans. In a uniform motion, a particle covers equal distan- particle and r is the radius of the circle,
ces in equal intervals of time. Any motion which ; ;
a r : 9r
repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called ;
where : and the minus sign shows that the
a periodic motion. In a uniform circular motion ;
direction of a r is at every instant opposite to that of
(UCM), the particle takes the same time to complete ;
the radius vector r . In magnitude,
each revolution, a distance equal to the circum-
v
ference of the circle. Therefore, it is a periodic ar :r: :v
r
motion. ■
[Note : The word centripetal comes from Latin for
Q. 15. Give one example of uniform circular motion.
‘centre-seeking’.] ■
(1 mark)
Q. 18. Draw a diagram showing the linear velocity,
Ans.
angular velocity and radial acceleration of a
(1) Circular motion of every particle of the blades of a
fan or the dryer drum of a washing machine when particle performing circular motion with radius r.
short time interval t, the angular acceleration is (a) increasing (b) decreasing
; ;
; d The linear acceleration that produces a change only
: lim : ;
t ; 0 t dt in the linear speed must be along v . Hence, it is
; ; ;
(ii) The direction of is the same as that of d . called the tangential acceleration, at . In magnitude,
;
We consider the case where a change in at : dv/dt
arises due to a change in its magnitude only. If ;
(ii) If the linear speed v of the particle is increasing, at
the particle is speeding up, i.e., is increasing ; ;
; ; is in the direction of v . If v is decreasing, at is
with time, then is in the direction of . If the ;
directed opposite to v (Fig. 1.6). ■
particle is slowing down, i.e., is decreasing
; ; Q. 25. Obtain the relation between the magnitudes of
with time, then is directed opposite to .
the linear (tangential) acceleration and angular
acceleration in nonuniform circular motion.
(2 marks)
Ans. Consider a particle moving along a circular path of
constant radius r. If the particle is speeding up or
slowing down, its motion is nonuniform, and its
angular speed and linear speed v both change
with time. At any instant, v, and r are related by
; ;
Fig. 1.5 : Angular acceleration when is v:r
(a) increasing (b) decreasing The angular acceleration of the particle is
(iii) If the angular speed changes from to in d
:
time t, the magnitude () of the average angu- dt
lar acceleration is ;
The tangential acceleration at is the linear accele-
–
: ■ ration that produces a change in the linear speed of
t
the particle and is tangent to the circle. In magnitude,
Q. 24. Explain the tangential acceleration of a particle
in nonuniform circular motion. (3 marks) dv d d
at : : (r) : r (B r is a constant)
dt dt dt
Ans. Tangential acceleration : For a particle performing
at : r
circular motion, the linear acceleration tangential to
This is the required relation. ■
the path that produces a change in the linear speed
of the particle is called the tangential acceleration. Q. 26. Obtain an expression for the acceleration of a
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 9
linear acceleration of a particle performing non- ; ; ; Ravi
a :at ;ar … (6) FINAL
uniform circular motion. OR This is the required expression. ■
; ; ;
In circular motion, assuming v : ;r , obtain
Q. 27. What is the angle between linear acceleration
an expression for the resultant acceleration of a
and angular acceleration of a particle in nonuni-
particle in terms of tangential and radial compo-
form circular motion ? (1 mark)
nents. (2 marks)
Ans. In a nonuniform circular motion, the angular accel-
Ans. Consider a particle moving along a circular path of
eration is an axial vector, perpendicular to the plane
constant radius r. If its motion is nonuniform, then
of the motion. The linear acceleration is in the plane
its angular speed and linear speed v both change
of the motion. Hence, the angle between them is 90°.
with time.
■
Therefore, in general, the particle has both angular
; Q. 28. What are the differences between a non-
; d ;
acceleration : and tangential acceleration at . uniform circular motion and a uniform circular
dt
; ; motion? (Two points of distinction) Give examples.
has the direction of d , which is in the direction
; ; (3 marks)
of if is increasing and opposite to if is Ans.
decreasing. (i) Nonuniform circular motion :
;
At any instant, the linear velocity v , angular (1) The angular and tangential accelerations are
; ;
velocity and radius vector r are related by non-zero, so that linear and angular speeds both
; ; ; change with time.
v : ;r … (1) ; ;
; d ; dv ; ;
The linear acceleration of the particle is : and at : : ;r
dt dt
;
; dv If a particle in nonuniform circular motion is
a : … (2) ; ; ;
dt speeding up, is in the direction of and at is
; ; ;
; d ; ; d ; ; dr in the direction of v ; if the particle is slowing
a : ( ;r ): ;r ; ; ; ; ;
dt dt dt down, is opposite to and at is opposite
;
; to v .
; ; ; ; dr ;
: ;r ; ;v
B
dt
:v
… (3) (2) The net linear acceleration, being the resultant
; ; of the radial and tangential accelerations, is not
;r is tangential to the circular path and is in the ; ; ;
; ; ; radial. a :ac ;at
direction of v if is in the direction of , and it is
(3) The magnitudes of the centripetal acceleration
; ; ; ; ;
opposite to v if is opposite to . Thus, ;r is and the centripetal force are not constant.
;
the tangential acceleration, at . (4) Example : Motion of the tip of a fan blade when
; ; ;
at : ;r … (4) the fan is speeding up or slowing down.
In magnitude, at :r (ii) Uniform circular motion :
; ; (1) The angular and tangential accelerations are
since is perpendicular to r .
; ; zero, so that linear speed and angular velocity
Also, ;v is along the radius towards the centre
; ; are constant.
of the circle, i.e., opposite to r , i.e., along 9r ; this
(2) The net linear acceleration is radially inward, i.e.,
acceleration is called the radial or centripetal acce-
; centripetal.
leration ar .
(3) The magnitudes of the centripetal acceleration
; ; ;
ar : ;v … (5) and the centripetal force are also constant.
In magnitude, ar : v (4) Example : Motion of the tips of the hands of a
; ;
since is perpendicular to v . mechanical clock. ■
Solved Problems 1.2.1 [Radius of the Earth :6400 km, g:9.8 m/s]
(2 marks)
Q. 30. Solve the following : Solution :
(1) Certain stars are believed to be rotating at about Data : Radius of the Earth:r:6400 km
1 rot/s. If such a star has a diameter of 40 km, what :6.4;10 m, g:9.8 m/s
is the linear speed of a point on the equator of the As the Earth rotates, the bodies on the equator
star ? (2 marks) revolve in circles of radius r.
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 11
These bodies would not feel any weight if their (7) A motor part at a distance of 1.5 m from the Ravi
FINAL
centripetal acceleration (r) is equal to the acceler- motor’s axis of rotation has a constant angular
ation due to gravity (g). acceleration of 0.25 rad/s. Find the magnitude
r:g of its linear acceleration at the instant when its
The angular speed of the Earth’s rotation, angular speed is 0.5 rad/s. (3 marks)
Solution :
g 9.8
: : :1.237;109 rad/s Data : r:1.5 m, :0.25 rad/s, :0.5 rad/s
r 6.4;10
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ar :r:(0.5)(1.5):0.25;1.5:0.375 m/s
(5) To simulate the acceleration of large rockets, at :r:0.25;1.5:0.375 m/s
astronauts are seated in a chamber and revolved in The linear acceleration,
a circle of radius 9.8 m. What angular speed is a:(ar ;at :((0.375);(0.375)
required to generate a centripetal acceleration
:(2 (0.375):(28.12;10\
8 times the acceleration due to gravity ?
:0.5303 m/s
[g : 9.8 m/s] (2 marks) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solution : (8) A coin is placed on a stationary disc at a distance
Data : r:9.8 m, g:9.8 m/s, a : 8g of 1 m from the disc’s centre. At time t:0 s, the
Centripetal acceleration : r disc begins to rotate with a constant angular
r : 8 g acceleration of 2 rad/s around a fixed vertical axis
9.8 : 8(9.8) through its centre and perpendicular to its plane.
: 8 Find the magnitude of the linear acceleration of
The required angular speed, the coin at t:1.5 s. Assume the coin does not slip.
(3 marks)
: (8 : 2 (2 : 2.828 rad/s
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Solution :
(6) The angular position of a rotating object is given Data : r:1 m, :2 rad/s, :0, t:1.5 s
by (t):(1.55t97.75 t;2.87) rad, where t is at :r:(2)(1):2 m/s
measured in second. (i) When is the object mo- Angular speed at t:1.5 s,
mentarily at rest ? (ii) What is the magnitude of its :o ;t:0;(2)(1.5):3 rad/s
angular acceleration at that time ? (3 marks) ar :r:(3)(1):9 m/s
Solution : The required linear acceleration is,
(t):(1.55t97.75t;2.87) rad a:(ar ;at :(9;2:(85
The angular speed of the object as a function :9.22 m/s
of time is [OR v:u;at t:0;(2)(1.5):3 m/s
d d v 3
(t): : (1.55t97.75t;2.87) ar : : :9 m/s]
dt dt r 1
:2 (1.55t)97.75 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
acceleration and the radial acceleration, (12) A wheel of diameter 40 cm starts from rest and
60
:960 rad
Data : f : 60 rpm : rev/s : 1 rev/s,
60 OR
180 Using non SI units, the final angular frequency
f :180 rpm: rev/s:3 rev/s, t:20 s
60 :240 rpm.
The angular acceleration in SI units, 9 24090
: : :60 rev/min
– 2f – 2f 2(3) – 2(1) t 4
: : :
t t 20 1 1
: t: (60)(4):480 rev
2 2
4 3.14
: : : : 0.628 rad/s ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20 5 5
(13) A flywheel slows down uniformly from 1200 rpm
OR
to 600 rpm in 5 s. Find the number of revolutions
Using non SI units, the angular frequencies are
made by the wheel in 5 s. (2 marks)
:60 rpm:1 rps and :180 rpm:3 rps.
Solution :
9 391 1
: : : :0.1 rev/s. Data : o :1200 rpm, :600 rpm, t:5 s
t 20 10
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Since the flywheel slows down uniformly, its
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 13
angular acceleration is constant. Then, its average Ravi
Unit FINAL
angular speed, 1.2.2 Dynamics of circular motion : Centripetal
o ; 1200;600 force and centrifugal force
av : :
2 2
Q. 31. Define and explain centripetal force. (2 marks)
900 rev
:900 rpm: :15 rps Ans. Definition : In the uniform circular motion of a
60 s
particle, the centripetal force is the force on the
Its angular displacement in time t,
particle which at every instant points radially to-
:av ·t:15;5:75 revolutions wards the centre of the circle and produces the
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
centripetal acceleration to move the particle in its
★ (14) An ant is stuck to the rim of a bicycle wheel of
circular path.
diameter 1 m. While the bicycle is on a central
Explanation : A uniform circular motion is an
stand, the wheel is set into rotation and it attains accelerated motion, with a radially inward (i.e.,
the frequency of 2 rev/s in 10 seconds, with v ; ;
centripetal) acceleration 9 rı or 9 r , where r
uniform angular acceleration. Calculate (i) the r
number of revolutions completed by the ant in is the radius vector and rı is a unit vector in the
;
these 10 seconds (2 marks) (ii) the time taken by direction of r . Hence, a net real force must act on
it for first complete revolution and the last com- the particle to produce this acceleration. This force,
which at every instant must point radially towards
plete revolution. (3 marks)
the centre of the circle, is called the centripetal force.
Solution :
If m is the mass of the particle, the centripetal force
Data : r:0.5 m, o :0, :2 rps, t:10 s mv ;
is 9 rı or 9m r .
(i) Angular acceleration () being constant, the r
average angular speed, [ Notes : (1) As viewed from an inertial frame of refer-
ence, the centripetal force is necessary and sufficient for
; 0;2
av : o : :1 rps the particle to perform UCM. At any instant, if the
2 2 centripetal force suddenly vanishes, the particle would
The angular displacement of the wheel in fly off in the direction of its linear velocity at that instant.
time t, (2) In case the angular or linear speed changes with time,
as in nonuniform circular motion, the force is not purely
:av · t:1;10:10 revolutions centripetal but has a tangential component which
9o 290 1 accounts for the tangential acceleration.] ■
(ii) : : : rev/s
t 10 5 Q. 32. Give any two examples of centripetal force.
1 1 (1 mark)
:o t; t : t (B o :0)
2 2 Ans. Examples of centripetal force :
For :1 rev, (1) For an Earth-satellite in a circular orbit, the centri-
petal force is the gravitational force exerted by the
1 1
1: t Earth on the satellite.
2 5
(2) In the Bohr atom, the centripetal force on an elec-
t :10
tron in circular orbit around the nucleus is the
t :(10 s:3.162 s
attractive Coulomb force of the nucleus.
t
For :9 rev, 9:
1 1 (3) When an object tied at the end of a string is revolved
2 5
in a horizontal circle, the centripetal force is the
t :90 tension in the string.
t :(90:3(10:3(3.162):9.486 s (4) When a car takes a turn in a circular arc on a
horizontal road with constant speed, the force of
The time for the last, i.e., the 10th, revolution is
static friction between the car tyres and road surfa-
t9t :1099.486:0.514 s ■
ces is the centripetal force.
forces on an object. Rather, a mechanical force (like outward, force acting on the particle. Since the
tension) or gravitational force or Coulomb force particle is stationary in its reference frame, the
provides the centripetal force. In some cases, more magnitude of the centrifugal force is mv/r or mr,
than one real force act on an object and a compo- the same as that of the centripetal force on the
nent of their resultant is in the radial direction; particle.
centripetal is just a term describing the direction of [Note : The word ‘centrifugal’ comes from the Latin
this component. for ‘fleeing from the centre’. The word has the same root
; fuge from the Latin ‘to flee’ as does refugee. ] ■
(2) At every instant, the centripetal force Fc is perpen-
; Q. 34. Give any two examples of centrifugal force.
dicular to the linear (or tangential) velocity v (see
; ; (1 mark)
the figure below), when the dot product Fc · v
Ans. Examples of centrifugal force :
(which is the power, or the time rate of doing work)
is zero. Hence, the centripetal force produces a (1) A person in a merry-go-round experiences a
Ans. Definition : In the reference frame of a particle Q. 36. Explain why centrifugal force is called a pseudo
performing circular motion, centrifugal force is force. (1 mark)
defined as a fictitious, radially outward force on the Ans. A force which arises from gravitational, electro-
particle and is equal in magnitude to the particle’s magnetic or nuclear interaction between matter is
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 15
called a real force. The centrifugal force does not (2) A certain string 500 cm long breaks under a Ravi
FINAL
arise due to any of these interactions. Therefore, it is tension of 45 kg wt. An object of mass 100 g is
not a real force. attached to this string and whirled in a horizontal
The centrifugal force in the noninertial frame of circle. Find the maximum number of revolutions
reference of a particle in circular motion is the effect that the object can make per second without
of the acceleration of the frame of reference. There- breaking the string. [g : 9.8 m/s] (2 marks)
fore, it is called a pseudo or fictitious force. ■ Solution :
Data : m : 100 g : 0.1 kg, r : 500 cm : 5 m,
Q. 37. Distinguish between centripetal force and
centrifugal force. State any two points of g:9.8 m/s, F : 45 kg wt : 45 ; 9.8 N
25 5
f min, 1 : : rps
2 (2
The coin will start slipping when the frequency is
5
rps
(2
1
From Eq. (1), f min . Fig. 1.7 : A car taking a circular turn on a level road
r
since s and g are constant. Then, the maximum safe speed vmax with which the
fmin, 2 r car can take the turn without skidding off is set by
: :
fmin, 1 r 8 maximum centripetal force : limiting force of
static friction
fmin, 2 : f
8 min, 1 mvmax
: smg or vmax :r sg
r
The minimum frequency in the second case will
vmax : (r s g
be times that in the first case.
8 This is the required expression.
[ Note : The answers given in the textbook are for Significance : The above expression shows that
r :2 cm.] ■ the maximum safe speed depends critically upon
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 17
friction which changes with circumstances, e.g., the between the left and right wheels called the track Ravi
FINAL
nature of the surfaces and presence of oil or water width.
on the road. If the friction is not sufficient to provide
the necessary centripetal force, the vehicle is likely
to skid off the road.
[ Note : At a circular bend on a level railway track, the
centrifugal tendency of the railway carriages causes the
flange of the outer wheels to brush against the outer rail
and exert an outward thrust on the rail. Then, the reaction
of the outer rail on the wheel flange provides the necess-
ary centripetal force.] ■
Do you know ?
(Textbook page 4)
1. When a car takes a turn along a level road, apart
from the risk of skidding off outward, it also has a
tendency to roll outward due to an outward torque
about the centre of gravity due to the friction force.
See Fig. 1.8 in Q. 40.
2. If a bicyclist taking a turn along an unbanked road Fig. 1.8 : Rolling tendency of a vehicle negotiating a bend
on a level road
does not lean inward, an unbalanced outward
;
torque about the centre of gravity due to the friction The friction force fs on the wheels produces a
force will topple the bicyclist outward. The bicyclist torque t that tends to overturn/rollover the car
must lean inward to counteract this torque (and not about the outer wheel [Fig. 1.8 (b)]. Rotation about
to generate a centripetal force). the front-to-back axis is called roll.
mv
Q. 40. Derive an expression for the maximum safe t :fs ·h: h … (2)
r
speed for a vehicle on a circular horizontal road
When the inner wheel just gets lifted above the
without toppling/overturning/rollover. (3 marks) ;
ground, the normal reaction N of the road acts on
Ans. Consider a car of mass m taking a turn of radius r
the outer wheels but the weight continues to act at
along a level road. As seen from an inertial frame of
the C.G. Then, the couple formed by the normal
reference, the forces acting on the car are :
; reaction and the weight produces a opposite torque
(1) the lateral limiting force of static friction fs on the
r which tends to restore the car back on all four
wheels – acting along the axis of the wheels
wheels [Fig. 1.8 (b)]
and towards the centre of the circular path –
b
which provides the necessary centripetal force r :mg · … (3)
2
[Fig. 1.8 (a)],
; The car does not topple as long as the restoring
(2) the weight mg acting vertically downwards at the
torque r counterbalances the toppling torque t .
centre of gravity (C.G.)
; Thus, to avoid the risk of rollover, the maximum
(3) the normal reaction N of the road on the wheels,
speed that the car can have is given by
acting vertically upwards effectively at the C.G.
r h:mg · 2
Since maximum centripetal force:limiting force of mv b rbg
vmax : … (4)
static friction, 2h
with larger track width and lower centre of gravity. v
:tan\
■
gr
fs b a b
i.e., if or r
mg 2h g 2h
b
or s ( B fs : sN: smg )
2h
b
The vehicle parameter ratio, , is called the static
2h
stability factor (SSF). Thus, the risk of a rollover is
low if SSF s. A vehicle will most likely skid out
rather than roll if s is too low, as on a wet or icy
road.
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 19
Ravi
geometric centre of a vehicle and the wheelbase vertical position. This improves the cornering FINAL
(i.e., the distance L between its front and rear behavior of the car. Improperly inflated and worn
wheels) affects the weight distribution of the tyres can be especially dangerous because they
vehicle. When a vehicle is not accelerating, the inhibit the ability to maintain vehicle control.
normal reactions on each pair of front and rear Worn tires may cause the vehicle to slide
wheels are, respectively, sideways on wet or slippery pavement, sliding
dr d the vehicle off the road and increasing its risk of
Nf : mg and Nr : f mg
L L rolling over.
where dr and df are the distances of the rear and (vi) What is the recommendation for this?
front axles from the C.G. [When a vehicle acceler- Because of uneven wear of the tyre shoulders,
ates, additional torque acts on the axles and the tyres should be rotated every 10000 km-12000 km.
normal reactions on the wheels change. So, as is To avoid skidding, rollover and tyre-wear, the
common experience, a car pitches back (i.e., rear force of friction should not be relied upon to
sinks and front rises) when it accelerates, and a provide the necessary centripetal force during
car pitches ahead (i.e., front noses down). Rota- cornering. Instead, the road surface at a bend
tion about the lateral axis is called pitch.] should be banked, i.e., tilted inward.
vehicle for not toppling easily? (vii) Determine the angle to be made with the verti-
Overloading (or improper load distribution) or cal by a two-wheeler while turning on a hori-
centre of gravity, and increases the vehicle’s likeli- Refer to the answer to Q. 41.
hood of rolling over. A roof rack should be fitted (viii) We have mentioned about ‘static friction’
by considering weight limits. between road and tyres. Why is it static fric-
Road accidents involving rollovers show that tion? What about kinetic friction between road
and tyres?
vehicles with higher h (such as SUVs, pickup vans
When a car takes a turn on a level road, the point
and trucks) topple more easily than cars. Untrip-
of contact of the wheel with the surface is
ped rollovers normally occur when a top-heavy
instantaneously stationary if there is no slipping.
vehicle attempts to perform a panic maneuver
Hence, the lateral force on the car is the limiting
that it physically cannot handle.
force of static friction between the tyres and
(iv) If a vehicle topples while turning, which wheels
road. Lateral forces allow the car to turn. As long
leave the contact with the road? Why?
as the wheels are rolling, there is lateral force of
Inner wheels. Refer to the answer to Q. 40.
static friction and longitudinal force of rolling
(v) How does [tendency to] toppling affect the friction. Longtitudinal forces, which act in the
tyres? direction of motion of the car body (or in the
While turning, shear stress acts on the tyre-road exact opposite direction), control the acceler-
contact area. Due to this, the treads and side wall ation or deceleration of the car and therefore the
of a tyre deform. Apart from less control, this speed of the car. These are the wheel force,
contributes to increased and uneven wear of the rolling friction, braking force and air drag. If the
shoulder of the tyres. car skids, the friction force is kinetic friction;
Each wheel is placed under a small inward angle more importantly, the direction of the friction
(called camber) in the vertical plane. Under severe force then changes abruptly from lateral to that
lateral acceleration, when the car rolls, the camber opposite the velocity of skidding and not to-
angle ensures the complete contact area is in wards the centre of the curve, so that the car
contact with the road and the wheels are now in cannot continue in its curved path.
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 21
; Ravi
on the road. If the friction is inadequate, a speeding (b) the normal reaction of the road N , perpendicu- FINAL
car may skid off the road. Since the friction changes lar to the road surface
;
with circumstances, it cannot be relied upon to (c) the frictional force fs along the inclined surface
provide the necessary centripetal force. Moreover, of the road.
friction results in fast wear and tear of the tyres. At the optimum speed, frictional force is not relied
To avoid the risk of skidding as well as to reduce the upon to contribute to the necessary lateral centri-
; ;
wear and tear of the car tyres, the road surface at a bend is petal force. Thus, ignoring fs , resolve N into two
tilted inward, i.e., the outer side of the road is raised perpendicular components : N cos vertically up
above its inner side. This is called banking of road. On and N sin horizontally towards the centre of the
a banked road, the resultant of the normal reaction circular path. Since there is no acceleration in the
and the gravitational force can act as the necessary vertical direction, N cos balances mg and N sin
centripetal force. Thus, every car can be safely provides the necessary centripetal force.
driven on such a banked curve at certain optimum
speed, without depending on friction. Hence, a
road should be properly banked at a bend.
The angle of banking is the angle of inclination
of the surface of a banked road at a bend with the
horizontal. ■
vo vo
rg
and without straining the tyres. ■
tan : or :tan\ … (3)
rg
Q. 45. A road at a bend should be banked for an
optimum or most safe speed vo. Derive an express- Equation (3) gives the expression for the required
ion for the required angle of banking. OR angle of banking. From Eq. (3), we can see that
Obtain an expression for the optimum or most depends upon vo , r and g. The angle of banking is
safe speed with which a vehicle can be driven independent of the mass of a vehicle negotiating the
along a curved banked road. Hence show that the curve. Also, for a given r and , the recommended
Ans. Consider a car taking a left turn along a road of Q. 46. State any two factors on which the most safe
radius r banked at an angle for a designed speed of a car in motion along a banked road
optimum or most safe speed vo . Let m be the mass depends. (1 mark)
of the car. In general, the forces acting on the car are Ans. The angle of banking of the road and the radius of
;
(a) its weight mg , acting vertically down the curved path. ■
Q. 48. A banked circular road is designed for traffic and mg:N cos ;fs sin
moving at an optimum or most safe speed vo. :N (cos ; s sin ) … (2)
Obtain an expression for (a) the minimum safe Dividing Eq. (1) by Eq. (2),
speed (b) the maximum safe speed with which a
vmin sin 9 s cos tan 9 s
vehicle can negotiate the curve without skidding. : :
rg cos ; s sin 1; s tan
(4 marks each)
rg (tan 9 s)
Ans. Consider a car taking a left turn along a road of vmin : … (3)
1; s tan
radius r banked at an angle for a designed
optimum speed v. Let m be the mass of the car. In For tan s (as on most rough roads),
general, the forces acting on the car are vmin :0 (i.e., a car can be brought to a halt without
;
(a) its weight mg , acting vertically down sliding down).
;
(b) the normal reaction of the road N , perpendicu- (b) For maximum safe speed : If the car is driven fast
lar to the road surface enough, at a speed greater than the optimum
; ;
(c) the frictional force fs along the inclined surface speed v, it may skid off up the incline so that fs is
of the road. down the incline, Fig. 1.13.
If s is the coefficient of static friction between the
tyres and road, fs : sN.
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 23
centre of the circular path. So long as the car takes Ravi
to allow for ‘sight distance’ and ‘driver comfort’. To FINAL
the turn without skidding off, the horizontal
consider the motorist driving within the innermost
components N sin and fs cos together provide
travel lane, the radius used to design horizontal
the necessary centripetal force, and N cos balances
curves should be measured to the inside edge of the
the sum mg;fs sin . If vmax is the maximum safe
innermost travel lane, particularly for wide road-
speed without skidding,
ways with sharp horizontal curvature.
mvmax
:N sin ;fs cos A civil engineer refers to banking as superelevation
r
:N sin ; s N cos e; e:tan . IRC fixes emax :0.07 for a non-urban road
:N (sin ; s cos ) … (4) and the coefficient of lateral static friction, :0.15,
and N cos :mg;fs sin the friction between the vehicle tyres and the road
:mg; s N sin being incredibly variable. Ignoring the product e ,
mg:N (cos 9 s sin ) … (5) from Eq. (6) in Q. 48.
Dividing Eq. (4) by Eq. (5), v
e; : (where both v and r are in SI units)
gr
mvmax/r N (sin ; s cos )
: V
mg N (cos 9 s sin ) : (where V is in km/h and r is in metre)
127r
vmax sin ; s cos tan ; s … (1)
: :
rg cos 9 s sin 19 s tan
The sequence of design usually goes like this :
rg (tan ; s) 1. Knowing the design speed V and radius r, calcu-
vmax : … (6)
19 s tan late the superelevation for 75% of design speed
For 1 – s tan :0, i.e., :cot , vmax :-. (0.75 V) V
s ignoring friction : e: : .
127 r 225 r
Ignoring few special cases, the maximum value of
2. If e 0.07, consider this calculated value of e in
s :1. Thus, for 45°, vmax :-, i.e., on a heavily
subsequent calculations. If e 0.07, then take
banked road a car is unlikely to skid up the incline
e:emax :0.07.
and the minimum limit is more important. ■
3. Use Eq. (1) above to check the value of for
Use your brain power emax :0.07 at the full value of the design speed V :
(Textbook page 6) V
As a civil engineer, you are to construct a curved road : 90.07.
127 r
in a ghat. In order to calculate the banking angle , If 0.15, then e:0.07 is safe. Otherwise, calcu-
you need to decide the speed limit. How will you late the allowable speed Va as in step 4.
decide the values of speed and radius of curvature at V a
4. :e; :0.07;0.15
the bend ? 127 r
For Indian roads, Indian Road Congress (IRC), If Va V, then the design speed V is adequate.
[IRC-73-1980, Table 2, p.4], specifies the design If Va V, then speed is limited to Va with
speed depending on the classification of roads (such appropriate warning sign.
as national and state highways, district roads and
village roads) and terrain. It is the basic design
Use your brain power
parameter which determines further geometric (Textbook page 7)
design features. For the radius of curvature at a bend, If friction is zero, can a vehicle move on the road ?
IRC [ibid., Table 16, p.24] specifies the absolute Why are we not considering the friction in deriving
minimum values based on the minimum design the expression for the banking angle ?
speed. However, on new roads, curves should be Friction is necessary for any form of locomotion.
designed to have the largest practicable radius, Without friction, a vehicle cannot move.
generally more than the minimum values specified, The banking angle for a road at a bend is calculated
Q. 49. Solve the following : without skidding is 7 m/s. When the road is wet,
the frictional force between the tyres and road
(1) Find the maximum speed with which a car can be
reduces by 25%. How fast can the car safely take
safely driven along a curve of radius 100 m, if the
the turn on the wet road ? (2 marks)
coefficient of friction between its tyres and the
Solution : Let subscripts 1 and 2 denote the values of
road is 0.2 [g:9.8 m/s]. (2 marks)
a quantity under dry and wet conditions, respect-
Solution :
ively.
Data : r : 100 m, s : 0.2, g : 9.8 m/s
Data : v :7 m/s, f :f 90.25 f :0.75 f
The maximum speed, v:(r s g On a dry horizontal curved road, the frictional
:(100;0.2;9.8:14 m/s force between the tyres and road is f : mg,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ where m is the mass of the car and g is the
(2) A flat curve on a highway has a radius of curvature gravitational acceleration.
400 m. A car goes around the curve at a speed of 32 The maximum safe speed for taking a turn of
m/s. What is the minimum value of the coefficient radius r on a dry horizontal curved road is
of friction that will prevent the car from sliding?
r
v :( rg: (f
(2 marks) m
Solution : If the road is wet, the corresponding quantities
Data : r:400 m, v:32 m/s, g:10 m/s are
v:(r sg r
f : mg and v : (f
v 32;32 m
s: : :0.256
rg 400;10 Thus, for m and r remaining the same,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v f
(3) A car can be driven on a flat circular road of :
v f
radius r at a maximum speed v without skidding.
The same car is now driven on another flat circular f 0.75 f
v : ·v : · (7)
f f
road of radius 2r on which the coefficient of
friction between its tyres and the road is the same :7(0.75:7;0.866:6.062 m/s
as on the first road. What is the maximum speed of ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
the car on the second road such that it does not (5) A coin kept at a distance of 5 cm from the centre of
skid ? (2 marks) a turntable of radius 1.5 m just begins to slip when
Solution : the turntable rotates at a speed of 90 rpm. Calcu-
Data : v :v, r :r, r :2r late the coefficient of static friction between the
On a flat circular road, the maximum safe speed is coin and the turntable. [g: m/s] (2 marks)
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 25
Solution : Ravi
g 10 10 FINAL
: : :
90 sr (0.3)(1.5) 0.45
Data : r : 5 cm : 0.05 m, f : 90 rpm : rps
60 4.714
:(22.22:4.714 rad/s: :0.75 rev/s
:1.5 rps, g : m/s 2
The centripetal force for the circular motion of the This gives the required angular speed.
coin is provided by the friction between the coin ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(7) A motorcyclist rounds a curve of radius 25 m at
and the turntable. The coin is just about to slip off
36 km/h. The combined mass of the motorcycle
the turntable when the limiting force of friction is
and the man is 150 kg. (i) What is the centripetal
equal to the centripetal force.
force exerted on the motorcyclist ? (ii) What is the
mv
smg : upward force exerted on the motorcyclist?
r
The coefficient of static friction, (2 marks)
v (r) Solution :
s: :
rg rg 5
Data : r:25 m, v:36 km/h:36; m/s:10 m/s,
18
rg 6.05;10
vmin : :
s 0.5
:(12.1;10:(121:11 m/s Fig. 1.15 : The Rotor (an amusement park ride)
(For reference only)
This is the required minimum speed.
So long as the cyclist is not sliding, at every instant, g g
s (mR):mg : :
the force of static friction is sR sR
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 27
the optimum speed of a train rounding the curve. vo (60) 3600 Ravi
tan : : : :5 FINAL
(3 marks) rg 72;10 720
Solution : :tan 9 5:78°4
Data : l:1.68 m : 168 cm, r:1.6 km:1600 m, This is the required angle of banking.
h:8.4 cm, g:10 m/s h
(1) If is the banking angle, sin :
w
h 8.4 h:w sin :(10) sin 78°4 :10;0.9805
sin : : : 0.05
l 168
:9.805 m
:2 °52
This gives the height of the outer edge of the track
v
(2) tan : relative to the inner edge.
rg ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v:rg tan
(15) A circular race course track has a radius of 500 m
:(1600) (10) tan 2 °52
and is banked at 10°. The coefficient of static
:1600;10;0.0501:801.6
friction between the tyres of a vehicle and the road
The optimum speed v:(801.6 surface is 0.25. Compute (i) the maximum speed to
:28.31 m/s:101.9 kmph avoid slipping (ii) the optimum speed to avoid
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
wear and tear of the tyres. (2 marks each)
(13) A metre gauge train is moving at 72 kmph along a
Solution :
curved railway track of radius of curvature 500 m.
Data : r:500 m, :10°, s :0.25, g:9.8 m/s,
Find the elevation of the outer rail above the inner
tan 10°:0.1763
rail so that there is no side thrust on the outer rail.
(3 marks) (i) On the banked track, the maximum speed of the
Solution : vehicle without slipping (skidding) is
5 rg ( s ;tan )
Data : r:500 m, v:72 kmph:72; m/s: vmax :
18 19 s tan
20 m/s, g:10 m/s, l:1 m
500;10 (0.25;0.1763)
v :
tan : 19(0.25;0.1763)
rg
(20) 500;10;0.4263
: :0.08 : :(2230
500;10 0.9559
The required angle of banking,
:47.22 m/s
:tan 9 (0.08):4°4
The elevation of the outer rail relative to the inner (ii) The optimum speed of the vehicle on the track is
1;(0.8)(5)
590.8
: (72)(10)
4.2
: 720; :(144;4.2:12;2.049
5
:24.588 m/s:88.52 km/h
This will be the lower limit or minimum speed on
this track.
Since the track is heavily banked, 45 °, there is
no upper limit or maximum speed on this track.
■
Fc is the resultant of the tension in the string 0.5 m to 2 m, keeping other conditions the same ?
; (1 mark)
and the weight. Resolve F into components F cos
Ans. The angular speed of the conical pendulum will
vertically opposite to the weight of the bob and
F sin horizontal. F cos balances the weight. F sin become half the original angular speed. ■
is the necessary centripetal force. ★ Q. 53. On what factors does the frequency of conical
F sin :mr … (1) pendulum depend ? Is it independent of some
and F cos :mg … (2) factors ? (2 marks)
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 29
Ravi
Ans. The frequency of a conical pendulum, of string (ii) T . (cos FINAL
length L and semivertical angle , is (if increases, cos and T decrease)
1 g 1
n: (iii) T .
2 L cos (g
where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the (iv) The period is independent of the mass of the
place. bob. ■
From the above expression, we can see that
Do you know ?
(i) n . (g (Textbook page 8)
1 Conical pendulum
(ii) n .
(L ● For a given conical pendulum of string length L at a
1 place where gravitational acceleration is g. its time
(iii) n .
(cos period and frequency depend upon . If increases,
(if increases, cos decreases and n increases) cos and T decrease while n increases.
(iv) The frequency is independent of the mass of ● The period T . (cos , the tension F . tan , and
the bob. ■
the linear speed v . (tan .
Q. 54. Define period of a conical pendulum and [F:mg(tan ;1]
obtain an expression for it. (3 marks) Thus, as the angle increases, the cos decreases
Ans. The period of a conical pendulum is the time taken and tan increases. For :90 °, T:0, F:- and
by its bob to complete one revolution in a horizontal v:-.
circle with constant speed. In practice, the limiting value of will depend on the
For the derivation, refer to the answer to Q. 51 up to breaking tension of the string, and a body tied to a
Eq. (5) and continue : string cannot be revolved in a horizontal circle such
2 that the string is horizontal.
If T is the period, :
T
■
2 L cos
T: :2
g Activity
(Textbook page 8)
is the required expression.
A stone is tied to a string and whirled such that the
[Note : L cos :OC:h, where h is the axial height
of the cone. stone performs horizontal circular motion. It can be
h
seen that the string is NEVER horizontal.
T:2
g
Activity
This shows that the period of a conical pendulum is the (Textbook page 9)
same as that of a simple pendulum of length h.] ■
Using a funnel and a marble or a ball bearing try to
Q. 55. Write an expression for the time period of a
work out the situation in the (Textual Example 1.5).
conical pendulum. State how the period depends
Try to realize that as the marble goes towards the rim
on the various factors. (2 marks)
of the funnel its linear speed increases but its angular
Ans. If T is the time period of a conical pendulum of
speed decreases. When nearing the base, it is the other
string length L which makes a constant angle with
way.
the vertical,
L cos
T:2 Solved Problems 1.3.4
g
where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the [Data : g:10 m/s unless specified otherwise]
place. Q. 56. Solve the following :
From the above expression, we can see that (1) A stone of mass 2 kg is whirled in a horizontal
(i) T . (L circle attached at the end of a 1.5 m long string. If
Solution : 1 4
T: : s:0.8 s
n 5
Data : L:0.5 m, m:0.1 kg, T:0.4 s, g:10 m/s
L cos L cos
L cos T:2 T:4
(i) Period, T:2 g g
g
gT (10)(0.8)
gT h:L cos : : :0.16 m … (1)
cos : 4 4(10)
4L
0.16
10 (0.4) cos : :0.8
: 0.2
4;0.5
:cos\ 0.8:36.87°:36°5
10;0.16
: :10;0.08:0.8 v:rg tan :(L sin ) (g) tan 36.87°
2
The inclination of the string with the vertical, :(0.12) (10) (0.7500)
:36° 5 :0.9
Data : L:120 cm:1.2 m, m:150 g:0.15 kg, calculate the centripetal force acting on the stone.
r:0.2 m, g:9.8 m/s (2 marks)
r 0.2 1 Solution :
sin : : :
L 1.2 6 Data : m:1 kg, L:1 m, :30°, g:10 m/s
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 31
Ravi
v:(rg tan (i) At the top (point A) : Let v be the speed of the
FINAL
mv m(rgtan ) particle and T the tension in the string. Here, both
The centripetal force: : ; ;
r r T and weight mg are vertically downward. Hence,
:mg tan the net force on the particle towards the centre O is
:(1) (10) (tan 30°) T ;mg, which is the necessary centripetal force.
1 10 mv
:10; : :5.774 N T ;mg: … (1)
(3 1.732 ■ r
To find the minimum value of v that the particle
Unit
must have at the top, we consider the limiting case
1.4 Vertical circular motion in Earth’s gravity
when the tension T just becomes zero.
1.4.1 Point mass undergoing vertical circular
mv
motion in Earth’s gravity :mg
r
1.4.2 Sphere (globe) of death that is, the particle’s weight alone is the necessary
1.4.3 Vehicle on a convex bridge centripetal force at the point A.
Assuming that the total energy of the particle is Ans. In a nonuniform vertical circular motion, e.g., those
conserved, total energy at the bottom:total energy of a small body attached to a string or the loop-the-
at the top. Then, from Eqs. (4) and (5), loop maneuvers of an aircraft or motorcycle or
1 5 skateboard, the body must have some minimum
mv : mgr
2 2 speed to reach the top and complete the circle. In
The minimum speed the particle must have at this case, the motion is controlled only by gravity
the lowest position is
and zero speed at the top is not possible.
v : (5gr … (6)
However, in a controlled vertical circular motion,
(iii) At the midway (point C) : Let v be the speed at
e.g., those of a small body attached to a rod or the
point C, so that its kinetic energy is mv .
giant wheel (Ferris wheel) ride, the body or the
At C, the particle is at a height r from the bottom of
passenger seat can have zero speed at the top, i.e.,
the circle. Therefore, its potential energy at C is mgr.
the motion can be brought to a stop. ■
Total energy at C
Q. 63. A small body, tied to a string and revolved in a
1
: mv ;mgr … (7)
2 vertical circle of radius r. Prove that the difference
From the law of conservation of energy, in the tensions in the string at the highest and the
total energy at C:total energy at B lowest points is 6 times the weight of the body.
1 5
mv ;mgr: mgr OR
2 2
Derive an expression for the difference in ten-
v :5gr92gr:3gr
sions at the highest and lowest points for a
The minimum speed the particle must have
particle performing vertical circular motion con-
midway up is
trolled by gravity. OR
v :(3gr … (8)
■ ★ In the vertical circular motion of a body controlled
Q. 59. Show that for looping a loop in a vertical plane, by gravity, prove that the difference between the
the critical velocity to cross over the highest point extreme tensions (or normal forces) depends only
of the circle is (gr. (2 marks) upon the weight of the body. (3 marks)
Ans. Refer to the answer to Q. 58 and derive up to Eq. (2). Ans. Consider a small body (or particle) of mass m tied
■
to a string and revolved in a vertical circle of radius
Q. 60. A body, tied to a string, performs circular r at a place where the acceleration due to gravity is
motion in a vertical plane such that the tension in
g. At every instant of its motion, the body is acted
the string is zero at the highest point. What is the ;
upon by two forces, namely, its weight mg and the
linear speed of the body at the (i) lowest position
;
(ii) highest position ? (1 mark) tension T in the string.
Ans. (i) (5rg (ii) (rg in the usual notation. Let v be the speed of the body and T be the
■
Q. 61. A body, tied to a string, performs circular tension in the string at the lowest point B. We take
motion in a vertical plane such that the tension in the reference level for zero potential energy to be
the string is zero at the highest point. What is the the bottom of the circle. Then, the body has only
angular speed of the body at the (i) highest posi- kinetic energy mv at the lowest point.
tion (ii) lowest position ? (1 mark) mv
T : ; mg … (1)
Ans. (i) ( g / r (ii) (5g / r in the usual notation. ■ r
Remember this
(Textbook page 11)
● In vertical circular motion, the difference in the
tensions/normal reactions at the lowest and highest
positions on the circle is equal to 6 times the weight
of the body. This is independent of v and r.
● In nonuniform vertical circular motion, the speed v
is not constant because at every point except the top
and bottom, there is a component of force (and
Fig. 1.18 : Vertical circular motion (schematic) therefore of acceleration) tangent to the circle.
Hence, we cannot use the constant-acceleration
and the total energy at the bottom:KE;PE
kinematical equations to relate the speeds at various
1
: mv ;0 points. The speed relations are then obtained by
2
using energy conservation principle.
1
: mv … (2)
2 ● The speeds v :(gr and v :(5gr are the mini-
Let v be the speed and T the tension in the string mum speeds at the top and bottom for the body to
complete the circle.
at the highest point A. As the body goes from B to
A, it rises through a height h:2r. Q. 64. In a vertical circular motion controlled by grav-
mv ity, derive an expression for the speed at an
T : 9mg … (3)
r
arbitrary position. Hence, show that the speed
and the total energy at A:KE;PE decreases while going up and increases while
1 coming down. (4 marks) OR
: mv;mg (2r) … (4)
2
In a nonuniform vertical circular motion, derive
Then, from Eqs. (1) and (3), expressions for the speed and tension/normal
mv mv
T 9T : ;mg9
r r
9mg
force at an arbitrary position. (4 marks) OR
Show that a vertical circular motion controlled by
m gravity is a nonuniform circular motion. (3 marks)
: (v9v);2 mg … (5)
r
Ans. Consider a small body of mass m tied to a string
Assuming that the total energy of the body is and revolved in a vertical circle of radius r. At every
conserved, the total energy at the bottom instant of its motion, the body is acted upon by its
; ;
:total energy at the top weight mg and the tension T in the string. At any
instant, when the body is at the position P
Then, from Eqs. (2) and (4),
(Fig. 1.19), let the string make an angle with the
1 1
mv: mv;mg (2r) ;
2 2 vertical. mg is resolved into components, mg cos
h:r9r cos :r (19cos ). the body is acted upon by two forces, namely, its
; ;
Total energy at P:KE;PE weight mg and the tension T in the string.
1
: mv;mgh
2
1
: mv;mgr (19cos ) … (3)
2
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 35
energy to be the bottom of the circle, the total The minimum value of this force is found from the Ravi
FINAL
energy at the top limiting case when N just becomes zero and the
1 weight alone provides the necessary centripetal
:KE;PE: mv ;mg(2r)
2 force :
:2mgr (B v :0) … (2) mv
:mg
At the bottom, r
mv This requires that the motorcycle has a minimum
T 9mg: … (3)
r speed at the highest point given by
and the total energy:KE;PE
v :gr or v :(gr
1 1
: mv ;0: mv … (4) [Note : The ‘globe of death’ is a circus stunt in which
2 2
stunt drivers ride motorcycles inside a mesh globe.
Assuming that the total energy of the body is
Starting from small horizontal circles, they eventually
conserved, from Eqs. (2) and (4),
perform revolutions along vertical circles. The linear
1
mv : 2 mgr speed is more for larger circles but angular speed is more
2
for smaller circles as in conical pendulum.] ■
v :4gr v :2( gr … (5)
Equation (5) gives the expression for the minimum Do you know ?
speed at the bottom. (Textbook page 12)
Substituting for v in Eq. (3), A roller coaster is a common ride in amusement parks
during which all aspects of vertical circular motion are
m
T 9mg: (4 gr):4 mg
r encountered. The changing magnitude of the normal
T :5 mg … (6) reaction the seat exerts on the passenger gives the
Therefore, from Eqs. (1) and (6), the difference in feelings of weightlessness or accelerations of several g’s.
the tensions at the highest and lowest points of the
circle is Use your brain power
(Textbook page 12)
T 9(T ;mg):5 mg
T 9T :6 mg … (7) What is expected to happen if one travels fast over a
as required. ■
speed breaker ? Why ?
The maximum speed with which a car can travel
Q. 66. You may have seen in a circus a motorcyclist over a road surface, which is in the form of a convex
driving in vertical loops inside a hollow globe
arc of radius r, is (rg where g is the acceleration due
(sphere of death). Explain clearly why the motor-
to gravity. For a speed breaker, r is very small (of the
cyclist does not fall down when at the highest
order of 1 m). Hence, one must slow down consider-
point of the chamber. (2 marks)
ably while going over a speed breaker. Otherwise,
Ans. A motorcyclist driving in vertical loops inside a
the car will lose contact with the road and land with a
hollow globe performs vertical circular motion.
thud.
Suppose the mass of the motorcycle and motorcyc-
list is m and the radius of the chamber is r. At every How does the normal force on a concave suspension
instant of the motion, the motorcyclist is acted upon bridge change when a vehicle is travelling on it with
; ; a constant speed ?
by the weight mg and the normal reaction N .
; At the lowest point, N – mg provides the centripetal
At the highest point, let v be the speed and N
; ; mv v
the normal reaction. Here, both N and mg are force. Therefore, N–mg: , so that N:m g; .
r r
parallel, vertically downward. Hence, the net force Therefore, N increases with increasing v.
on the motorcyclist towards the centre O is N ;mg.
If this force is able to provide the necessary centri- Q. 67. A car crosses over a bridge which is in the form
petal force at the highest point, the motorcycle does of a convex arc with a uniform speed. (i) State the
not lose contact with the globe and fall down. expression for the normal reaction on the car. OR
v plane with the help of a string 0.5 m long with a
N:m g – … (1)
r constant speed of 2 m/s. It makes an angle of 60°
is the required expression. It shows that as v with the vertical. Calculate the tension in the
increases, N decreases. string. (2 marks)
v Solution :
(ii) Equation (1) shows that for g – :0, i.e., for centri-
r Data : m:0.3 kg, r:0.5 m, v:2 m/s, :60°,
petal acceleration equalling the gravitational accel- g: 10 m/s
v
eration, N:0. That is, for :g or v:(rg , the mv
:T9mg cos
r r
car just loses contact with the road. Therefore, this is
mv
the maximum speed with which a car can cross the Tension in the string, T: ; mg cos
r
bridge, irrespective of its mass. ■
(0.3)(2)
: ; (0.3)(10) cos 60°
0.5
Solved Problems 1.4 – 1.4.3
1
:2.4;0.3;10; :2.4;0.3;5:3.9 N
2
[Data : Take g:10 m/s unless specified otherwise] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q. 68. Solve the following : (4) A bucket of water is whirled in a vertical circle at
(1) An object of mass 1 kg tied to one end of a string an arm’s length. Find the minimum speed at the
of length 9 m is whirled in a vertical circle. What is top so that no water spills out. Also find the
the minimum speed required at the lowest position corresponding angular speed. [Assume r:0.75 m]
to complete the circle ? [g : 9.8 m/s] (2 marks) (3 marks)
Solution : Solution :
Data : m : 1 kg, r : 9 m, g : 9.8 m/s Data : r:0.75 m, g:10 m/s
The minimum speed of the object at the lowest At the highest point the minimum speed required is
position is v:(rg:(0.75;10:2.738 m/s
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 37
The corresponding angular speed is (6) A stone of mass 100 g attached to a string of length Ravi
FINAL
v 2.738 50 cm is whirled in a vertical circle by giving it a
: : :3.651 rad/s
r 0.75 velocity of 7 m/s at the lowest point. Find the
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
velocity at the highest point. (3 marks)
(5) A pendulum, with a bob of mass m and string
Solution :
length l, is held in the horizontal position and
Data : m:0.1 kg, r:l:0.5 m, v :7 m/s,
then released into a vertical circle. Show that at
g:10 m/s
the lowest position the velocity of the bob is (2gl
The total energy at the bottom, Ebot
and the tension in the string is 3 mg. (3 marks)
1 1
Solution : :KE;PE: mv ;0: (0.1) (7):2.45 J
2 2
Taking the reference level for zero potential The total energy at the top, Etop
energy to be the bottom of the vertical circle, the 1
:KE;PE: mv ;mg (2r)
initial potential energy of the bob at the horizontal 2
1
position:mgh:mgl. : (0.1) v ;(0.1) (10) (2;0.5)
2
Hence, at the bottom where the speed of the bob is
:0.05 v ;1
v, it has only kinetic energy: mv.
By the principle of conservation of energy,
Etop :Ebot
0.05 v ;1:2.45
2.4591 145
v: : :29
0.05 5
v :(29:5.385 m/s
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v
N :m 9g
r
:50(2.5):125 N [Note : If the ball rolls all along the track without
(ii) At the bottom of the loop : The forces on the slipping, its total energy at the top of the circular track
; should take into account the rotational kinetic energy of
pilot are the downward gravitational force mg
; the ball.
and the upward normal force N exerted by the
Etop :KElinear ;KErotational ;PE
seat. So the net upward force that causes the
1 1
centripetal acceleration has a magnitude : mv; mv;mg (2R)
2 5
N 9mg. 7 7
: mv;2mgR: mgR;2mgR
10 10
mv
N 9mg: :
27
r 10
mgR:2.7 mgR
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 39
By the principle of conservation of energy, principle of conservation of energy, we have, Ravi
FINAL
1 1 1
mgh: mv;mgr mgh: mv : mgr
2 2 2
v:2g (h9r) r 3
h: : :1.5 m
The magnitude of the radial acceleration of the 2 2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
block at Q is
★ (11) A motorcyclist (treated as a particle) is under-
v 2g (h9r)
ac : : going vertical circles inside a sphere of death.
r r
2;10 (692) The speed of the motorcycle varies between 6 m/s
: :40 m/s and 10 m/s. Calculate diameter of the sphere of
2
death. How much minimum values are possible
The magnitude of the total acceleration of the
for these two speeds ? (3 marks)
block at Q is
Solution :
a:(ac;g:((40);(10)
Data : vtop :6 m/s, vbot :10 m/s, g:10 m/s
:(1600;100:(1700
vbot :vtop ;4gr
:41.23 m/s
; ; vbot 9 vtop (10)9(6) 64
Let be the angle between ac (horizontal) and a . r: : :
4g 4;10 40
Then,
g 10 :1.6 m
:tan 91 :tan 91
ac 40 The diameter of the sphere of death:3.2 m.
91
:tan 0.25:14°2 For this r, vmin :(gr at the top.
The radial acceleration has a magnitude 40 m/s. vmin :(10;1.6:(16:4 m/s
The total acceleration has a magnitude 41.23 m/s
The corresponding minimum speed at the bottom
and makes an angle of 14°2 with the radial
:(5gr:(5 (10)(1.6):(80:4(5 m/s
acceleration.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ The required minimum values of the speeds
(10) A loop-the-loop cart runs down an incline into a are 4 m/s and 4(5 m/s.
vertical circular track of radius 3 m and then ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
describes a complete circle. Find the minimum (12) A motorcyclist rides in vertcal circles in a hollow
height above the top of the circular track from sphere of radius 5 m. Find the required minimum
which the cart must be released. (2 marks) speed and minimum angular speed, so that he
Solution : does not lose contact with the sphere at the
highest point. [g:9.8 m/s] (3 marks)
Solution :
Data : r : 5 m, g : 9.8 m/s
Let v and be respectively the required minimum
speed and angular speed at the highest point.
(i) v : (rg : (5 ; 9.8:(49 : 7 m/s
v 7
(ii) : : :1.4 rad/s OR
r 5
g 9.8
Fig. 1.26 : Looping the loop : : :(1.96:1.4 rad/s
r 5
Data : r:3 m ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
To just loop-the-loop, the cart must have a speed (13) The vertical section of a road over a bridge in the
v :(rg at the top of the loop. direction of its length is in the form of an arc of a
If h is the minimum height above the top of the loop circle of radius 4.4 m. Find the maximum speed
from which the cart must be released, by the with which a vehicle can cross the bridge without
Data : While travelling along the bridge, the … [from Eq. (1)]
vehicle moves along a vertical circle of radius Substituting for v from Eq. (2) and simplifying
r:4.4 ; 0.5 : 4.9 m, g : 10 m/s. gr (59cos );2 gr (19cos ):6 gr
If m is the mass and v is the maximum speed of 59cos ;292 cos :6
the vehicle, then at the highest point, 1
3 cos :1 cos :
3
mv
: mg :cos\ (0.3333):70°3
r
(ii) At P, v:gr (59cos )
v : (rg : (4.9 ; 10 : 7 m/s
:12;
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1 14
:(10)(1.2) 59
3 3
(14) A small body tied to a string is revolved in a
vertical circle of radius r such that its speed at the :56 (m/s)
The KE of the body
top of the circle is (2gr . Find
(i) the angular position of the string when the 1 1
: mv: (0.1)(56):2.8 J
2 2
tension in the string is numerically equal to 5
(iii) The body has minimum KE at the top and
times the weight of the body. (3 marks)
maximum KE at the bottom.
(ii) the KE of the body at this position (2 marks)
(iii) the minimum and maximum KEs of the body. 1 1
KEmin : mvtop : (0.1)(2 gr)
2 2
(2 marks)
:(0.1)(10)(1.2):1.2 J
[Take m:0.1 kg, r:1.2 m, g:10 m/s]
Solution : vbot :vtop ;4 gr:2 gr;4 gr:6 gr
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 41
At the bottom of the circle, the tension and acceler- (17) A bucket of water is tied to one end of a rope 8 m Ravi
FINAL
ation are upward while the force of gravity is long and rotated about the other end in a vertical
downward. circle. Find the number of revolutions per minute
mv such that water does not spill. (2 marks)
T 9mg:
r Solution :
[Important note : The circular motion of the bucket in a
T
v:r 9g
m vertical plane under gravity is not a uniform circular
motion. Assuming the critical case of the motion such that
5;10
:0.5 910 the bucket has the minimum speed at the highest point
0.5
required for the water to stay put in the bucket, we can
:5095:45
find the minimum frequency of revolution.]
v:(45:6.708 m/s Data : r:8 m, g:9.8 m/s, :3.142
The period T of the motion is Assuming the bucket has a minimum speed
circumference 2r v:(rg at the highest point, the corresponding
T: :
speed v angular speed is
:
2;3.142;0.5
:0.4688 s v (rg g
6.702 :2f: : :
r r r
1 1 The minimum frequency of revolution,
Frequency, f: : :2.133 rev/s
T 0.4688
1 g
:2.133;60 rev/min f:
2 r
:127.98 rev/min 1 9.8
:
The maximum number of revolutions the 2;3.142 8
object can complete in a minute is 127.98. 1
: (1.225:0.1761 rps
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6.284
(16) A small body of mass m:0.1 kg at the end of a :0.1761;60 rpm:10.566 rpm
■
cord 1 m long swings in a vertical circle. Its speed
Unit
is 2 m/s when the cord makes an angle :30° with
1.5 Moment of inertia (MI), Kinetic energy of a
the vertical. Find the tension in the cord. (2 marks)
rotating body
Solution :
Data : m:0.1 kg, r:1 m, v:2 m/s, :30°, Q. 69. Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a
g:9.8 m/s body rotating with constant angular velocity.
When the cord makes an angle with the vertical, (3 marks)
the centripetal force on the body is Ans. Consider a rigid body rotating with a constant
;
mv angular velocity about an axis passing through
:T9mg cos the point O and perpendicular to the plane of the
r
figure. Suppose that the body is made up of N
The tension in the cord,
particles of masses m1, m2, ..., mN situated at
mv
T: ;mg cos perpendicular distances r1, r2, … , rN , respectively,
r
from the axis of rotation as shown in Fig. 1.27.
2
:0.1 ;9.8;cos 30° As the body rotates, all the particles perform
1
uniform circular motion with the same angular
(3
:0.1 4;9.8;
2
:0.1(4;4.9;1.732) ;
velocity . However, they have different linear
speeds depending upon their distances from the
:0.1(4;8.486):1.2486 N
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ axis of rotation.
m r
N
1
: i i
uniform distribution of mass, the moment of inertia
2 i:1
is
1
Erot : I … (2) I : rdm … (2)
2
N where dm is the mass of an infinitesimal element,
where I : mi ri is the moment of inertia of the situated at distance r from the axis of rotation.
i:1
body about the axis of rotation. (2) The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on
Equation (2) gives the required expression. ■ (i) the mass and shape of the body (ii) orientation
and position of the rotation axis (iii) distribution of
Q. 70. Derive an expression for the rotational kinetic
the mass about the rotation axis.
energy of a body. State how it depends on the
moment of inertia, and frequency and period of (3) Dimensions :
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 43
Q. 72. Explain the physical significance of moment of The moment of inertia of the system about the Ravi
FINAL
inertia. (2 marks) altitude passing through M is
Ans. I:M r ;M r ;M r
(1) The physical significance of moment of inertia can Since M lies on the axis of rotation, r :0.
be understood by comparing the formulae in the a
Also, r :r : .
following table. 2
a 1
Linear motion Rotational motion I:(M ;M )
2 4
: (M ;M )a
■
3. Kinetic energy : Mv 3. Kinetic energy: I through the centre of mass of the linear molecule
H . Then, each of the hydrogen atom is a distance
(2) Force produces acceleration, while torque produces 1
R from the CM. Therefore, the MI of the molecule
angular acceleration. Force and torque are analog- 2
R
ous quantities. Also, momentum and angular mo-
2 : mR.
1
about this axis, I:2m
2
mentum are analogous quantities.
[Notes : (1) For a H molecule, mH :1.674;10 9 kg
(3) By comparing the above formulae, we find that
and bond length:7.774;10 9 m, so that
moment of inertia plays the same role in rotational
I:5.065;10 9 kg·m. (2) As atoms are treated as
motion as that played by mass in linear motion. The
particles, we do not consider rotation about the line
moment of inertia of a body is its rotational inertia,
passing through the atoms.] ■
that which opposes any tendency to change its
angular velocity. In the absence of a net torque, the
body continues to rotate with a uniform angular Solved Problems 1.5
velocity.
[Note : The relations for angular momentum and Q. 75. Solve the following :
torque in rotational motion are given in Q. 113 and (1) Four particles of masses 0.2 kg, 0.3 kg, 0.4 kg and
Q. 117, respectively.] ■ 0.5 kg respectively are kept at corners A, B, C and
Q. 73. Three point masses M , M and M are located D of a square ABCD of side 1 m. Find the moment
at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side a. of inertia of the system about an axis passing
What is the moment of inertia of the system about through point A and perpendicular to the plane of
an axis along the altitude of the triangle passing the square. (2 marks)
through M ? (1 mark)
Solution :
Ans. Data : m :0.2 kg, m :0.3 kg, m :0.4 kg,
m :0.5 kg
I 9.83 ; 10 radius R and mass M. Its mass per unit area is
The radius of gyration, k : :
M 6 ; 10 M M
: : … (1)
A R
: 4.048 ; 10 m
The axis of rotation is the transverse symmetry axis,
■
through its centre of mass (CM) and perpendicular
Unit
to its plane. For rotation about this axis, we consider
1.5.1 MI of a uniform ring
the disc to consist of a large number of thin
1.5.2 MI of a uniform disc
concentric rings, having the same rotation axis as
1.6 Radius of gyration
the transverse symmetry axis of the disc. One such
1.7 Theorems of parallel axis and perpendicular
elemental ring at a distance r from the rotation axis
axes
shown in Fig. 1.31, has mass dm and radial width dr.
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 45
Since the disc is uniform, the area and mass of this axis of rotation. This distance is called the radius of Ravi
FINAL
elemental ring are gyration and is defined as given above. Thus,
dm dm
B : : … (2) k:(I/M
A 2r·dr
and its moment of inertia (MI) about the given axis Physical significance : The radius of gyration is
Therefore, the MI of the disc is the axis; and it is more if I is more, i.e., if the mass is
R R R
distributed away from the axis. Thus, it gives the
I: rdm: r(2r·dr):2 rdr … (3) idea about the distribution of mass about the axis of
rotation. ■
R M R 1
I:2· :2 · : MR … (4) Q. 79. Is radius of gyration of a rigid body a constant
4 R 4 2
quantity? (1 mark)
This gives the required expression. ■
Ans. Radius of gyration of a rigid body depends on the
Q. 78. Define radius of gyration. Explain its physical
distribution of mass of the body about a rotation
significance. (2 marks) OR axis and, therefore, changes with the choice of the
★ Discuss the necessity of radius of gyration. rotation axis. Hence, unlike the mass of the body
Define it. On what factors does it depend and which is constant, radius of gyration and moment
does not depend ? (2 marks) OR of inertia of the body are not constant. ■
★ Why is it useful to define radius of gyration ? ★ Q. 80. Can you find some similarity between the
(1 mark) centre of mass and radius of gyration ? (2 marks)
Ans. Definition : The radius of gyration of a body Ans. The centre of mass (CM) coordinates locates a point
rotating about an axis is defined as the distance where if the entire mass M of a system of particles
between the axis of rotation and the point at which or that of a rigid body can be thought to be
the entire mass of the body can be supposed to be concentrated such that the acceleration of this point
concentrated so as to give the same moment of mass obeys Newton’s second law of motion, viz.,
inertia as that of the body about the given axis. ; ; ;
F net :Ma CM , where F net is the sum of all the
external forces acting on the body or on the individ-
ual particles of the system of particles.
Similarly, radius of gyration locates a point from
the axis of rotation where the entire mass M can be
thought to be concentrated such that the angular
acceleration of that point mass about the axis of
; ; ;
rotation obeys the relation, net : M , where net
is the sum of all the external torques acting on the
body or on the individual particles of the system of
Fig. 1.32 : Concept of radius of gyration particles. ■
The moment of inertia (MI) of a body about a Q. 81. State an expression for the radius of gyration of
given rotation axis depends upon (i) the mass of the (i) a thin ring (ii) a thin disc, about respective
body and (ii) the distribution of mass about the axis transverse symmetry axis. OR
of rotation. These two factors can be separated by Show that for rotation about respective transverse
expressing the MI as the product of the mass (M) symmetry axis, the radius of gyration of a thin disc
and the square of a particular distance (k) from the is less than that of a thin ring. (2 marks)
I R R
k: : : … (4)
M 2 (2
Therefore, kdisc kring . ■
Proof : Let ICM be the moment of inertia (MI) of a the CM with respect to the origin C. Since C is itself
body of mass M about an axis through its centre of the CM, this coordinate is zero and so also the
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 47
cable. State the respective mathematical express- Ravi
Use your brain power FINAL
(Textbook page 15) ions. (2 marks)
For the point P in Fig. 1.33 above, we had to extend Ans. The theorem of parallel axis is applicable to any
OC to Q to meet the perpendicular PQ. What will body of arbitrary shape. The moment of inertia (MI)
happen to the expression for I if the point P lies of the body about an axis through the centre mass
on OC ? should be known, say, ICM . Then, the theorem can
There will be no change in the expression for the be used to find the MI, I, of the body about an axis
MI (I) about the parallel axis through O. parallel to the above axis. If the distance between the
two axes is h,
Q. 84. State and prove the theorem of perpendicular
I:ICM ;Mh … (1)
axes about moment of inertia. (3 marks)
The theorem of perpendicular axes is applicable
Ans. Theorem of perpendicular axes : The moment of
to a plane lamina only. The moment of inertia Iz
inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicu-
of a plane lamina about an axis – the z axis –
lar to its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its
inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes in its
moments of inertia Ix and Iy about two mutually
plane and through the point of intersection of the
perpendicular axes x and y in its plane and through
perpendicular axis and the lamina.
the point of intersection of the perpendicular axis
and the lamina.
Iz :Ix ;Iy … (2)
■
the plane of the lamina and Oz, an axis perpendicu- From the parallel axis theorem, we know that a
lar to its plane. Consider an infinitesimal mass given body has the smallest possible moment of
element dm of the lamina at the point P(x, y). MI of inertia about an axis through its CM. The radius of
the lamina about the z-axis, gyration of a body about a given axis is directly
Iz : OPdm proportional to the square root of its moment of
The element is at perpendicular distance y and x inertia about that axis. Hence, the conclusion.
from the x- and y- axes respectively. Hence, the OR I:ICM ;Mh. Mk:MkCM ;Mh.
moments of inertia of the lamina about the x- and ;h, which shows that k is minimum,
k:k CM
y-axes are, respectively,
equal to kCM when h:0. ■
Ix : ydm and Iy : xdm
Q. 87. State an expression for the moment of inertia of
Since OP : y ; x,
a thin uniform rod about an axis through its centre
Iz : OPdm : (y ; x) dm
and perpendicular to its length. Hence deduce the
: y dm ; x dm expression for its moment of inertia about an axis
Iz : Ix ; Iy through its one end and perpendicular to its
This proves the theorem of perpendicular axes. ■ length. (2 marks) OR
★ Q. 85. State the conditions under which the theorems State an expression for the moment of inertia of a
of parallel axis and perpendicular axes are appli- thin uniform rod about its transverse symmetry
ML ML
: (1 ; 3) : … (3)
12 3
Fig. 1.36
(3) Radii of gyration : The radius of gyration of the rod
Ans. Method of direct integration : Consider a thin
about its transverse symmetry axis is
uniform rod of mass M and length L. The axis of
ICM L L rotation is perpendicular to the rod and passing
k: : : … (4)
M 12 2(3 through the rod at L/3. We consider the origin of
The radius of gyration of the rod about the trans- coordinates to be at this point and the x-axis to be
verse axis through an end is along the rod,
dm:dl:dx
If the distance of each mass element from the axis is
given by the variable x, the moment of inertia of an
element about the axis of rotation is
dI:xdm
Since the rod extends from x: 9L/3 to x:2L/3,
the MI of the rod about the axis is Fig. 1.38 : Transverse symmetry axis of a ring through
centre of mass and a parallel tangential axis
2L/3 2L/3
The MI of the ring about the transverse symmetry
I: dI: xdm: x(dx)
9L/3 9L/3
axis is
2L/3
x
: xdx: Radius of gyration : The radius of gyration of the
3 9L/3
9L/3 ring about the transverse symmetry axis is
2L L k : (I CM /M : (R : R
3 9 9 3 : L ; 3 ;27 : 9 ML
M L 9 1 … (2)
:
3
(2) MI about a tangent perpendicular to its plane : Let
Method of parallel-axis : The MI of the thin rod I be its MI about a parallel axis, tangent to the ring.
about a transverse axis through its CM is Here, h:R:distance between the two axes.
1
I CM : ML By the theorem of parallel axis,
12
I : ICM ; Mh … (3)
The given axis of rotation is at a distance
: MR ; MR : 2MR … (4)
L L L
h: 9 : from the transverse symmetry axis. Radius of gyration : The radius of gyration of the
2 3 6
ring about a transverse tangent is
Therefore, the MI of the rod about the given axis is
k : (I/M : (2R : (2R … (5)
L 1
1
I:ICM ; Mh: ML ; M : ML ■
12 6 9
the same as arrived at by direct integration method. Q. 91. Assuming the expression for the moment of
■ inertia of a ring about its transverse symmetry
Q. 90. State an expression for the moment of inertia axis, obtain the expression for its moment of inertia
of a thin ring about its transverse symmetry axis. about (1) a diameter (2) a tangential axis in its
Hence deduce the expression for its moment of plane. Also deduce the expressions for the corre-
inertia about a tangential axis perpendicular to its sponding radii of gyration. (3 marks each)
I 3 3
k: : R : R … (8)
M 2 2
■
I R R
k: : : … (6)
M 2 (2
(2) MI about a tangent in its plane : Let I be its MI
about an axis in plane of the ring, i.e., parallel to a
diameter, and tangent to it. Here, h:R and
1 Fig. 1.41 : Transverse symmetry axis of a disc through
ICM :Ix : MR.
2 centre of mass and a parallel tangential axis
By the theorem of parallel axis, Radius of gyration : The radius of gyration of the
I:Ix ;Mh disc for the given rotation axis is
1 3
: MR;MR: MR … (7) I R R
2 2 k: : : … (2)
M 2 (2
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 51
(2) MI about a tangent perpendicular to its plane : Let According to the theorem of perpendicular axes, Ravi
FINAL
I be the MI of the disc about a tangent perpendicu- Iz : Ix ; Iy … (2)
lar to its plane. Iz : 2Ix (B Ix : Iy ) … (3)
According to the theorem of parallel axis, 1
MR : 2Ix
2
I : ICM ; Mh … (3)
1
MR MR Ix : MR … (4)
: ; MR ( B ICM : , h:R) 4
2 2
Radius of gyration : The radius of gyration of the
3
I: MR … (4) disc for rotation about its diameter is
2
1 1
Iz : Ix ; Iy : 2 MR : MR
4 2
R L
ICM :M ;
4 12
(2) MI about cylindrical symmetry axis :
1
ICM : MR
2
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 53
Ravi
R L The MI of the solid sphere about its diameter is FINAL
ICM : M ; … (1)
4 12 2
ICM : MR
Let I be its MI about a parallel, transverse axis 5
R L L radius R. Let ICM be its MI about any diameter.
I:M ; ;M … (3)
4 12 2
2
Then, ICM : MR.
MR ML ML 5
: ; ;
4 12 4
R L
:M ; … (4)
4 3
■
ively. Then, of the body and its moment of inertia (MI) about
the axis.
B k :
2 2
ICM : Mkd : MR d R, given For a solid sphere rotating about its diameter,
5 5
7 tangent is
kt : R ■
5
5
k HS : 3
R
Q. 103. State the expression for the MI of a thin
spherical shell (i.e., a thin-walled hollow sphere) kSS 2 3 (6
The required ratio, : ; : ■
k HS 5 5 5
about its diameter. Hence obtain the expression
for its MI about a tangent. (1 mark) Q. 105. Calculate the moment of inertia by direct inte-
Ans. Consider a uniform, thin-walled hollow sphere gration of a thin uniform rectangular plate of mass
radius R and mass M. An axis along its diameter is M, length l and breadth b about an axis passing
an axis of spherical symmetry through its centre of through its centre and parallel to its breadth.
mass. The MI of the thin spherical shell about its (3 marks)
diameter is Ans. Consider a thin uniform rectangular plate of mass
2 M, length l and breadth b. The axis of rotation
ICM : MR
3 passes through its centre and is parallel to its
Let I be its MI about a tangent parallel to the breadth. We consider the origin of coordinates to be
diameter. Here, h:R:distance between the two at the centre of the plate and orient the axes as
axes. Then, according to the theorem of parallel shown in Fig. 1.48. Since the plate is thin, we can
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 55
take the mass as distributed entirely in the xy-plane. 1 Ravi
Iz : M (l;b) FINAL
12
Then, the surface mass density is constant and
You will need to recall this in Chapter 5. ] ■
equal to
Q. 106. State the MI of a thin rectangular plate – of
M M
: : mass M, length l and breadth b – about an axis
A lb
passing through its centre and parallel to its
length. Hence find its MI about a parallel axis
along one edge. (2 marks)
Ans. Consider a thin rectangular plate of mass M, length
l and breadth b. The MI of the plate about an axis
passing through its centre and parallel to its edge of
length l is
1
ICM, length : Mb
2
1 3M 3M FINAL
I:I CM ;Mh: M (l;b);M dm:dV: (rdz): (rdz): rdz
12 2 Rh Rh
1 1 r z
:M l; b and :
3 12 R h
z 3M z 3M
r:R and dm: dz: zdz
h h h h
The moment of inertia of an elemental disc about
the axis of rotation is
R h h zdz: 2 h z dz
1 1 z 3M 3 MR
dI: rdm:
2 2
3 MR 3 MR z h
I: dI: z dz:
2 h 2 h 5 0
Fig. 1.50 : Transverse axis passing through its centre
of a thin rectangular plate and a parallel axis 3 MR h 3
: : MR
■ 2 h 5 10
Q. 108. A uniform solid right circular cone of base as required. ■
radius R has mass M. Prove that the moment of ★ Q. 109. A uniform disc and a hollow right circular
inertia of the cone about its central symmetry axis cone have the same formula for moment of inertia
3 for rotation about their corresponding central
is MR. (3 marks)
10
symmetry axes. Why is it so ? (1 mark)
Ans. Consider a uniform solid right circular cone of Ans. The moment of inertia of a hollow right circular
mass M, base radius R and height h. The axis of 1
cone about its central symmetry axis is MR, the
rotation passes through its centre and the vertex, 2
Fig. 1.51. Its constant mass density is same as that of a disc about its transverse symmetry
M M axis. This is because the distribution of mass of the
: :
V Rh hollow cone about its central symmetry axis is the
same as that of a disc. ■
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 57
★ (2) A metal ring of mass 1 kg has moment of inertia Solution : Ravi
FINAL
1 kg·m for rotation about its diameter. It is Data : Iz :10 kg·m
melted and recast into a thin uniform disc of the If the disc lies in the xy plane with its centre at the
same radius. What will be the disc’s moment of origin then, according to the theorem of perpen-
inertia when rotated about its own axis ? (2 marks) dicular axes,
Solution : Ix ;Iy :Iz
The MI of the thin ring about its diameter, Since, Ix :Iy , 2Ix :Iz
1
Iring : MR : 1 kg·m Its MI about a diameter,
2
I 10
Since the ring is melted and recast into a thin disc of Ix : z : :5 kg·m
2 2
same radius R, the mass of the disc equals the mass ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
of the ring:M. (5) A solid cylinder of uniform density and radius
The MI of the thin disc about its own axis (i.e., 2 cm has a mass of 50 g. If its length is 12 cm,
transverse symmetry axis) is calculate its moment of inertia about an axis
1
Idisc : MR : Iring passing through its centre and perpendicular to its
2
length. (2 marks)
Idisc :1 kg·m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Solution :
(3) A thin uniform rod 1 m long has mass 1 kg. Find Data : M:50 g, R:2 cm, L:12 cm
4 ; 12
its moment of inertia and radius of gyration for MR ML R L
ICM : ; :M
rotation about a transverse axis through a point 4 12
midway between its centre and one end. (3 marks) (2) (12)
:50 ;
Solution : 4 12
4 ; 12 :50 (1;12)
Data : M:1 kg, L:1 m 4 144
:50
Let ICM and I be the moments of inertia of the rod
about a transverse axis through its centre, and a :50;13:650 g.cm
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
parallel axis midway between its centre and one
★ (6) A dumbbell is prepared by using a uniform rod of
end.
mass 60 g and length 20 cm. Two identical solid
ML L
Then, ICM : and h: spheres of mass 50 g and radius 10 cm each are at
12 4
the two ends of the rod. Calculate moment of
By the theorem of parallel axis,
inertia of the dumbbell for rotation about an axis
I:ICM ; Mh
passing through its centre and perpendicular to
ML ML 4ML;3ML the length. (3 marks)
: ; :
12 16 48
Solution :
7 7
: ML : (1) (1) : 0.1458 kg·m Data : Msph :50 g, Rsph :10 cm, Mrod :60 g,
48 48
Lrod :20 cm
If k is the radius of gyration about the parallel axis,
The MI of a solid sphere about its diameter is
7
I : Mk Mk: ML 2
48 Isph, CM : Msph Rsph
5
7 7
k: L: ;1 : 0.3818 m The distance of the rotation axis (transverse symme-
48 48
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ try axis of the dumbbell) from the centre of sphere,
(4) The moment of inertia of a disc about an axis h:30 cm.
through its centre and perpendicular to its plane is The MI of a solid sphere about the rotation axis,
10 kg·m. Find its MI about a diameter. (2 marks) Isph : Isph, CM ; Msph h
Since there are two solid spheres, the MI of the Let O be a point at 6 cm from the centre of mass of
the body.
dumbbell about the rotation axis is
Let I : MI about an axis through O,
I:2Isph ;Irod
k : radius of gyration about the axis through O,
2 1
:2Msph R ;h ; M L ICM : MI about a parallel axis through the
5 sph 12 rod rod
centre of mass of the body,
2 1
:2(50) (10);(30) ; (60)(20) kCM : radius of gyration about a parallel axis
5 12
through the centre of mass,
:100 (40;900);5(400):94000;2000
M : mass of the body,
:96000 g·cm
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ h : distance between the two axes.
(7) A compound object is formed of a thin rod and a Data : h:6 cm, k:10 cm
disc attached at the end of the rod. The rod is 0.5 m By the theorem of parallel axis,
long and has mass 2 kg. The disc has mass of 1 kg I : ICM ; Mh
and its radius is 20 cm. Find the moment of inertia Also, I : Mk and ICM : MkCM
R;M (L;R)
1 1 2 4
: M L;M rod disc disk
3 2 k R 2 1
: ; :
kCM 4 R 2
1 1
: (2)(0.5);(1) (0.2);(0.5;0.2)
3 2 kCM kCM
k: k:
1 0.04
2 (2
: ; ;0.49:0.167;0.02;0.49
6 2 2
k: :(2:1.414 cm
:0.677 kg·m (2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 59
(10) Calculate the MI and rotational kinetic energy of a (12) The mass and the radius of the Moon are, respect- Ravi
FINAL
thin uniform rod of mass 10 g and length 60 cm 1 1
ively, about time and about time those of the
81 3.7
when it rotates about a transverse axis through its
centre at 90 rpm. (3 marks) Earth. Given that the rotational period of the
Data : M:10 g:10 9 kg, L:60 cm:0.6 m, energy of the Earth with that of the Moon.
section has length 30 cm and mass 3 kg. Find the 1 2 I
: I : 2
moment of inertia of the rod about a transverse 2 T T
axis passing through the junction of the two Therefore, the ratio of the rotational KE of the Earth
Solution : Erot (Earth) I T M RE TM
: E· M : E· ·
Data : L :0.5 m, M :0.6 kg, L :0.3 m, M :3 kg Erot (Moon) IM TE M M RM TE
The moment of inertia of a thin rod about a : 81;(3.7);(27.3) : 8.264;10
ML ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
transverse axis through its end is . (13) A solid sphere of radius R, rotating with an
3
angular velocity about its diameter, suddenly
stops rotating and 75% of its KE is converted into
heat. If c is the specific heat capacity of the
material in SI units, show that the temperature of
3R
the sphere rises by . (2 marks)
20 c
Solution :
Fig. 1.52 The MI of a solid sphere about its diameters,
Therefore, the MI of the composite rod about a 2
I: MR
5
transverse axis through the junction of the two
sections, where M is its mass.
3 3 1 Ans. Consider a rigid body rotating with a constant
Mc : E: MR ;
FINAL
4 4 5 angular velocity about an axis through the point
3R O and perpendicular to the plane of the figure. All
: ■
20c the particles of the body perform uniform circular
p1 : m1v1 : m1r1
The angular momentum of the particle about the
axis of rotation is by definition,
Fig. 1.53 : Angular momentum of a particle about O ; ; ;
L 1 : r1 ; p 1
(For reference only)
L1 : r1 p1 sin
[Note : As the particle moves relative to O in the
; ; ; ;
direction of its momentum p (:mv ), position vector r where is the smaller of the two angles between r 1
rotates around O. However, to have angular momentum ;
and p 1.
about O, the particle does not itself have to rotate
In this case, : 90° sin : 1
around O.] ■
L1 : r1 p1 : r1m1r1 : m1r1
Q. 112. State the dimensions and SI unit of angular
momentum. (1 mark) Similarly, L :m2r2, L :m3r3, etc.
Ans. The angular momentum of the body about the
(1) Dimensions : [Angular momentum]:[MLT\] given axis is
(2) SI unit : The kilogram·metre/second (kg·m/s). ■
L : L1 ; L2 ; … ; LN
Q. 113. Obtain an expression for the angular momen-
: m1r1 ; m2r2 ; … ; mN rN
tum of a rigid body rotating with a constant
angular velocity. OR : (m1r1;m2r2;…;mN rN)
N
★ Derive an expression that relates the angular
: ( mi ri)
momentum with the angular velocity of a rotating i:1
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 61
N
If I is the MI of the body, its initial angular Ravi
where I : mi ri : moment of inertia of the body FINAL
i:1 momentum is I and final angular momentum is
about the given axis. I .
; ;
In vector form, L : I Change in angular momentum
Thus, angular momentum : I 9I : I( 9 )
: moment of inertia ; angular velocity. 80 : I (40920)
N
N
rotating with constant angular acceleration. OR
where I : mi ri is the moment of inertia of the
★ Obtain an expression relating the torque with i:1
uniform angular acceleration for a rotating rigid body about the axis of rotation.
; ;
body. (3 marks) In vector form, : I
Ans. A torque acting on a body produces angular This gives the required relation.
;
acceleration. Angular acceleration has the same direction as
;
Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis the torque and both of them are axial vectors
passing through the point O and perpendicular to along the rotation axis. ■
;
the plane of the figure. Suppose that a torque on Q. 118. A torque of 4 N·m acting on a body of mass
1 kg produces an angular acceleration of 2 rad/s.
What is the moment of inertia of the body ?
(1 mark)
Ans. The moment of inertia of the body.
4
I: : :2 kg·m ■
2
Q. 119. Two identical rings are to be rotated about
different axes of rotation as shown by applying
torques so as to produce the same angular acceler-
Fig. 1.55 : Torque and angular acceleration ation in both. How is it possible ? (2 marks)
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 63
Ravi
FINAL
Solved Problems 1.9
the second is a disc with inner radius r and outer (2) A body starts rotating from rest. Due to a couple of
radius R. Both are rotating with same angular 20 N.m, it completes 60 revolutions in one minute.
velocity about transverse axes through their Find the moment of inertia of the body. (3 marks)
centres. If the first wheel comes to rest in time t Solution :
while the second comes to rest in time t , are t Data : :0, :20 N·m, t:1 min:60 s, ft:60 rev
and t different ? Why ? (3 marks) :t:2ft:2;60:120 rad
Ans. The moments of inertia of the two wheels about 1
: t; t
transverse axes through their centres are 2
1
1
I : MR,
1
I : M (R;r) 120 :0; (60;60)
2
2 2
(B they have the same mass) 120;2
: : rad/s
60;60 15
Assuming the same (frictional) torque, , acts on
:I
both the wheels,
The moment of inertia of the body,
:I :I
20 300 300
Since I I , . I: : : : :95.48 kg·m
/15 3.142
: ;t ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Since the final angular velocity :0,
(3) A wheel of moment of inertia 2 kg . m rotates at
: 9 and : 9 50 rpm about its transverse axis. Find the torque
t t
that can stop the wheel in one minute. (3 marks)
Solution :
t t
50 5
t t Data : I:2 kg . m, f :50 rpm: : rev/s,
60 6
■
t:60 s
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 65
Now, : ; t:0;t The time rate of change of its angular momentum, Ravi
; ; ;
FINAL
2f : t dl d ; ; dr ; ; dp
: ( r ;p ): ;p ;r ;
t 100 (2) dt dt dt dt
f : : : 100 Hz ; ; ; ;
2 2 :v ;mv ;r ;F
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ; ; ; ;
:r ;F (B v ;v :0)
(7) A rope is wound around a hollow cylinder of mass ;
:
3 kg and radius 40 cm. If the rope is pulled ;
dp ;
downwards with a force of 30 N, find (i) the where :F , the net force on the particle.
dt
angular acceleration of the cylinder (ii) the linear ;
; dl
acceleration of the rope. (3 marks) Hence, if :0, :0
dt
Solution : ; ;
l :constant, i.e., l is conserved. This proves
Data : M:3 kg, R:0.4 m, F:30 N the principle (or law) of conservation of angular
(i) The MI of a hollow cylinder about its cylinder axis, momentum.
I: MR Alternate Proof : Consider a rigid body rotating
The torque on the cylinder, :rF:RF ;
with angular acceleration about the axis of rota-
Also, :I:MR tion. If I is the moment of inertia of the body about
RF:MR ;
the axis of rotation, the angular velocity of the
The angular acceleration, ;
body at time t and L the corresponding angular
RF F 30 momentum of the body, then
: : : :25 rad/s
MR MR (3)(0.4) ; ;
L : I … (1)
(ii) The linear acceleration of the rope
Differentiating this with respect to t, we get :
:the tangential acceleration at
Rate of change of angular momentum with time,
:R:25;0.4:10 m/s ; ;
dL d ; d
■ : ( I ) : I
dt dt dt
Unit ( B I : constant in a particular case,
1.10 Conservation of angular momentum i.e., about the given axis of rotation)
; ;
Q. 122. State and prove the principle (or law) of con-
dL
;
dt
:I
;
; d
B :
dt … (2)
(1) Ice dance : Twizzle and spin are elements of the inertia for rotation of smaller radius and increased
sport of figure skating. In a twizzle a skater turns angular speed. The opening of the body for the
several revolutions while travelling on the ice. In a vertical entry into water does not stop the rotation,
dance spin, the skater rotates on the ice skate and but merely slows it down. The angular momentum
centred on a single point on the ice. The torque due remains constant throughout the flight. ■
to friction between the ice skate and the ice is small. Q. 124. A diver pulls her limbs in and curls up her
Consequently, the angular momentum of a figure body for a somersault in flight but extends her
skater remains nearly constant. limbs just before entering the water. Explain the
For a twizzle of smaller radius, a figure skater effect of both actions on her angular velocities.
draws her limbs close to her body to reduce mo- Also explain the effect on her angular momentum.
ment of inertia and increase frequency of rotation. (2 marks)
For larger rounds, she stretches out her limbs to Ans. Refer to the example (2) in the answer to Q. 123. ■
increase moment of inertia which reduces the angu- Q. 125. What happens when a ballet dancer stretches
lar and linear speeds. her arms while taking turns ? (1 mark)
A figure skater usually starts a dance spin in a Ans. When a ballet dancer stretches her arms while
crouch, rotating on one skate with the other leg and pirouetting, her moment of inertia increases,
both arms extended. She rotates relatively slowly and consequently her angular speed decreases to
because her moment of inertia is large. She then conserve angular momentum. ■
slowly stands up, pulling the extended leg and
Q. 126. If the Earth suddenly shrinks so as to reduce its
arms to her body. As she does so, her moment of
volume, mass remaining unchanged, what will be
inertia about the axis of rotation decreases consider-
the effect on the duration of the day ? (1 mark)
ably,and thereby her angular velocity substantially
Ans. If the Earth suddenly shrinks, mass remaining
increases to conserve angular momentum.
constant, the moment of inertia of the Earth will
decrease, and consequently the angular velocity of
rotation about its axis will increase. Since period
1
T. , the duration of the day T will decrease. ■
Fig. 1.57 : A figure skater performing a dance spin on the toes Find the angular velocity of the composite disc.
(Diagram for reference only) (2 marks)
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 67
; Ravi
Ans. We assume that the initial angular momenta (L Q. 130. What is the rotational analogue of the equation
; ;
FINAL
and L ) of the discs are either in the same direction
; dp
Fexternal : ? (1 mark)
or in opposite directions. Then, dt
;
the total initial angular momentum ; dL
; ; ; ; Ans. external : . ■
:L ;L :I ;I dt
After they are coupled, the total moment of inertia, Q. 131. Fly wheels used in automobiles and steam
i.e., the moment of inertia of the composite disc is engines producing rotational motion have discs
;
I:I ;I and the common angular velocity is .
with a large moment of inertia. Explain why?
Assuming conservation of angular momentum, (2 marks)
; ; ; ;
I :(I ;I ) :I ;I
; ; Ans. A flywheel is used as (i) a mechanical energy
; I ;I
: storage, the energy being stored in the form of
I ;I
; ; rotational kinetic energy (ii) a direction and speed
If and are in the same direction,
stabilizer. A flywheel rotor is typically in the form
I ;I ; ;
: . If and are in opposite 1
I ;I of a disc. Rotational kinetic energy, Erot : I,
2
I 9I
directions, : .
I ;I
■ where I is the moment of inertia and is the
angular speed. That is, Erot . I. Therefore, higher
Q. 128. A boy standing at the centre of a turntable
the moment of inertia, the higher is the rotational
with his arms outstretched is set into rotation with
kinetic energy that can be stored or recovered.
angular speed rev/min. When the boy folds his ; ; ;
Also, angular momentum, L :I , i.e., L . I.
2
arms back, his moment of inertia reduces to th its A torque aligned with the symmetry axis of a
5
flywheel can change its angular velocity and there-
initial value. Find the ratio of his final kinetic
by its angular momentum. A flywheel with a large
energy of rotation to his initial kinetic energy.
angular momentum will require a greater torque to
(2 marks)
change its angular velocity. Thus, a flywheel can be
2
Ans. Data : I : I
5 used to stabilize direction and magnitude of its
L:I angular velocity by undesired torques. ■
;
Assuming the angular momentum L is conserved,
in magnitude,
Solved Problems 1.10
I :I
Q. 132. Solve the following :
I 5
: : (1) A uniform horizontal disc is freely rotating about
I 2
1
a vertical axis passing through its centre at the rate
Rotational KE, E: I
2 of 180 rpm. A blob of wax of mass 1.9 g falls on it
I 2 5 5
E and sticks to it at 25 cm from the axis. If the
: : :
E I 5 2 2 frequency of rotation is reduced by 60 rpm, calcu-
This gives the required ratio. ■ late the moment of inertia of the disc. (3 marks)
Q. 129. Name the quantity that is conserved when Solution :
; ;
(i) Fexternal is zero (ii) external is zero. (1 mark) Data : f : 180 rpm : 180/60 rot/s:3 rot/s,
Ans. (i) Total linear momentum is conserved when f : (180960) rpm : 120/60 rot/s:2 rot/s,
;
Fexternal is zero. m : 1.9 g : 1.9;10\ kg, r : 25 cm : 0.25 m
;
(ii) Angular momentum is conserved when external Let I be the MI of the disc. Let I be the MI of the
is zero. ■ disc and the blob.
: 2.375 ; 109 kg·m 5
: 91 (0.8):0.2 kg·m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
(2) A horizontal disc is rotating about a transverse 0.2 1 1
x: : x: m:0.3536 m
axis through its centre at 100 rpm. A 20 gram blob
1.6 8 (8
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
of wax falls on the disc and sticks to it at 5 cm from
(4) A ballet dancer spins about a vertical axis at 2.5
its axis. The moment of inertia of the disc about its
rad/s with his arms outstretched. With the arms
axis passing through its centre is 2;10 9 kg·m.
folded, the MI about the same axis of rotation
Calculate the new frequency of rotation of the
changes by 25%. Calculate the new speed of
disc. (3 marks)
rotation in rpm. (3 marks)
Solution :
Solution : Let I , and f be the moment of inertia,
9
Data : f :100 rpm, m:20 g:20;10 kg,
angular velocity and frequency of rotation of the
r:5 cm:5;10 9 m, I :Idisc :2;10 9 kg.m ballet dancer with arms outstretched, and I , and
The MI of the disc and blob of wax is f be the corresponding quantities with arms
I :I ;mr folded.
:(2;10 9 );(20;10 9 )(5;10 9 ) Data : :2.5 rad/s
:(2;10 9 );(20;10 9 )(25;10 9 ) Since moment of inertia with arms folded is less
:(2;0.5);10 9 :2.5;10 9 kg.m than that with arms outstretched,
By the principle of conservation of angular I I
momentum, I :I . I :I 90.25 I :0.75 I : I
3
4
I (2 f ):I (2 f )
:2f :2.5
I f (2;10 9 )(100) 200
f : : : :80 rpm 2.5 5
I 2.5;10 9 5/2 f : : Hz
2 4
This is the new frequency of rotation.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ According to the principle of conservation of
★ (3) A potter’s wheel is set into rotation at 100 rpm. It is angular momentum, I : I
in the form of a disc of mass 10 kg and radius 0.4 m. I (2 f ) : I (2 f )
A lump of clay (to be treated as a particle) of mass The new frequency of rotation is
1.6 kg falls and adheres to the wheel at a distance x I f 4 5 5 5
f : : ; : Hz: ;60 rpm
I 3 4 3 3
from its centre. Calculate x if the wheel now
: 100 rpm
rotates at 80 rpm. (3 marks) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solution : (5) Two wheels, each of moment of inertia 4 kg·m,
Data : f :100 rpm, f :80 rpm, M:10 kg, rotate side by side at the rate of 120 rpm and
R:0.4 m, m:1.6 kg 240 rpm in opposite directions. If both the wheels
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 69
are coupled by a weightless shaft so that they now Ravi
FINAL
rotate with a common angular speed, find this new
rate of rotation. (3 marks)
Solution :
Data : I:4 kg·m, f :120 rpm, f :240 rpm
Initially, the angular velocities of the two wheels Fig. 1.58
; ;
( and ) and, therefore, their angular momenta
; ; After the blob of wax sticks to the rod, and the
( L and L ) are in opposite directions.
system rotates with an angular speed about the
The magnitude of the total initial angular momen-
horizontal axis through point C perpendicular to
tum the plane of the figure, the total final angular
: 9L ;L : 9I ;I (B I :I :I )
momentum of the system about this axis
:2 I ( f 9f ) … (1)
L
ML
After coupling onto the same shaft, the total mo- : ;M
12 4
ment of inertia is 2I. Let :2f be the common
12 ; 16 : 48 ·
ML ML 7ML
angular speed. : … (2)
The magnitude of the total final angular momen-
From Eqs (1) and (2), by the principle of conserva-
tum:2I·:4I·f … (2)
tion of angular momentum,
From Eqs. (1) and (2), by the principle of conserva-
7ML MVL
tion of angular momentum, · :
48 4
4If:2I ( f 9f )
12 V
f 9f 2409120 :
f: : :60 rpm 7 L
2 2
This gives the required angular speed.
This gives their new rate of rotation. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(7) A satellite moves around the Earth in an elliptical
(6) A homogeneous (uniform) rod XY of length L and
orbit such that at perigee (closest approach) it is
mass M is pivoted at the centre C such that it can
two Earth radii above the Earth’s surface. At
rotate freely in a vertical plane. Initially, the rod is
apogee (farthest position), it travels with one-
horizontal. A blob of wax of the same mass M as
fourth the speed it has at perigee. In terms of the
that of the rod falls vertically with speed V and
Earth’s radius R, what is the maximum distance of
sticks to the rod midway between points C and Y.
the satellite from the Earth’s surface ? (2 marks)
As a result, the rod rotates with angular speed .
Solution : Let rp and ra be the distances of the satellite
What will be the angular speed in terms of V and
from the centre of the Earth at perigee and apogee,
L? (3 marks)
respectively. Let vp and va be its linear (tangential)
Solution : The initial angular momentum of the rod is
velocities at perigee and apogee.
zero.
1
The initial angular momentum of the falling blob of Data : rp :2R;R:3R, va : vp
4
wax about the point C is (in magnitude) Let Lp and La be the angular momenta of the satellite
:mass;speed;perpendicular distance between about the Earth’s centre. Because the gravitational
;
its direction of motion and point C force (F ) on the satellite due to the Earth is always
L radially towards the centre of the Earth, its direction
:MV· ;
4 is opposite to that of the position vector (r ) of the
The total initial angular momentum of the rod and satellite relative to the centre of the Earth, so that the
; ; ;
MVL torque :r ;F :0. Hence, the angular momen-
blob of wax: … (1)
4 tum of the satellite about the Earth’s centre is
12 (14) :2 rad/s
The final rotational kinetic energy, Ef : Lf f
1 ML
2 I
: :
12
2Ef I 7ML
f :
Lf
■
2;10
: :20 rad/s
10 Unit
The moment of inertia of the body, 1.11 Rolling motion
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 71
Fig. 1.59 : Pure rolling on a plane surface
The centre of mass of the wheel is at its geometric Ans. Consider a symmetric rigid body, like a sphere or a
centre O. For purely translational motion (the wheel wheel or a disc, rolling on a plane surface with
sliding smoothly along the surface without rotating friction along a straight path. Its centre of mass
at all), every point on the wheel has the same linear (CM) moves in a straight line and, if the frictional
; ;
velocity v CM :v O as the centre O. For purely rota- force on the body is large enough, the body rolls
tional motion (as if the horizontal rotation axis without slipping. Thus, the rolling motion of the
through O were stationary), every point on the body can be treated as translation of the CM and
wheel rotates about the axis with angular velocity rotation about an axis through the CM. Hence, the
;
; in this case, every point on the rim has the same kinetic energy of a rolling body is
linear speed R. E:Etran ;Erot … (1)
We view the combined motion in the inertial frame
where Etran and Erot are the kinetic energies asso-
of reference in which the surface is at rest. In this
ciated with translation of the CM and rotation about
frame, since there is no slipping, the point of contact
an axis through the CM, respectively.
of the wheel with the surface is instantaneously
Let M and R be the mass and radius of the body.
stationary, vA :0, so that the wheel is turning about
Let , k and I be the angular speed, radius of
an instantaneous axis through the point of contact
gyration and moment of inertia for rotation about
A. The instantaneous linear speed of point C (at the
an axis through its centre, and v be the translational
top) is vC :(2R) – faster than any other point of the
speed of the centre of mass.
wheel. ■
v:R and I:Mk … (2)
Q. 134. Deduce an expression for the kinetic energy of 1
Etran : Mv and Erot : I
1
… (3)
2 2
a body rolling on a plane surface without slip-
ping. (2 marks) OR 1 1 1 1 v
E: Mv; I: Mv; I
2 2 2 2 R
Obtain an expression for the total kinetic energy
I
1 k 1
: Mv 1; … (4)
of a rolling body in the form Mv 1; . 2 MR
2 R
MR :
(2 marks) OR 1 Mk 1 k
: Mv 1; Mv 1; … (5)
Derive an expression for the kinetic energy when 2 2 R
a rigid body is rolling on a horizontal surface Also, from Eq. (2),
without slipping. Hence, find the kinetic energy
1 k 1
E: MR 1; : M (R;k) … (6)
of a solid sphere. (3 marks) 2 R 2
I 1 1
:
2
… (7) and Erot : Mv Erot /E:
2 2
MR 5
Substituting in Eq. (4), 1 1
(ii) For a disc, I: MR, so that : .
2 2
: Mv :
1 2 1 7 7
E: Mv 1; Mv … (8) 1 1 3
2 5 2 5 10 E: Mv 1; : Mv
2 2 4
■
1 1
and Erot : Mv Erot /E:
★ Q. 135. Discuss the interlink between translational, 4 3
:
1 2 5
Q. 136. A uniform solid sphere of mass 10 kg rolls on a E: Mv 1; Mv
2 3 6
horizontal surface. If its linear speed is 2 m/s,
1 2
and Erot : Mv and Erot /E:
what is its total kinetic energy ? (1 mark) 3 5
Ans. Total kinetic energy of the sphere [Note : The moment of inertia of all the round bodies
7 7 above can be expressed as I:MR, where is a pure
: Mv: ;10;(2):28 J ■
10 10 number less than or equal to 1. is equal to 1 for a ring or
1
Q. 137. A disc of mass 4 kg rolls on a horizontal a thin-walled hollow cylinder, for a disc or solid
2
surface. If its linear speed is 3 m/s, what is its total 2 2
cylinder, for a hollow sphere and for a solid sphere.
kinetic energy ? (1 mark) 3 5
Ans. Total kinetic energy of the disc All uniform rings or hollow cylinders of the same mass
and moving with the same speed have the same total
3 3
: Mv: ;4;(3):27 J ■
kinetic energy, even if their radii are different. All discs or
4 4
solid cylinders of the same mass and moving with the
Q. 138. Assuming the expression for the kinetic energy
same speed have the same total kinetic energy; all solid
of a body rolling on a plane surface without spheres of the same mass and moving with the same
slipping, deduce the expression for the total kin- speed have the same total kinetic energy. Also, for the
etic energy of rolling motion for (i) a ring (ii) a same mass and speed, bodies with small c have less total
disk (iii) a hollow sphere. Also, find the ratio of kinetic energy.] ■
rotational kinetic energy to total kinetic energy for Q. 139. A circularly symmetric rigid body starts from
each body. (2 marks each) rest and rolls down a plane inclined at an angle
Ans. For a body of mass M and radius of gyration k, to the horizontal without slipping. Derive
rolling on a plane surface without slipping with expressions for (i) its speed at the bottom of the
speed v, its total KE and rotational KE are respect- plane (ii) its acceleration (iii) the time it takes to
reach the bottom. (4 marks) OR
ively
★ A rigid body rolls down an inclined plane without
1
E: Mv(1;) slipping. Derive the expressions for the acceler-
2
ation along the plane and the speed after falling
1 1 v 1
and Erot : I: (Mk) : Mv
2 2 R 2 through a certain vertical distance. (3 marks)
1 k Ans. Consider a circularly symmetric rigid body, like a
where : : .
MR R sphere or a wheel or a disc, rolling with friction
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 73
down a plane inclined at an angle to the horizon- v Ravi
v:2aL a: … (6) FINAL
tal. If the frictional force on the body is large 2L
enough, the body rolls without slipping. 2gL sin 1 g sin g sin
a: . : : … (7)
1; 2L 1; 1;(k/R)
Let M and R be the mass and radius of the body.
Starting from rest, if t is the time taken to travel the
Let I be the moment of inertia of the body for
distance L,
rotation about an axis through its centre. Let the
1
body start from rest at the top of the incline at a L: at
2
2L 2L k
t: : · 1; … (8)
a g sin R
[Note : For rolling without slipping, the contact point
of the rigid body is instantaneously at rest relative to the
surface of the inclined plane. Hence, the force of friction
is static rather than kinetic, and does no work on the
body. Thus, the force of static friction causes no decrease
in the mechanical energy of the body and we can use the
principle of conservation of energy.] ■
1 I 1 radii. (2 marks each)
E: Mv 1; : Mv (1;) … (1)
2 MR 2 Ans. Consider a circularly symmetric body, of mass M
I
where : . and radius of gyration k, starting from rest on an
MR
inclined plane and rolling down without slipping.
If k is the radius of gyration of the body,
Its speed after rolling down through a height h is
I k
I:Mk and : :
MR R 2gh 2gh
v: : … (1)
1; 1;(k/R)
From conservation of energy,
(i) Ring : I:MR, so that :1.
(KE;PE)initial :(KE;PE)final … (2)
2gh
1 v: :(gh … (2)
0;Mgh: Mv (1;);0 1;1
2
1 1
1
Mgh: Mv (1;) … (3) (ii) Solid cylinder or disc : I: MR, so that : .
2 2
2
2gh 2gh 4
v: v: : gh (:(1.333gh) … (3)
1; 1; 3
2gh 2gh (iii) Spherical shell (hollow sphere) :
v: : … (4)
1; 1;(k/R) 2 2
I: MR, so that : .
3 3
Since h:L sin ,
2gh 6
2gL sin v: : gh (:(1.2gh) … (4)
v: … (5) 1; 5
1;(k/R)
2 2
(iv) Solid sphere : I: MR, so that : .
Let a be the acceleration of the centre of mass of the 5 5
body along the inclined plane. Since the body starts 2gh 10
v: : gh (:(1.428gh) … (5)
from rest, 1; 7
74 NAVNEET PHYSICS DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART I)
[Note : If the inclined plane is ‘smooth’, i.e., there is no (i) Ring : I:MR, so that :1. Ravi
FINAL
friction, the bodies will slide along the plane without any g sin 1
rotation. They will then have only translational kinetic
: : g sin (:0.5 g sin ) … (2)
1;1 2
energy, undergo equal acceleration and all three would
1 1
arrive at the bottom at the same time with the same (ii) Solid cylinder or disc : I: MR, so that : .
2 2
speed.] ■
g sin 2
: : g sin (:0.667 g sin ) … (3)
Q. 141. State with reason if the statement is true or 1; 3
false : A wheel moving down a perfectly friction-
2
less inclined plane will undergo slipping (not (iii) Spherical shell (hollow sphere) : I: MR, so that
3
rolling) motion. (1 mark)
2
Ans. The statement is true. : .
3
Explanation : Rolling on a surface (horizontal or g sin 3
a: : g sin (:0.6 g sin ) … (4)
inclined) without slipping may be viewed as pure 1; 5
rotation about an horizontal axis through the point
2 2
of contact, when viewed in the inertial frame of (iv) Solid sphere : I: MR, so that : .
5 5
reference in which the surface is at rest. The point of g sin 5
a: : g sin (:0.714 g sin ) … (5)
contact of the wheel with the surface will be instan- 1; 7
taneously at rest, resulting in a rolling motion, ■
radius of gyration k, on rolling down an inclined accelerates the fastest and therefore reaches the
plane of inclination has an acceleration bottom first before the solid cylinder, while the
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 75
Q. 148. Two circular discs A and B, having the same Ravi
FINAL
mass, have four identical small circular discs
placed on them, as shown in the diagram. They are
simultaneously released
from rest at the top of an
inclined plane. If the discs
roll down without slip-
ping, which disc will Fig. 1.63
2L 2L I
Fig. 1.62 tA : : · 1; A and
aA g sin MR
L sin
Since , : 1
L sin 2L 2L I
tB : : · 1; B
aB g sin MR
2gh
vCM : tA tB ,
1;(k/R)
Therefore, h being the same, vCM :vCM i.e., the disc A will reach the bottom first. ■
g sin
Since aCM : , aCM aCM Solved Problems 1.11 – 1.11.1
1;(k/R)
v:u;at Q. 149. Solve the following :
With u:0 and vCM :vCM , aCM t :aCM t .
(1) A lawn roller of mass 80 kg, radius 0.3 m and
t aCM moment of inertia 3.6 kg·m, is drawn along a
: 1 t t
t aCM level surface at a constant speed of 1.8 m/s. Find
The sphere will take longer time to roll down from (i) the translational kinetic energy (ii) the rota-
the same height on the plane with smaller inclina- tional kinetic energy (iii) the total kinetic energy
tion. ■ of the roller. (3 marks)
(i) The translational kinetic energy of the centre of foot of the plane. (2 marks)
Solution :
mass of the roller,
Data : M:2 kg, R:0.1 m, h:3 m, g:10 m/s
1 1
Etran : Mv: ;80;(1.8):40;3.24:129.6 J 1
2 2
The MI of a cylinder, I: MR
2
(ii) The rotational kinetic energy about the roller’s axle,
I 1
1 v 1 1.8 : :
1 MR 2
Erot : I: I : ;3.6;
2 2 R 2 0.3
At the foot of an inclined plane, the speed of a
:1.8;36:64.8 J circular body rolling down the inclined plane from
(iii) The total kinetic energy of the roller, a height h is
E:Etran ;Erot :129.6;64.8:194.4 J 2gh
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ v:
1;
(2) A solid sphere of mass 1 kg rolls on a table with
The rotational energy of the sphere,
linear speed 2 m/s, find its total kinetic energy.
1 1 1 v 1
(2 marks) E: I: MR : Mv
2 2 2 R 4
Solution : M 2gh M 2gh
: · : ·
Data : M:1 kg, v:2 m/ s 4 1; 4 1;
The total kinetic energy of a rolling body, M 2
: gh: (10)(3):20 J
3 3
1 k
E: Mv 1 ; The rotational energy of the sphere,
2 R
R
1 1 2 v
For a solid sphere, k: R
2 Erot : I: MR
5 2 2 5
: ;
2gh
1 2 1 7 M M 2gh
E: Mv 1 ; Mv : :
2 5 2 5 5 1; I 5 1;
MR
7 7 7;4
: Mv: ;1;2: :2.8 J
10 10 10 M 2gh 2Mgh
: :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5 7
(3) A ring and a disc having the same mass roll on a 2(2)(9.8)(3)
: :16.8 J
horizontal surface without slipping with the same 7
linear velocity. If the total KE of the ring is 8 J, ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
what is the total KE of the disc? (2 marks) ★ (5) Starting from rest, a body rolls down along an
Solution : incline that rises by 3 in every 5 along the plane.
Data : Mring :Mdisc :M, vring :vdisc :v, The body gains a speed of (10 m/s as it travels a
Ering :8 J 5
distance of m along the incline. What can be the
3
The total kinetic energies of rolling without
possible shape(s) of the body ? (2 marks)
slipping on a horizontal surface,
Solution :
3
Ering :Mv and Edisc : Mv 3 5
4 Data : sin : , u:0, v:(10 m/s, L: m,
5 3
since they have the same mass and linear velocity. g:10 m/s
3 3
Edisc : Ering : ;8:6 J 2 gL sin 2 gL sin
4 4 v: :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1;(k/R) 1;
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 77
2 gL sin directions of its angular velocity and angular accel- Ravi
v: FINAL
1; eration.
(A) Angular velocity upwards, angular acceleration
:2
5 3
2(10)
2 gL sin 3 5 downwards.
1;: :
v ((10) (B) Angular velocity downwards, angular acceler-
k ation upwards.
: :1
R (C) Both angular velocity and angular acceleration
Therefore, the body rolling down is either a ring upwards.
or a cylindrical shell. (D) Both angular velocity and angular acceleration
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
downwards.
(6) A solid sphere rolls up a plane inclined at 45° to the
★ 2. A particle of mass 1 kg is tied to a string 1.2 m long
horizontal. If the speed of its centre of mass at the
and whirled in vertical circular motion under grav-
bottom of the plane is 5 m/s, find how far the sphere
ity. The minimum speed of the particle is 5 m/s.
travels up the plane. (2 marks)
Consider the following statements :
Solution :
(I) The maximum speed must be 5(5 m/s.
Data : v:5 m/s, :45°, g:9.8 m/s
(II) The difference between maximum and mini-
The total energy of the sphere at the bottom of the
mum tensions in the string is 60 N.
plane is
Select the correct option :
7
E: Mv (A) Only the statement (I) is correct.
10
where M is the mass of the sphere. (B) Only the statement (II) is correct.
(C) Both the statements are correct.
In rolling up the incline through a vertical height
(D) Both the statements are incorrect.
h, it travels a distance L along the plane. Then,
L ★3. Select the correct statement about MI of a body in
h:L sin 45°: .
(2 terms of its mass M and appropriate dimensions
(such as R, L) :
By conservation of energy,
(A) Different objects must have different express-
Mgh:E
ions for their MI.
7 L
Mg : Mv (B) When rotating about their respective central
(2 10
axis, a hollow right circular cone and a disc have
7(2 v 7;1.414 (5) 4.949;5
L: · : · : the same expression for the MI.
10 g 10 9.8 9.8
(C) The expression for the MI of a parallele piped
24.75
: :2.526 m rotating about the transverse axis passing
0.8
The sphere travels 2.526 m up the plane. through its centre includes its depth.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (D) The expression for the MI of a rod and that of a
plane sheet is the same about a transverse axis.
★ 4. In a certain unit, the radius of gyration of a uniform
Q. 150. Choose the correct option : (1 mark each) disc about its central and transverse axis is (2.5
units. Its radius of gyration about a tangent in its
Note : Students are expected to write the option number
plane (in the same unit) must be
[viz., (A), (B), (C) or (D)] as well as the option in full.
(A) (5 (B) 2.5 (C) 2(2.5 (D) (12.5.
★ 1. When seen from below, the blades of a ceiling fan are ★ 5. Consider the following cases :
seen to be revolving anticlockwise and their speed is (i) A planet revolving in an elliptical orbit.
decreasing. Select the correct statement about the (ii) A planet revolving in a circular orbit.
race track, the centripetal force is (D) it will just reach the highest point with zero
(iii) the centripetal force. (3 marks) hollow cylindrical drum (the Rotor) of radius 3 m
(Ans. 12.57 rad/s, 18.85 m/s, 47.4 N) rotating about its vertical axis. The coefficient of
friction between the wall and his clothing is 0.15.
2. A particle performs circular motion of radius 2 m
What is the minimum rotational speed of the cylin-
with a constant angular acceleration of 0.4 rad/s.
der to enable the man to remain stuck to the wall
If its initial angular speed is 0.4 rad/s, find its
without falling when the floor is suddenly removed ?
(i) tangential acceleration (ii) angular speed after 2 s
(2 marks) (Ans. 4.714 rad/s or 45 rpm)
(iii) angular displacement in 2 s. (3 marks)
(Ans. 0.8 m/s, 1.2 rad/s, 1.6 rad) ★ 10. A motorcyclist (treated as a particle) is to ride in
3. The angular speed of a particle performing circular horizontal circles inside the cylindrical wall of a
motion at a given instant is 4 rad/s. If it has a well-of-death of radius 4 m. The coefficient of static
constant angular acceleration of 5 rad/s and the friction between the tyres and the wall is 0.4.
radius of the path is 20 cm, find its (i) angular speed Calculate the minimum speed and frequency
after 0.5 s (ii) tangential acceleration. (3 marks) necessary to perform the stunt.
4. The blades of a windmill have a radius of 40 m. At 11. Calculate the angle of banking of a smooth curved
top speed, a blade tip has a speed of 360 m/s. The road of radius 100 m, if vehicles can safely travel
speed reduces to 280 m/s in 10 s as the windmill along it with a speed of 108 km/h. (2 marks)
slows to rest at constant acceleration. (i) How much (Ans. 42°34 )
further time elapses before the blades come to rest ? 12. The road course of a Formula One race track has a
(ii) How many revolutions do the blades make in turn of radius 400 m banked at an angle of 9°. Under
coming to rest from top speed ? (3 marks) dry weather conditions, the friction between the
(Ans. 35 s, 1273) tyres and the road surface is 0.9. Calculate the
★ 5. A fan is rotating at 90 rpm. When switched off, it (i) optimum speed (ii) maximum safe speed at the
stops after 21 revolutions. Assuming a constant turn. (3 marks) (Ans. 24.92 m/s, 69.55 m/s)
frictional torque, calculate the time taken by it to 13. A circular race track of radius 300 m is banked at an
come to a stop. (2 marks) (Ans. 28 s) angle of 15°. If the coefficient of friction between the
6. A motorcycle and its rider, together weighing 250 kg, tyres of a race car and the road surface is 0.2, what is
move along a horizontal curve of radius 200 m with a (a) the optimum speed of the car to avoid wear and
constant speed of 36 km/h. Calculate (i) its angular tear on its tyres (b) the maximum permissible
speed (ii) its centripetal acceleration (iii) the centri- speed to avoid slipping ? (3 marks)
petal force. (3 marks) (Ans. 28.07 m/s, 38.12 m/s)
(Ans. 0.05 rad/s, 0.5 m/s, 125 N) 14. A motorcyclist drives along a circular track of
7. A coin is kept on a gramophone disc with its centre at radius 50 m with a speed of 54 km/h. Through
a distance of 5 cm from the centre of the disc and the what angle should he lean inwards to keep his
disc is set into rotation. The coin begins to slip when balance ? (2 marks) (Ans. 24°40 )
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 83
40. The angular speed of a flywheel changes from 48. To maintain a rotor at a uniform angular speed of Ravi
FINAL
10 rad/s to 20 rad/s in 5 seconds when a torque of 200 rad/s, a motor needs to transmit a torque of
20 N·m is applied to it. Calculate the MI of the 180 N·m. What is the power required by the motor ?
flywheel. (2 marks) (Ans. 10 kg·m) Assume that the efficiency of the motor is 100%.
41. A torque of magnitude 2000 N·m on a body pro- [Hint : Uniform angular velocity in the absence of
duces an angular acceleration of 2 rad/s. Calculate friction implies zero torque. In practice, applied
the moment of inertia of the body. (2 marks) torque is needed to counter frictional torque.]
(Ans. 1000 kg.m) (2 marks) (Ans. 36 kW)
42. Calculate the torque necessary to produce an angu- ★ 49. A ceiling fan having moment of inertia 2 kg·m
lar acceleration of 25 rad/s in a flywheel of mass attains its maximum frequency of 60 rpm in 2
50 kg and radius of gyration 50 cm about its axis. seconds. Calculate its power rating.
(2 marks) (Ans. 312.5 N.m) (2 marks) (Ans. 16 W < 50 W)
43. A uniform disc of mass 30 kg and radius 0.5 m is 50. A child stands at the centre of a frictionless turnt-
belt-driven by a motor. If the disc, starting from rest able with his two arms outstretched. The turntable
and accelerating uniformly, attains an angular is set rotating with an angular speed of 40 rpm.
speed of 20 rot/s in 15 s, what is the tension in the What is the angular speed of the turntable if he
belt? (2 marks) (Ans. 62.8 N) folds his hands back, thereby reducing his moment
44. Assuming that the effective frictional braking of inertia to
2
times the initial value ? (2 marks)
5
torque on the rotor of a centrifuge is 0.6 N.m and
(Ans. 100 rpm)
that the rotor has a mass of 1.2 kg and a MI of
4;10 9 kg·m, determine the time required for 51. A man stands on a platform rotating at 30 rpm with
the rotor to come to rest if it is spinning at 6000 rpm. his arms outstretched and a 5 kg block in each hand.
(2 marks) (Ans. 4.187 s) The man then brings his arms close to his body such
45. A cord of negligible mass is wound round a hollow that the distance of each block from the axis
cylinder of mass 3 kg, radius 40 cm and free to changes from 90 cm to 20 cm. Assume the moment
rotate about the cylinder axis. (i) What is the angu- of inertia of the man together with the platform to
lar acceleration of the cylinder if the rope is pulled be constant and equal to 7.6 kg·m. Ignoring fric-
with a force of 30 N ? (ii) What is the linear tion, what is his new angular speed ? (2 marks)
(Ans. 25 rad/s, 10 m/s) 52. A wheel is rotating with a frequency of 500 rota-
46. A flywheel, of mass 20 kg and radius 20 cm and tions per minute on a shaft. A second identical
mounted on a horizontal axle with frictionless wheel, initially at rest, is suddenly coupled on the
bearings is initially at rest. A cord of negligible mass same shaft. What is the frequency of rotation of the
is wound round its rim. If the cord is pulled down resultant combination ? Ignore the MI of the shaft.
with a steady force of 25 N, calculate (i) the angular (2 marks) (Ans. 250 rpm)
acceleration of the flywheel (ii) its kinetic energy 53. The Earth-Sun distance varies from 1.471;10 km
after 2 m of the cord is unwound. at perihelion to 1.521;10 km at aphelion. The
(3 marks) (Ans. 12.5 rad/s, 50 J) minimum orbital speed of the Earth is 29.3 km/s.
47. A 40 W electric motor keeps a flywheel of moment Find its maximum orbital speed. (2 marks)
of inertia 10 kg·m rotating at 20 rad/s. When the (Ans. 30.26 km/s)
motor is switched off, find (i) the work done against 54. If all of the Earth’s polar ice caps melt due to global
friction (ii) the number of rotations completed by warming, it would create a thin spherical shell of
the flywheel before coming to rest (iii) the corre- water, redistributing the mass at lower latitudes. As
sponding time. (3 marks) (Ans. 92 kJ, 159.1, 100 s) a rough estimation, this would increase the moment
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 85
d 2 d dv
1. : : :2f : 2. v:r at : :r
dt T dt dt
2 2r 1 v v
3. T: : f: : : 4. ac :v:r: Fc :mac
v T 2 2r r
1
1
MR
2
ML
12
Thin rod
3
MR
2
1
ML Thin disc
3
1
MR
4
MR
Thin ring or
5
hollow MR
4
cylinder
2MR
1
MR
2
1
MR Solid
2
cylinder
R L
M ;
4 12
Thin ring
3
MR
2
R L
M ;
4 3
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 87
Body Moment of Body Moment of
inertia inertia
1 1
M (R ;R ) 12
M(l;b)
2
Thick
walled 1
M [3(R ;R )
cylinder
12 Thin
;L] rectangular 1
Mb
plate 12
1
Mb
3
2
MR
3
Thin
spherical 1
Hollow cone MR
shell 5 2
MR
3
3
Solid cone MR
10
2
MR
5
Solid
sphere
7
MR
5
Rectangular
Thick bar 1
Iyaw : M (l;b)
spherical 2 (R 9R ) 12
M
shell 5 (R 9R ) Iroll :
1
12
M (b;w)
1
Ipitch : M (w;l)
12
1 I 1
15. Erot : I:2If:2 : L
2 T 2
1 1 1 k 1 I 1
16. Erolling : Mv; I: Mv 1; : Mv 1; : M (R;k)
2 2 2 R 2 MR 2
2gh g sin k I
17. On rolling down an inclined plane, v: a: where h:L sin and : :
1; 1; R MR
4 10 6
vring :(gh vdisc :vcylinder : gh vsphere : gh vshell : gh
3 7 5
1 2 5 3
aring : g sin adisc :acylinder : g sin asphere : g sin ashell : g sin
2 3 7 5
1
18. Work done by a constant external torque, W:: KErotational : I ( 9 )
2
Power, P:
; ;
19. L :I
;
; dL
20. external :
dt
; ; ;
$ L is conserved if external :0 : I :I
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 89
90 NAVNEET PHYSICS DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART I)
1. courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osuniversityphysics/chapter/10-1-rotational-variables/
(Also follow the NEXT button for subsequent 7 webpages)
2. Video lectures:
On rotating objects, moments of inertia, rotational KE :
youtube.com/watch?v:fDJeVR0o—w
ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01sc-classical-mechanics-fall-2016/week-10-rotational-motion/
On angular momentum and torque :
youtube.com/watch?v:sNaaL19opxw
ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01sc-classical-mechanics-fall-2016/week-11-angular-momentum/
On rolling motion :
youtube.com/watch?v:XPUuF—dECVI
ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01sc-classical-mechanics-fall-2016/week-12-rotations-and-translation-rolling/
1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 91
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
2.3.3 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure Q. 4. How does a fluid differ from a solid ? (2 marks)
2.3.4 Hydrostatic Paradox Ans. In response to a shear as well as normal force,
2.3.5 Pascal’s law, Applications a solid deforms and develops a restoring force.
2.3.6 Measurement of pressure Within the elastic limit, both types of deformation is
reversible. A solid changes its shape under a shear.
Q. 1. What is a fluid ? Give two examples. (2 marks) A normal force causes a change in its length or
Ans. A fluid is a substance that can flow. A fluid has volume. If the elastic limit is exceeded, the solid
shear modulus<0 and yield to shear. Under a gets an irreversible deformation called a permanent
shear stress and a pressure gradient, a fluid begins set.
to flow. Liquids, gases and plasmas are collectively
A fluid, on the other hand, can only be subjected
called fluids.
to normal compressive stress, called pressure.
Examples : All gases, all liquids, molten glass and
A fluid does not have a definite shape, so that under
lava, honey, etc. ■
a shear it begins to flow, Real fluids, with non-zero
Do you know ? viscosity, display a weak resistance to shear. ■
(Textbook page 26)
Plasma is a phase of matter which exists at very high Q. 5. State the properties of a fluid. ( 12 mark each)
temperatures, at which molecules may disassociate Ans. Properties of a fluid :
into atoms and ions, and further into electrons and (1) They do not resist deformation and get perma-
protons. Plasma, however, has very different proper- nently deformed.
ties from the three other common phases of matter (2) They are capable of flowing.
(viz., solid, liquid and gas) due to the strong electrical
(3) They take the shape of the container. ■
forces between the charges.
Remember this
(Textbook page 27)
Q. 2. What is an ideal fluid ? OR
The term fluid includes both the liquid and gas phases.
State the characteristics of an ideal fluid. (2 marks)
It is commonly used, as a synonym for liquid only,
Ans. An ideal fluid is one that has the following
without any reference to gas. For example, ‘brake
properties :
fluid’ is hydraulic oil and will not perform its required
(1) It is incompressible, i.e., its density has a constant
function if there is gas in it ! This colloquial use of the
value throughout the fluid.
term is also common in the fields of medicine and
(2) Its flow is irrotational, i.e., the flow is steady or nutrition, e.g., ‘‘take plenty of fluids.’’
laminar. In an irrotational flow, the fluid doesn’t
rotate like in a whirlpool and the velocity of the Q. 6. Define pressure. State its SI and CGS units and
moving fluid at a specific point doesn’t change over dimensions. (3 marks)
time. (Many fluids change from laminar to turbu- Ans. Definition : The pressure at a point in a fluid in
lent flow as the speed of the fluid increases above hydrostatic equilibrium is defined as the normal
some specific value. This can dramatically change force per unit area exerted by the fluid on a surface
the properties of the fluid.) of infinitesimal area containing the point.
Q. 7. State two non-SI units of pressure. (1 mark) is exerted depends inversely on the area of contact;
smaller the area, greater the pressure. For instance, a
Ans. Two non-SI units, which are either of historical
force applied to an area of 1 mm applies a pressure
interest, or are still used in specific fields are the bar
that is 100 times as great as the same force applied to
and the torr.
an area of 1 cm. The edge of a knife or the tip of a
1 bar:0.1 MPa:100 kPa:1000 hPa:10Pa
needle has a small area of contact. That is why a
1 torr:(101325/760) Pa:133.32 Pa
sharp needle is able to puncture the skin when a
[Note : Their use in modern scientific and technical small force is exerted, but applying the same force
work is strongly discouraged.] ■
with a finger does not.
Q. 8. If a force of 200 N is applied perpendicular to a
Use your brain power
surface of area 10 cm, what is the corresponding (Textbook page 27)
pressure ? (1 mark)
A student of mass 50 kg is standing on both feet.
F 200 N
Ans. Pressure, p: : :2;10 N/m. ■ Estimate the pressure exerted by the student on the
A 10;10 96 m
Earth. Assume reasonable value to any quantity
Remember this
(Textbook page 27) you need; justify your assumption. You may use
g:10 m/s, By what factor will it change if the
Taking g:10 m/s, one newton force is about 100
student lies on back ?
gram weight (1 N<100 g wt).
Assume area of each foot:area of a 6 cm;25 cm
Q. 9. Explain why the forces acting on any surface rectangle.
within a fluid in hydrostatic equilibrium must be Area of both feet:0.03 m
normal to the surface. (2 marks) The pressure due to the student’s weight
greater than the outward pressure of the air inside, The mass of the fluid within the column is
it would be difficult to take a breath under 1.5 m of m:density;volume
water than on the beach. ■
:Ah
If p and p are the pressures at the top and
Q. 17. What is atmospheric pressure ? Define standard
bottom faces of the column, the forces on the top
atmospheric pressure. (2 marks)
and bottom faces are respectively.
Ans. The Earth’s surface is covered with a layer of
F :p A;mg (downward)
atmosphere, with more than 99% of the atmosphere
and F :p A (upward)
lying within 31 km of the surface. The weight of the
If the column is in equilibrium,
atmosphere exerts a downward thrust on any sur-
F :F
face lying within it. This gives rise to atmospheric
p A:p A;mg:p A;Ahg
pressure. The atmospheric pressure at any height
p 9p :hg
above the Earth’s surface is the weight of a column If p :p :atmospheric pressure, the gauge
of air of unit cross section from that altitude to the
pressure
top of the atmosphere. p 9p :hg
Definition : Standard atmospheric pressure, or In the absence of gravity, p :p . But since
one atmosphere of pressure, is defined as the pressure atmospheric pressure is equal to the weight per unit
equivalent of a column of mercury that is exactly area of the entire air column above, even p will be
0.7600 m in height at 0 °C. zero in the absence of gravity. ■
D 3.142 (0.3 m) area 20 cm. The output piston has surface area
A: : :7.07;10 92 m 1000 cm. If a force of 50 N is applied to the input
4 4
Total weight of the car and lift, piston, it raises the output piston by 2 m. Calculate
W:(m;M)g the weight of the support on the output piston and
:(800 kg;1700 kg) (9.8 m/s) the work done by it. (3 marks)
:2.45;10 N Solution :
Therefore, the pressure on the piston Data : A :20 cm:2;10 93 m,
F W
p: : :
2.45;10 N A :1000 cm:10 91 m, F :50 N, s :2 m
A A 7.07;10 92 m
(i) By Pascal’s law,
:3.465;10 Pa
F F
A pressure of 3.465;10 Pa must be exerted on :
A A
the piston. A
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ F :F
A
(5) The diameters of two pistons in a hydraulic press
10 91 m
are 5 cm and 25 cm respectively. A force of 20 N is :(50 N); :50;50
2;10 93 m
applied to the smaller piston. Find the force
:2500 N
exerted on the larger piston. (2 marks)
This gives the weight of the support on the
Solution : output piston.
Data : D :5 cm, D :25 cm, F :20 N
(ii) The work done by the force transmitted to the
By Pascal’s law,
output piston is
F F
: F s :(2500 N) (2 m)
A A
the force on the larger piston is :5000 J
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A D22/4
F :F :F (8) A driver pushes the brake pedal of a car exerting a
A D21/4
force of 100 N that is increased by the simple lever
D
:F
D to a force of 500 N on the pedal (master) cylinder.
The hydraulic system transmits this force to the
25 cm
:20 N;5 :20;25
5 cm four wheel (slave) cylinders. If the pedal cylinder
:500 N has a diameter of 0.5 cm and each wheel cylinder
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
has a diameter of 2.5 cm, calculate the magnitude
★ (6) In a hydraulic lift, the input piston has surface
of the force F on each of the wheel cylinder.
area of 30 cm and the output piston has a surface s
(2 marks)
area of 1500 cm. If a force of 25 N is applied to the
input piston, calculate the force on the output Solution :
piston. (2 marks) Data : Fm :500 N, Dm :1 cm, Ds :2.5 cm
Fs Fm
Solution : :
As Am
Data : A :30 cm:3;10 93 m,
The magnitude of the force on each of the wheel
A :1500 cm:0.15 m, F :25 N
cylinders,
By Pascal’s law,
Ds
As 2.5
F F Fs : Fm : Fm : (500)
: Am Dm 0.5
A A
:25;500:12.5 kN
The force on the output piston, ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
rical shape of freely-falling raindrops and the (2) Sphere of influence : The sphere of influence of a
behaviour of bubbles and soap films. molecule is defined as an imaginary sphere with the
Q. 39. What is meant by free surface of a liquid ? thickness equal to R experience a net cohesive force
Ans. The surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is (5) The surface area is proportional to the number of
called the free surface of the liquid. ■ molecules on the surface. To increase the surface
area, molecules must be brought to the surface from
Remember this
(Textbook page 34) within the liquid. For this, work must be done
While studying pressure, we consider both liquids and against the cohesive forces. This work is stored in
gases. But as gases do not have a free surface, they do the liquid surface in the form of potential energy.
not exhibit surface tension. With a tendency to have minimum potential en-
ergy, the liquid tries to reduce the number of
Q. 40. Explain the phenomenon of surface tension on
molecules on the surface so as to have minimum
the basis of molecular theory. (3 marks)
surface area. This is why the surface of a liquid
Ans. The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to
behaves like a stressed elastic membrane. ■
the cohesive forces between the molecules of a
Q. 41. Define surface tension. (1 mark)
liquid. The net cohesive force on the liquid mol-
State its formula and CGS and SI units. (1 mark)
ecules within the surface film differs from that on
Ans. The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the
molecules deep in the interior of the liquid.
tangential force per unit length, acting at right
Consider three molecules of a liquid : A molecule
angles on either side of an imaginary line on the free
A well inside the liquid, and molecules B and C
surface of the liquid.
lying within the surface film, Fig. 2.12. The figure
If F is the force on one side of a line of length l,
also shows their spheres of influence of radius R.
drawn on the free surface of a liquid, the surface
tension (T) of the liquid is
F
T:
l
This work is stored in the unit surface area in the taut by the film on the
form of potential energy. This potential energy is other side as far as it
called the surface energy. can go. The thread is
Due to the displacement dx, the surface area of the now part of a perfect
film increases. As the film has two surfaces, the circle, because the
increase in its surface area is surface tension on the
side F of the film acts
A : 2ldx
everywhere perpen-
Thus, the work done per unit surface area is Fig. 2.15
dicular to the thread,
W 2Tldx and minimizes the surface area of the film to as small
: :T
A 2ldx as possible.
Q. 46. Two soap bubbles of the same soap solution The work done, under isothermal condition, against
have diameters in the ratio 1 : 2. What is the ratio the force of surface tension to change the surface area
of work done to blow these bubbles ? (1 mark) of a liquid is stored as surface energy of liquid.
Ans. Work done . surface area.
W /W : (r /r ):(1/2):1/4 ★ Q. 49. What is the work done in blowing a soap
W : W :1 : 4. ■ bubble of radius r ? (2 marks)
Q. 47. If the surface tension of a liquid is 70 dyn/cm, Ans. Let T be the surface tension of a soap solution.
what is the total energy of the free surface of the The initial surface area of soap bubble:0
liquid drop of radius 0.1 cm ? (1 mark) The final surface area of soap bubble:2;4r
22 The increase in surface area:2;4r29
Ans. E:4rT:4; ;(0.1);70
7 The work done in blowing the soap bubble is
:88;10\;10:8.8 ergs ■ W:surface tension;increase in surface area
Q. 48. The total energy of the free surface of a liquid :T;2;4r:8rT ■
R
:4 10; 9R 4
8 ; r : R
4
10 3 3
:13600 kg m, T:0.465 N/m, g:9.8 m/s ★ (10) Twenty seven droplets of water, each of radius
4 4
0.1 mm, coalesce into a single drop. Find the
R : n; r
3 3 change in surface energy. [Surface tension of
as the volume of the mercury remains the same. water is 0.072 N/m] (3 marks)
d:2r:2;0.7072;10\ (3) For a liquid which does not wet the solid, the angle
Q. 53. Draw neat diagrams to show the angle of contact (4) It changes with surface tension and, hence, with the
in the case of a liquid which (i) completely wets temperature and purity of the liquid. ■
(ii) partially wets (iii) does not wet the solid. Q. 55. Explain why the free surface of some liquids in
State the characteristics of the angle of contact in contact with a solid is not horizontal. OR
each case, giving one example of each. Explain the formation of concave and covex sur-
(2 marks each) face of a liquid on the basis of molecular theory.
Ans. Characteristics : (3 marks)
(1) For a liquid, which completely wets the solid, the Ans. For a molecule in the liquid surface which is in
angle of contact is zero. contact with a solid, the forces on it are largely the
; ;
For example, pure water completely wets clean solid-liquid adhesive force FA :PA and the liquid-
Remember this
(Textbook page 41)
In Fig. 2.17, the gravitational force on the molecule P
is negligibly small compared to the cohesive and
adhesive forces on it and hence ignored.
interfacial tensions. OR Q. 60. State the expression for the angle of contact in
Draw diagram showing force due to surface ten- terms of interfacial tensions ? (1 mark)
sion at the liquid-solid, air-solid, air-liquid inter- T 9T
Ans. cos : , where is the angle of contact for a
face, in case of (i) a drop of mercury on a plane T
solid surface and (ii) a drop of water on a plane liquid–solid pair, T is the liquid-solid interfacial
solid surface. Discuss the variation of angle of tension, T is the solid-gas (air;vapour) inter-
contact. (3 marks) facial tension and T is the liquid-gas interfacial
Ans. A liquid surface, in general, is curved where it tension. ■
meets a solid. The angle between the solid surface Q. 61. In terms of interfacial tension, when is the angle
and the tangent to the liquid surface at the extreme of contact acute ? (1 mark)
edge of the liquid, as measured through the liquid, Ans. The angle of contact is acute when the solid-gas
is called the angle of contact. (air;vapour) interfacial tension is greater than the
liquid-solid interfacial tension. ■
Case (1) : If T T , cos is positive and contact Q. 65. Explain the effect of impurity on the angle of
angle 90°, so that the liquid wets the surface. contact (or surface tension of a liquid). (2 marks)
Case (2) : If T T , cos is negative and is Ans. Effect of impurity :
obtuse, so that the liquid is non-wetting. (i) The angle of contact or the surface tension of a
Case (3) : If T 9T <T , cos :1 and <0°. liquid increases with dissolved impurities like com-
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 111
mon salt. For dissolved impurities, the angle of Consider two molecules, A and B, respectively Ravi
FINAL
contact (or surface tension) increases linearly with just above and below the free surface of a liquid. So,
the concentration of the dissolved materials. the level difference between them is negligibly
(ii) It decreases with sparingly soluble substances like small and the atmospheric pressure on both is the
;
phenol or alcohol. A detergent is a surfactant whose same, p0 , Let Fatm be the downward force on A and
molecules have hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends; B due to the atmospheric pressure.
the hydrophobic ends decrease the surface tension
of water. With reduced surface tension, the water
can penetrate deep into the fibres of a cloth and
remove stubborn stains.
(iii) It decreases with insoluble surface impurities like
oil, grease or dust. For example, mercury surface
contaminated with dust does not form perfect
spherical droplets till the dust is removed. ■
Q. 66. Explain the effect of temperature on the angle of Fig. 2.20 : Resultant force on a surface molecule (a) for a plane
contact (or surface tension of a liquid). (2 marks) surface (b) concave surface (c) convex surface
Ans. Effect of temperature : The surface tension of a If the free surface of a liquid is horizontal, the
liquid decreases with increasing temperature of the ;
resultant force F T on molecule B is zero, Fig. 2.20
liquid. For small temperature differences, the de- (a). Then, the cohesion pressure is negligible and
crease in surface tension is nearly directly propor- ;
the net force on A and B is Fatm . The pressure
tional to the temperature rise.
difference on the two sides of the liquid surface is
If T and T are the surface tensions of a liquid at
zero.
temperatures and 0 °C, respectively, then
T:T (19) where is a constant for a given If the free surface of a liquid is concave, the
;
liquid. The surface tension of a liquid becomes zero resultant force F T on molecule B is outwards (away
;
at its critical temperature. The surface tension in- from the liquid), Fig. 2.20 (b), opposite to F atm .
;
creases with increasing temperature only in case of Then, the net force on B is less than F atm and the
molten copper and molten cadmium. ■ cohesion pressure is decreased. The pressure above
Q. 67. Why cold wash is recommended for new the concave liquid surface is greater than that just
cotton fabrics while hot wash for removing below the liquid surface.
stains ? (1 mark) If the free surface of a liquid is convex, the
Ans. Cold wash is recommended for new/coloured ;
resultant force F T on molecule B acts inwards (into
cotton fabrics. Cold water, due to its higher surface ;
the liquid), Fig., 2.20 (c), in the direction of F atm .
tension, does not penetrate deep into the fibres and ;
Then, the net force on B is greater than F atm and the
thus does not fade the colours. Hot water, because
cohesion pressure is increased. The pressure below
of its lower surface tension, can penetrate deep into
the convex liquid surface is greater than that just
fabric fibres and remove tough stains. ■
above the liquid surface. ■
Q. 68. Explain in brief the pressure difference across a
curved liquid surface. (4 marks) ★ Q. 69. Derive an expression for the excess pressure
Ans. Every molecule lying within the surface film of a inside a liquid drop. OR
static liquid is pulled tangentially by forces due to Derive Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane.
;
surface tension. The direction of their resultant, FT, (3 marks)
on a molecule depends upon the shape of that Ans. Consider a small spherical liquid drop with a
liquid surface and decides the cohesion pressure at radius R. It has a convex surface, so that the
a point just below the liquid surface. pressure p on the concave side (inside the liquid) is
surface of the drop experience an outward force per dW:(excess pressure;surface area) · dR
unit area equal to p9p . Therefore, the work done :(p9p );4R · dR … (3)
by this outward pressure-developed force against From Eqs. (2) and (3),
the surface tension force during the increase in (p9p );4R · dR:16TRdR
radius dR is 4T
p9p : … (4)
R
dW:(excess pressure;surface area) · dR
which is the required expression.
:(p9p );4R · dR … (4)
From Eqs. (3) and (4), [Note : The excess pressure inside a drop or bubble is
inversely proportional to its radius : the smaller the
(p9p );4R · dR:8TRdR
bubble radius, the greater the pressure difference across
2T
p9p : … (5) its wall.] ■
R
which is called Laplace’s law for a spherical Q. 71. What is the excess of pressure inside a soap
membrane (or Young-Laplace equation in spherical bubble of radius 3 cm if the surface tension of the
soap solution is 30 dyn/cm ? (1 mark)
form).
4T 4;30
[Notes : (1) The above method is called the principle of Ans. Excess of pressure, p – p : :
R 3
virtual work. (2) Equation (5) also applies to a gas bubble :40 dyn/cm ■
within a liquid, and the excess pressure in this case is also
Q. 72. Two soap bubbles of the same soap solution
called the gauge pressure. An air or gas bubble within a
have radii 3 cm and 1.5 cm. If the excess pressure
liquid is technically called a cavity because it has only one
inside the bigger bubble is 40 dyn/cm, what is the
gas-liquid interface. A bubble, on the other hand, such as a
excess pressure inside the smaller bubble ?
soap bubble, has two gas-liquid interfaces.] ■
(1 mark)
Q. 70. Derive an expression for the excess pressure Ans. Excess pressure . T/R. In this case, the surface
inside a soap bubble. OR tension is the same in the two cases. Hence, the
2T 2T (See http://mafija.fmf.uni-lj.si/]
pin :p; :p ;gh; .
R R
Solved Problems 2.4.3 – 2.4.6
Brain teaser
(Textbook page 41) Q. 75. Solve the following :
1. Can you suggest any method to measure the (1) What is the excess pressure (in atm) inside a soap
surface tension of a soap solution ? Will this bubble with a radius of 1.5 cm and surface tension
method have any commercial application ? of 3;10 9 N/m? [1 atm:101.3 kPa] (2 marks)
There are more than 40 methods for determining Solution :
equilibrium surface tension at the liquid-fluid and Data : R:1.5;10 9 m, T:3;10 9 N/m,
1 atm:1.013;10 Pa
PC : PD
P A : PD
PA PB
PD PB (B PA : PD )
convex, as shown in Fig. 2.22 (b). length acting along the contact line. It is directed
into the liquid making an angle with the capillary
Consider again four points A, B, C and D when
wall. We ignore the small volume of the liquid in
the meniscus in the capillary tube is at the same
the meniscus. The gauge pressure within the liquid
level as the free surface of the liquid. Points A and B
at a depth h, i.e., at the level of the free liquid
are just above and below the convex meniscus.
surface open to the atmosphere, is
Points C and D are just above and below the free
liquid surface outside. p9p :gh … (1)
The pressure at B (PB) is greater than that at By Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane, this
A (P ). The pressure at A is the atmospheric press- gauge pressure is
ure H and at D, PD < H : PA . Hence, the hydros-
2T
tatic pressure at the same levels at B and D are not p9p : … (2)
R
equal, P P . Hence, the liquid flows from B to D
"
and the level of the liquid in the capillary falls. This 2T 2T cos
hg: :
R r
continues till the pressure at B is the same as that
D , that is till the pressures at the same level are 2T cos
h: … (3)
equal. rg
2T 2T 2 1 1 rhg
h:h 9h : 9 : 9 Surface tension, T :
r g r g g r r 2 cos
2T r 9r
:
g r r
The radius of the capillary tube,
hgr r 2T cos
The surface tension of the liquid, T: r:
2(r 9r ) hg
■ 2 ; 70 ; 1
: : 0.02041 cm
Do you know ? 7 ; 1 ; 980
(Textbook page 37) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
To read height of a liquid in a ★ (3) Calculate the rise of water in a clean glass capil-
capillary, we read the position of lary tube of radius 0.1 mm when dipped into
the tangent to the liquid menis- water of surface tension 7;10 92 N/m. [Angle of
cus, concave or convex. The contact between water and glass:0, density of
observer’s eye should be as water:1000 kg/m, g:9.8 m/s] (2 marks)
shown.
Solution :
Data : r:0.1 mm:1;10 94m, :0°,
Solved Problems 2.4.7 T:7;10 92 N/m, r:10 kg/m, g:9.8 m/s
[Data : g:9.8 m/s] cos :cos 0°:1
Q. 84. Solve the following : 2T cos 2;7;10 92 ;1
Capillary rise, h: :
(1) A liquid of density 900 kg/m rises to a height of prg 1;10 94 ;10;9.8
9 mm in a capillary tube of 2.4 mm diameter. If the :0.143 m
angle of contact is 25 °, find the surface tension of ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2.4 Solution :
r: ;diameter: :1.2 mm:1.2;109 m
2 2 Data : h : 9 cm, r : 0.02 cm, r : 0.03 cm
cos :cos 25 °:0.9063 r h g
For the first capillary, T :
The surface tension of the liquid, 2cos
rhg r h g
T: For the second capillary, T :
2 cos 2cos
1.2;109;9;109;900;9.8
: r h g r h g
2;0.9063 :
2cos 2cos
: 5.257;109 N/m
r h :r h
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 119
The height of the liquid column in the second The surface tension of mercury is Ravi
FINAL
capillary, rhg
T:
r h 0.02 ; 9 2 cos
h : : : 6 cm
r 0.03 (4;109)(91.50;109) (13.6;10)(9.8)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ :
2(90.8480)
(5) Water rises to a height of 5 cm in a certain capillary
tube. In the same capillary tube, mercury is de- :0.4715 N/m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
pressed by 2.02 cm. Compare the surface tensions (7) The tube of a mercury barometer is 1 cm in
of water and mercury. diameter. What correction due to capillarity is to
[Density of water:1000 kg/m, density of be applied to the barometric reading if the surface
mercury:13600 kg/m, angle of contact for tension of mercury is 435.5 dyn/cm and the angle
water:0°, angle of contact for mercury:148°] of contact of mercury with glass is 140° ?
(2 marks) [Density of mercury:13600 kg/m] (2 marks)
Solution : Let Tw, w , hw and w be the surface Solution :
tension, angle of contact, capillary rise and density Data : d:1 cm, T:435.5 dyn/cm, :140°,
of water respectively. Let Tm , m, hm and m be the
:13660 kg/m:13.66 g/cm,
corresponding quantities for mercury. The radius
g:9.8 m/s:980 cm/s
(r) of the capillary is the same in both cases.
d
Data : hw : 5 cm : 5 ; 109 m, w : 0°, r: :0.5 cm, cos 140°: 90.7660
2
w : 1000 kg/m, hm : – 2.02 cm hrg 2T cos
9 T: h:
: – 2.02 ; 10 m, 2 cos rg
m : 13600 kg/m, m : 148° 2;435.5;(90.7660)
h: : 90.1001 cm
0.5;13.6;980
[Note : hm is taken to be negative because for mercury
there is capillary depression.]
The correction due to capillarity: ;0.1001 cm
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
cos w : cos 0 ° : 1 (8) Calculate the density of paraffin oil, if within a
cos m : cos 148 ° : – cos 32° : – 0.8480 glass capillary of diameter 0.25 mm dipped in
paraffin oil of surface tension 0.0245 N/m, the oil
rhw w g rh g
Tw : and Tm : m m rises to a height of 4 cm. [Angle of contact of
2 cos w 2 cos m
paraffin oil with glass:28°, acceleration due to
Tw hw w cosm
: gravity:9.8 m/s] (3 marks)
Tm hm m cos w
Solution :
Tw 5 ; 109 ; 1000;(– 0.8480)
: : 0.1543
Tm 92.02 ; 109 ; 13600 ; 1 Data : d:0.25 mm, T:0.0245 N/m,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
h:4 cm:4;10\ m, :28°, g:9.8 m/s
(6) When a glass capillary tube of radius 0.4 mm is
d
dipped into mercury, the level of mercury inside r: :0.125 mm:1.25;10\ m
2
the capillary stands 1.50 cm lower than that out-
hrg
side. Calculate the surface tension of mercury. T:
2 cos
[Angle of contact of mercury with glass:148 °,
2T cos
density of mercury:13600 kg/m] (2 marks) :
hrg
Solution :
2;0.0245;cos 28°
Data : r : 0.4 mm : 4 ; 109 m, :
4;10\;1.25;10\;9.8
h : – 1.50 cm :91.50 ; 109 m, 0.0245;0.8829
: : 882.9 kg/m
:13.6;10 kg/m, g:9.8 m/s, :148 ° 2.5;9.8;10\
This gives the density of paraffin oil.
cos :cos 148 °: 9cos 32 °: 90.8480 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
true about the other points such as B and C. A curve flowing. In a flow tube, where the streamlines are
which is tangent or parallel to the velocity of the close together the velocity is high, and where they
fluid particles at every point will be the path of every are widely separated, the fluid is moving slowly.
particle arriving at A. It is called a streamline. A fluid No fluid can cross the boundary of a tube of flow.
particle cannot cross a streamline but only flow ■
along it.
Q. 89. Explain turbulent flow. (2 marks)
Ans. Turbulent flow or turbulence is a non-steady fluid
flow in which streamlines and flowtubes change
continuously. It has two main causes. First, any
obstruction or sharp edge, such as in a tap, creates
For 1000 Re 2000, there is a transition region in Q. 96. Define and explain velocity gradient in a steady
which the flow is extremely sensitive to all sorts of flow. (3 marks)
small disturbances. For Re 2000, the flow is Ans. Definition : In a steady flow of a fluid past a solid
completely turbulent. ■ surface, the rate at which the velocity changes with
[Notes : (1) See Q. 95 for ‘‘free-stream velocity’’. (2) The distance within a limiting distance from the surface
dimensionless number is named after Osborne Reynolds is called the velocity gradient.
(1842 – 1912), British physicist.] ■
When a fluid flows past a surface with a low
Q. 92. Explain the term viscosity. (2 marks) velocity, within a limiting distance from the surface,
Ans. Suppose a constant tangential force is applied to its velocity varies with the distance from the sur-
the surface of a liquid. Under this shearing force, face, Fig. 2.31. The layer in contact with the surface
the liquid begins to flow. The motion of a thin layer is at rest relative to the surface. Starting outwards
of the liquid at the surface, relative to a layer below, from the surface, the next layer has an extremely
is opposed by fluid friction. Because of this internal small velocity; each successive layer has a slightly
fluid friction, horizontal layers of the liquid flow higher velocity than its inner neighbour, as shown.
with varying velocities.
Finally, a layer is reached which has approximately
This also happens in a gas. When a solid surface the full, or free-stream, velocity v of the fluid. The
is moved through a gas, a thin layer of the gas
moves with the surface. But its motion relative to a
layer away is opposed by fluid friction.
The resistance to relative motion between the
adjacent layers of a fluid is known as viscosity.
It is a property of the fluid. The resistive force in
fluid motion is called the viscous drag. ■
solid body moves through a fluid, there is always a the velocity in each layer increases with its distance
force of fluid friction opposing the motion. This from the surface.
force of fluid friction is called the drag force or Consider the layer of thickness dy at y from the
viscous drag. ■ solid surface. Let v and v ; dv be the velocities of
Q. 98. Define coefficient of viscosity. (1 mark) Q. 101. Find the conversion factor between the SI and
Ans. Coefficient of viscosity : The coefficient of visco- CGS units of coefficient of viscosity using dimen-
sity of a fluid is defined as the viscous drag per unit sional analysis. (3 marks)
area acting on a fluid layer per unit velocity gradi- Ans. The dimensions of the coefficient of viscosity are
ent established in a steady flow. ■ []:[ ML 91 T 91 ]
Q. 99. Find the dimensions of the coefficient of visco- The SI and CGS units of coefficient of viscosity
sity. State its SI and CGS units. (3 marks) are the pascal·second and poise, respectively.
Ans. By Newton’s law of viscosity, 1 Pa·s:1 N·m 92 ·s:1 kg·m 91 ·s 91
F dv 1 P:1 dyn·cm 92 ·s:1 g·cm 91 ·s 91
:
A dy
Let 1 Pa·s:xP
F dv 1 [M L91T91 ]:x [M L91 T91 ]
where is the viscous drag per unit area, is the
A dy
where subscripts 1 and 2 pertain to SI and CGS
velocity gradient and is the coefficient of viscosity
units.
of the fluid. Rewriting the above equation as
91 91
M L T
:
(F / A) x:
M L T
(dv / dy)
[]:
[FA91]
[dv / dy]
: [ML91T92 ][T 1 ] : [ML91T91 ] :
M
M
L
L
T
T
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 125
1 kg 1 cm 1 s Ravi
: · · indicates the mechanism of viscous drag. In a gas, the FINAL
1 g 1 m 1 s
molecules possess an average molecular momentum
1000 1 1
: ; ; :10;10 92 :10 and move randomly about at an average speed. As
1 100 1
they occasionally collide with each other, molecules
1 Pa·s:10 P ■
possessing greater than average momentum will im-
part some of that momentum to molecules possessing
Use your brain power
(Textbook page 46) less than average momentum. As the molecules move
The CGS unit of viscosity is the poise. Find the with random motion between the layers, colliding
relation between the poise and the SI unit of viscosity. molecules exchange their individual momentum. On
Refer to the answer to Q. 99. 1 P:0.1 Pa.s. 1 mPa.s:1 cP. the average, molecules passing from a layer moving
with speed v to the immediate lower layer, imparts
more momentum in the direction of v. This increases
A Microsopic View of Viscosity :
the speed of the molecules of the lower layer. This
(Textbook page 46)
transfer of momentum continues down through the
A classic explanation of viscosity is by using the two-
depth of the fluid to the penultimate layer.
plates model. In this description, a thin layer of fluid
Molecules with lower speed passing from a lower
sample is placed between two parallel plates, a dis-
layer to an adjacent upper layer tries to slow it down.
tance h apart. It is assumed that the fluid has a perfect
The force is required to keep the upper plate moving at
adhesion onto the two plates – that is, there is a thin
a constant velocity due to the internal friction. Thus,
boundary layer of fluid clinging to a solid surface in
the process is dissipative and the energy dissipated
which the fluid is nearly at rest with respect to the
increases the thermal energy of the fluid at the cost of
surface. mechanical kinetic energy.
In liquids, the molecules are in contact (as opposed
to gases where the molecules are far apart), so that
there is an additional stronger intermolecular forces
between molecules in adjacent layers. Thus, the vis-
cous drag results from a solid-like frcition between
two layers in relative motion.
Fig. 2.32 : Two-plates model of viscosity
; Remember this
The lower plate is held stationary and a force F is (Textbook page 47)
applied to the upper plate of area A, parallel to it in Coefficient of viscosity of a fluid changes with change
order to avoid exerting a pressure on the fluid. The in its temperature. For most liquids, the coefficient of
shear stress is :F/A. Under the applied force, the viscosity decreases with increase in their temperature.
upper plate accelerates until reaching its constant It probably depends on the fact that at higher tempera-
velocity v0. If under these conditions the fluid enters a tures, the molecules are farther apart and the cohesive
state of laminar flow, the speed of each sheet of fluid forces or inter-molecular forces are, therefore, less
decreases linearly from the maximum v0, in contact effective. Whereas, in gases, the coefficient of viscosity
with the upper plate, to zero, in contact with the lower increases with the increase in temperature. This is
dv v0 because, at high temperatures, the molecules move
plate. Then, the velocity gradient is : and the
dy h faster and collide more often with each other, giving
rise to increased internal friction.
coefficient of viscosity is .
dv/dy
Q. 102. State Stokes’ law. (1 mark) Derive Stokes’ law
Viscosity of a gas increases as temperature increases
using dimensional analysis. (4 marks)
which is opposite with liquids (most liquids become
Ans. Stokes’ law : If a fluid flows past a sphere or a
less viscous as temperature increases). This behaviour
sphere moves through a fluid, for small enough
and [v ] : LT91, we get, motion is at this constant speed. This is called its
terminal speed : vt represents the highest speed
ML1T92 : (ML91T 91 ) . (L) . (LT91)
which a body can attain when freely falling
ML1T92 : M . L9;; . T99
through a fluid with coefficient of viscosity .
Homogeneity of the above dimensional equation
requires that
: 1, 9 ; ; : 1 and 9; : 92
On solving, we get,
: 9;2: 91;2:1,
:1;9:1;191:1
Thus, : : : 1
f : 9brv
Inserting the value of b from theory and experi-
ments,
; ;
f : 96r v
This is called Stokes’ law, after Sir George
Fig. 2.33 : Forces acting on a sphere falling
Gabriel Stokes (1819–1903), British physicist and math- through a viscous fluid
ematician. ■
If the sphere and the fluid have densities and
Q. 103. State Stokes’ law and an expression for the L , respectively, the total downward force on the
magnitude of the viscous force. (2 marks) sphere is the sum of the downward gravitational
Ans. Refer to the answer to Q. 102 for the definition. force and the upward buoyant force.
and the coefficient of viscosity of air is 2;10 95 (8) If the speed at which water flows through a long
Pa.s, determine the terminal velocity of the drop cylindrical pipe of radius 8 mm is 10 cm/s, find the
and the viscous force acting on it. Ignore the Reynolds number. [Density of water:1 g/cm,
Do you know ?
(Textbook page 49)
The rate at which water is released from a dam is
specified in Thousand Million Cubic feet per second
(TMC). 1 TMC:10 cusecs. 1 cusec:2.832;10 92
m/s:28.32 L/s:1700 L/min.
Fig. 2.35
Q. 108. Define mass flow rate or mass flux. Explain Equation (1) is called the equation of continuity of
how it is related to the velocity of fluid. (2 marks) flow. It holds true for a compressible fluid, (like all
Ans. Definition : The mass of fluid passing by a given gases) for which the density of the fluid may differ
point per unit time through an area is called the from point to point in a tube of flow. For an
mass flow rate, dm/dt. incompressible fluid (like all liquids), : and
Refer to Fig. 2.34. Eq. (1) takes the simpler form
Q. 110. Explain why flow speed is greatest where by the equation of continuity, the ratio of the speeds,
d 2.5 1
v A
streamlines are closest together. (1 mark) is : : : :
v A d 5 4
Ans. By the equation of continuity, the flow speed is
inversely proportional to the area of cross section of ★ Q. 112. Why does velocity increase when water flow-
a flow tube. Where the area of cross section is small, ing in broader pipe enters a narrow pipe ?
i.e., streamlines are close, the flow speed is large (2 marks)
and vice versa. ■
Ans. When a tube narrows, the same volume occupies a
greater length, as schematically shown in Fig. 2.36.
★ Q. 111. Obtain an expression for conservation of mass A is the cross section of the broader pipe and that
starting from the equation of continuity. (3 marks) of narrower pipe is A . By the equation of continu-
Ans. Refer to Fig. 2.35 ity, v :(A /A )v
Consider a fluid in steady or streamline flow, that
is its density is constant. The velocity of the fluid
within a flow tube, while everywhere parallel to the
tube, may change its magnitude. Suppose the veloc-
; ;
ity is v , at ponit P and v at point. Q. If A and A
are the cross-sectional areas of the tube at these two
Fig. 2.36 : Speed of fluid increases as it enters a narrower pipe
d (Not drawn to scale)
points, the volume flux across A , (V ):A v
dt
Since A /A v v . For the same volume to
d
and that across A , (V ):A v pass points 1 and 2 in a given time, the speed must
dt
be greater at point 2.
By the equation of continuity of flow for a fluid,
The process is exactly reversible. If the fluid flows
A v :A v
in the opposite direction, its speed decreases when
d d
i.e., (V ): (V ) the tube widens. ■
dt dt
Q. 113. You can squirt water a considerably greater
If and are the densities of the fluid at P and Q,
distance by placing your thumb over the end of a
d
respectively, the mass flux across A , (m ) garden hose. Explain. (1 mark)
dt
Ans. Placing one’s thumb over the end of a garden hose
d
: ( V ):A v constricts the open end. By the continuity condition,
dt
the speed of water increases as it passes through the
d d
and that across A , (m ): ( V ):A v constriction. Hence, water squirts out and reaches a
dt dt
longer distance. ■
Since no fluid can enter or leave through the
boundary of the tube, the conservation of mass Solved Problems 2.8
requires the mass fluxes to be equal, i.e., Q. 114. Solve the following :
d d (1) A liquid is flowing through a horizontal pipe of
(m ): (m )
dt dt varying cross section. At a certain point, where the
i.e., A v :A v diameter of the pipe is 5 cm, the flow velocity is
i.e., Apv:constant 0.25 m/s. What is the flow velocity where the
which is the required expression. ■ diameter is 1 cm ? (2 marks)
:25;0.25:6.25 m/s
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
★ (2) The speed of water through a pipe of internal
diameter 10 cm is 2 m/s. What should be the
Fig. 2.37
internal diameter of nozzle of the pipe if the speed
of water at nozzle is 4 m/s ? (2 marks) When two ships sail parallel side-by-side within a
distance considerably less than their lengths, since
Solution :
ships are widest toward their middle, water moves
Data : d :10 cm:0.1 m, v :2 m/s, v :4 m/s
faster in the narrow gap between them. As water
By the equation of continuity, the ratio of the speed
velocity increases, the pressure in between the ships
is decreases due to the Bernoulli effect and draws the
: :
v A d ships together. Several ships have collided and
v A d
suffered damage in the early twentieth century.
d v 2 1 Ships performing At-sea refuelling or cargo transfers
: : : :0.707
d v 4 (2 performed by ships is very risky for the same reason.
d :0.707 d :0.707(0.1 m):0.0707 m ■ 4. Why does dust get deposited only on one side of
Unit the blades of a fan ?
2.9 Bernoulli equation, Applications Blades of a ceiling/table fan have uniform thick-
ness (unlike that of an aerofoil) but are angled
Do you know ? (cambered) at 8° to 12° (optimally, 10°) from their
(Textbook page 50)
plane. When they are set rotating, this camber causes
1. How does an aeroplane take off ?
the streamlines above/behind a fan blade to detach
Refer to the answer to Q. 121.
away from the surface of the blade creating a very
2. Why do racer cars and birds have typical shape ? low pressure on that side. The lower/front stream-
The streamline shape of cars and birds reduce drag. lines however follow the blade surface. Dust particles
namically shaped so that it does not cause too much Consider a small fluid element, of volume V
drag. and mass m: V, that enters at point 1 and
leaves at point 2 during small time interval t. In
Q. 115. State Bernoulli’s principle. (1 mark)
the absence of internal fluid friction, it can be shown
Ans. Where the velocity of an ideal fluid in streamline
that the work done on the fluid element by the
flow is high, the pressure is low, and where the
surrounding fluid is
velocity of a fluid is low, the pressure is high. OR
W:(p 9p ) V
At every point in the streamline flow of an ideal
This is sometimes called the pressure energy.
(i.e., nonviscous and incompressible) fluid, the sum
During t, the changes in the kinetic energy and
of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential
potential energy are
energy of a given mass of the fluid is constant at
KE: m (v 9 v ): V (v 9 v )
every point.
PE: mg(h 9h ): Vg(h 9h )
[Note : The above principle is equivalent to a state-
Since W is the work done by a non-conservative
ment of the law of conservation of mechanical energy as
applied to fluid mechanics. It was published in 1738 by
force,
Daniel Bernoulli (1700 – 82), Swiss mathematician.] ■ W: KE; PE
Q. 116. Explain Bernoulli’s equation of fluid flow. (p 9p ) V: V (v 9v ); Vg (h 9h )
(4 marks) … (1)
Ans. Consider an ideal fluid incompressible and nonvis- p 9p : (v 9 v );g (h 9h )
cous of density flowing along a flow tube of p ; v ;gh :p ; v ;gh
varying cross section. The system under consi- or p; v;gh:constant … (2)
deration is the flow tube between points 1 and 2, This is known as Bernoulli’s equation.
and the Earth (Fig. 2.38). From the continuity equa- [Notes : Equation (1) can be rewitten as
tion it follows that pressure and speed must be p V; Vv ; Vgh
different in regions of different cross section. If the :p V; Vv ; Vgh
height also changes, there is an additional pressure or p V; Vv; Vgy:constant … (3)
difference. i.e., pressure energy;KE;PE:constant
The fluid enters the system at point 1 through a Dividing Eq. (3) by m: V,
surface of cross section A at speed v . The point 1 p
; v;gy:constant
lies at a height h , with respect to an arbitrary
reference level y : 0, and the local pressure there is i.e., pressure energy per unit mass;KE per unit
p . The fluid leaves the system at point 2 where the mass;PE per unit mass:constant, which is
corresponding quantities are A , v , h and p . Bernoulli’s principle. Note that in writing
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 133
W: KE; PE, we have assumed principle of conser- Q. 119. State the applications of Bernoulli’s principle. Ravi
FINAL
vation of energy. (2 marks)
Dimensionally, pressure is energy per unit volume. Ans. Applications :
Both terms on the right side of Eq. (2) also have the same (1) Venturi meter : It is a horizontal constricted tube
dimensions. Hence, the term (p 9p ) is often referred to that is used to measure flow speed in a gas.
as pressure energy per unit volume or pressure head. The (2) Atomizer : It is a hydraulic device used for spray-
1 ing insecticide, paint, air perfume, etc.
first term on the right, p (v 9v ), is called the velocity
2 (3) Aerofoil : The aerofoil shape of the wings of an
head and the second term, pg (h – h ), is called the aircraft produces aerodynamic lift.
potential head.] ■
(4) Bunsen’s burner : Bernoulli effect is used to admit
★ Q. 117. What is the basis of Bernoulli’s principle ? air into the burner to produce an oxidising flame.
■
(1 mark)
Ans. Conservation of energy. Q. 120. State the law of efflux. Derive an expression for
the speed of efflux for a tank discharging through
Use your brain power
(Textbook page 52) an opening at a depth h below the liquid surface.
Does the Bernoulli’s equation change when the fluid Hence or otherwise show that the speed of efflux
is at rest ? How ? for an open tank is (2gh. (4 marks)
Bernoulli’s principle is for fluids in motion. Hence, Ans. Law of efflux (Torricelli’s theorem) : The speed of
it is pointless to apply it to a fluid at rest. Neverthe- efflux for an open tank through an orifice at a depth
less, for a fluid is at rest, the Bernoulli equation gives h below the liquid surface is equal to the speed
the pressure difference due to a liquid column. acquired by a body falling freely through a vertical
For a static fluid, v :v :0. Bernoulli’s equation distance h.
in that case is p ;gh :p ;gh Consider a tank with cross-sectional area A
Further, taking h as the reference height of zero, holding a static liquid of density . The tank
i.e., by setting h :0, we get p :p ;gh discharges through an opening (of cross-sectional
This equation tells us that in static fluids, pressure
increases with depth. As we go from point 1 to point
2 in the fluid, the depth increases by h and conse-
quently, p is greater than p by an amount gh .
In the case, p :p , the atmospheric pressure at the
top of the fluid, we get the familiar gauge pressure
at a depth h :gh . Thus, Bernoulli’s equation
confirms the fact that the pressure change due to the
weight of a fluid column of length h is gh.
Fig. 2.39
Q. 118. State the limitations of Bernoulli’s principle.
area A ) in the side wall at a depth h below the
(2 marks)
surface of the liquid. The flow speed at which the
Ans. Limitations : Bernoulli’s principle and his
liquid leaves the tank is called the speed of efflux.
equation for fluid flow is valid only for
The pressure at point 2 it is the atmospheric
(1) an ideal fluid, i.e., one that is incompressible and pressure p0. Let the pressure of the air above the
nonviscous, so that the density remains constant liquid at point 1 be p. We assume that the tank is
throughout a flow tube and there is no viscous drag large in cross section compared to the opening
which results in energy dissipation or loss, (A A ), so that the upper surface of the liquid
(2) streamline flow. ■ will drop very slowly. That is, we may regard the
A
[Note : For an open tank, the speed of the liquid, v , leaving a
p 9p : v
A
91
… (2)
hole a distance h below the surface is equal to that acquired by
The pressure difference is equal to m gh, where h
an object falling freely through a vertical distance h.] ■
is the differences in liquid levels in the manometer.
Q. 121. What is a Venturi tube ? Explain the working
Then,
of a Venturi tube. OR
A
What is a Venturi meter ? Briefly explain its use to
determine the flow rate in a pipe. (4 marks)
m gh: v
A
91
2m gh
Ans. A Venturi meter is a horizontal constricted tube v : … (3)
[(A /A )91]
that is used to measure the flow speed through a
Equation (3) gives the flow speed of an incom-
pipeline. The constricted part of the tube is called
pressible fluid in the pipeline. The flow rates of
the throat. Although a Venturi meter can be used for
practical interest are the mass and volume flow
a gas, they are most commonly used for liquids. As
rates through the meter.
the fluid passes through the throat, the higher speed
results in lower pressure at point 2 than at point 1. Volume flow rate:A v
This pressure difference is measured from the and mass flow rate:density;volume flow
difference in height h of the liquid levels in the rate:A v
U-tube manometer containing a liquid of density [Note : When a Venturi meter is used in a liquid
m (Fig. 2.40). The following treatment is limited to pipeline, the pressure difference is measured from the
an incompressible fluid. difference in height h of the levels of the same liquid in
the two vertical tubes, as shown in Fig. 2.40. Then, the
pressure difference is equal to gh.
Explain why the upper surface of the wings of an attached at the trailing end of each wing.] ■
aeroplane is made convex and the lower surface Q. 124. Explain the working of an atomizer. OR
concave. (2 marks) A perfume bottle or atomizer sprays a fluid that is
Ans. An aeroplane wing has a special characteristic in the bottle. How does the fluid rise up in the
aerodynamic shape called an aerofoil. An aerofoil is vertical tube in the bottle ? (2 marks)
convex on the top and slightly concave on the Ans. An atomizer is a device which entraps or entrains
bottom. Its leading edge is well rounded while the liquid droplets in a flowing gas. Its working is
trailing edge is sharp. As an aeroplane moves based on Bernoulli’s principle. A squeeze bulb or a
Wind speeds in a tornado may be much higher Taking off with a tailwind is pretty much never
and thus create much greater pressure differences. advisable unless it’s a oneway strip or runway, or the
winds are below the tailwind limitations for that
Sometimes, wooden houses hit by a tornado
aircraft type.
explode. ■
10. Rain drops or liquid drops are spherical in shape, (D) the angle of contact is zero.
especially when small, because 17. If a liquid does not wet a solid surface, its angle of
(A) cohesive force between the molecules of water contact with the solid surface is
have spheres of influence (A) zero (B) acute (C) 90° (D) obtuse.
would rise in a glass capillary tube of radius 0.04 cm (B) at A equals that at B
(A) the same height as that on the Earth in a highly viscous liquid. The ratio of the terminal
(B) a lesser height than on the Earth velocity of the larger marble to that of the smaller is
(C) slightly more height than that on the Earth
(A) 9 (B) 3 (C) 1 (D) 1 .
(D) the top and overflow. 9
[see the note in the answer.] 30. A large tank, filled with a liquid, is open to the
23. In which of the following substances, does the sur- atmosphere. If the tank discharges through a small
face tension increase with an increase in tempera- hole at its bottom, the speed of efflux does NOT
ture ? depend on
(A) Copper (B) Molten copper (A) cross-sectional area of the hole
(C) Iron (D) Molten iron
(B) depth of the hole from the liquid surface
24. A fluid flows in steady flow through a pipe. The pipe (C) acceleration due to gravity
has a circular cross section, but its radius varies along
(D) all of these.
its length. The mass of the fluid passing per second at
Ans. 1. (A) 0.8711;10 N/m 2. (B) 2 : 1
the entrance point (radius R) of the pipe is Q while
3. (A) 0.9;10 93
J 4. (C) 1 : 16 5. (D) energy
that at the exit point (radius R/2)
is Q . Then, Q is equal to 6. (A) only (I) is correct 7. (D) Both (A) and (B)
1 8. (C) gauge pressure 9. (D) the same in all
(A) Q (B) Q (C) 2Q (D) 4Q .
4 three 10. (B) for a given volume, a spherical drop
4. Work done in blowing a soap bubble by increasing its radius from r to r , W:8T (r 9r )
5. When n drops (each of radius r) coalesce into a single drop of radius R, or a single drop of radius R breaks into n
drops (each of radius r),
R:nr
Energy released/absorbed:4T (nr9R)
2T
6. For a cavity (gas bubble inside a liquid), p9p :
R
4T
7. For a soap bubble, p9p :
R
2T cos
8. h: , (h r) 9. T:T (19)
rg
v d F dv F/A
10. Re: 11. : , :
A dy dv/dy
2 r(9L )g
12. f :6rv 13. v :
9
2m gh 2gh
16. Venturi meter : vinlet : OR v inlet :
A
A
91
A
A
91
of olive oil of density 0.92 g/cm and height 1.81 mm. arms. The surface tension, angle of contact with
glass and density of water are respectively 0.07 N/m,
Calculate the surface tension of the soap solution.
0 ° and 1000 kg/m. (2 marks) (Ans. 5.71 mm)
(2 marks) (Ans. 0.0408 N/m)
27. A glass capillary tube of diameter 0.15 mm is
21. The lower end of a capillary tube of diameter 2.0 mm
dipped in glycerine whose surface tension is 0.063
is dipped 8 cm below the surface of water in a
N/m. Determine the angle of contact if glycerine
beaker. What is (i) the pressure required in the
rises to a height of 0.1361 m in the tube. [Density of
tube in order to blow a hemispherical bubble at its
glycerine:1260 kg/m] (2 marks) (Ans. 0°)
end inside water (ii) the excess pressure inside the
28. A glass rod of diameter 2 mm is inserted symmetri-
bubble ?
cally inside a vertical capillary tube of inner diam-
[Surface tension of water:0.073 N / m, 1 atm:
eter 3.6 mm. If the lower end of the arrangement is
101.3 kPa, density of water:1000 kg / m, g:9.8
dipped in water, to what height will water rise
m / s] (3 marks) inside ? [Surface tension of water:0.072 N/m,
(Ans. 1.022;10 Pa, 146 Pa) angle of contact:0°]
22. A glass capillary of radius 1 mm is partially
[Hint : The net upward force due to surface ten-
immersed into a liquid of density 800 kg/m. If the sion:2T (r ;ri ) cos , the weight of the water
surface tension of the liquid is 5;109 N/m and its column: [ (r 9ri )h] g.]
angle of contact with glass is 30 °, calculate the (2 marks) (Ans. 1.837 cm)
height to which the liquid rises in the capillary 29. A capillary tube with an inner diameter of 0.25 mm
tube. (2 marks) (Ans. 0.011 m or 1.1 cm) can support a 10 cm column of a liquid that has a
23. A liquid of density 900 kg/m rises to a height of density of 930 kg/m. The observed contact angle is
1.8 cm in a capillary tube of diameter 1.2 mm. If the 15°. What is the surface tension of the liquid ?
angle of contact is 25 °, find the surface tension of (2 marks) (Ans. 5.897;10 9 N/m)
the liquid. (2 marks) (Ans. 5.255;109 N/m) 30. A mercury barometer is to be made from a glass
tube with an inner radius R. If the capillarity
24. Water rises to a height of 10 cm in a certain
correction on the barometric height is to be less
capillary. If the same capillary is dipped into
than 0.5%, what should be the minimum value of
mercury, the level of mercury decreases by 4.09 cm.
R ? [For mercury, surface tension:0.472 N/m,
Compare the surface tension of mercury to that of
contact angle with glass:148°, density:13.6;10
water.
kg/m, barometric height:0.76 m]
[mercury :13.6;10 kg/m; water :10 kg/m.
2T cos
The angle of contact for water is 0° and that for [Hint : h 0.005;0.76 m, R
gh ]
find the horizontal force needed to move the plate sphere, if the density of the material of the sphere is
along the surface of the liquid with a velocity of 7.2 g/cm and the coefficient of viscosity of the
liquid is 15 poise. (2 marks) (Ans. 7.84 cm/s)
15 cm/s. (2 marks) (Ans. 1.5 N)
42. A sphere of radius 2 mm falls through a liquid of
34. A metal plate of length 20 cm and breadth 2 cm is in
density 1.3 g/cm with a terminal speed of 5 cm/s.
contact with a layer of oil 0.8 mm thick. The
The density of the material of the sphere is
horizontal force required to move it with a velocity
8.5 g/cm. Find the coefficient of viscosity of the
of 6 cm/s along the surface of the oil is 0.54 N.
liquid. (2 marks) (Ans. 12.54 poise)
Find the coefficient of viscosity of the oil.
43. Calculate the terminal speed of an oil drop in air, if
(2 marks) (Ans. 1.8 Ns/m)
the radius of the oil drop is 109 m and the density
35. Calculate the viscous force acting on a rain drop of
of the oil is 900 kg/m. [ (air):1.8;109 Ns/m,
diameter 4 mm, falling with a constant velocity of (air) (oil)] (2 marks)
4 m/s through air. The coefficient of viscosity of air (Ans. 1.089;109 m/s)
is 1.8; 1094 poise. [1 P:0.1 Pa.s] 2.8 – 2.9
(2 marks) (Ans. 2.71;1096 N)
44. Water flows through a horizontal pipe of non-
36. A sphere of radius 3 mm falls through a column
uniform cross section. The pressure is 1 cm of
of glycerine at 20 °C with a terminal speed of
mercury where the flow velocity is 25 cm/s. Find
10 cm/s. Find the force due to viscosity acting
the pressure at a point where the flow velocity is
on the sphere. [ of glycerine at 20 °C:1.34 Ns/m)] 75 m/s. [Hg :13.6 g/cm, water :1 g/cm]
(2 marks) (Ans. 7.573;109 N) (3 marks) (Ans. 0.8126 cm of mercury)
37. A sphere of radius 5 mm falls through a liquid with 45. Water flows horizontally through a pipeline of
a terminal speed of 20 cm/s. Find the coefficient of varying cross section. If the pressure of water is 10
viscosity of the liquid, if the force due to viscosity m of mercury at a point where the flow velocity is
acting on the sphere is 2;10 dynes. 40 cm/s, what is the pressure at another point
(2 marks) (Ans. 10.61 poise) where the flow velocity is 50 cm/s ?
★ 38. A steel ball of radius 0.3 mm falls through a tube of [Hg :13.6 g/cm, water :1 g/cm]
glycerin with a velocity of 2 m/s at time t. Coeffi- (3 marks) (Ans. 9.966 cm of Hg)
cient of viscosity of glycerine:0.833 N.s/m. 46. A Venturi meter has inlet diameter of 10 cm and
Determine the viscous force acting on the steel ball throat diameter of 5 cm. Find the flow velocity and
93 rate of flow of water if the pressure difference
at that time. (3 marks) (Ans. 9.422;10 N)
(gauge pressure) between the inlet and throat is 15
★ 39. A spherical drop of oil falls at a constant speed of
cm of mercury.
4 cm/s through still air. Calculate the radius of the
drop. [Density of the oil:0.9 g/cm, density of [ (of water):10 kg/m, Hg :13.6;10 kg/m]
air:1.0
air:1.8;10
g/cm,
94
coefficient of
poise, g:980 cm/s].
viscosity
(3 marks)
of
Hint : v inlet :
2(Hg /) gh
(A /A )91
(3 marks)
(Ans. 0.574 cm) (Ans. 3.651 m/s, 0.02868 m/s or 28.68 kg/s)