Ecology

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Ecology
Ecology is the study of the relationship of living organism with each other and their nonliving
environment.
The study of ecology helps us to understand and improve agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and
conservation.
Biosphere
This is part of the earth where life exists.
The biosphere is subdivided into areas of unique environmental conditions called biome.
Largely the biosphere is divided into terrestrial and aquatic biomes
Based on rainfall and temperature terrestrial biome is further subdivided into
(i) Tropical rain forests that are hot [24-280C ] and wet throughout the year
Due to good environmental conditions and plenty of food, animals do not need special
adaptations, however, plant experience high competition for light
(ii)Temperate deciduous forest which winter in a half the year and hot the other half
The major problem in this biome is that half of the year is winter when the temperature is too
low for life. To survive in this condition, organisms have developed the following adaptations.
1. loss of leaves by the trees in winter to reduce on water loss by guttation.

2. small animals hibernate
3. birds migrate to tropics during winter
4. some animals have accumulated a lot of fat to prevent heat loss in winter
5. some have short life cycle in of 3-6 months and survive in dormant stage in winter
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(ii) Deserts that are hot and dry throughout the year
To survive in the desert organism have developed the following adaptations.
 Small plants and animals have very short life cycle; For instance, plants may germinate,
mature, flower in a few weeks following occasioned rainfall and then survive in form of
seeds during the long dry spell.
 To overcome shortage of water, the camel; use metabolic water and its body is very
resistant to dehydration; certain frogs can survive for years without water by burying
themselves deep into the sand. When it rains they dig themselves out, mate and lay their
eggs in shallow puddle. Here the tadpole grows very quickly, metamorphosing into adults
before the puddle disappear.
 The camel has got broad feet not to sink in sand.
 Some plant such cactus store water in their fleshly stems.
(iv) Tandra have long winters and short growing seasons.
Factors that affect distribution of organisms on earth include abiotic and biotic factors.
Abiotic/environmental factors that affect distribution of organism on land
1. Soil
It provides vital link between the biotic (living) and Abiotic (nonliving components) of the
terrestrial ecosystem.
Qualities of good soil depend on
- Size and nature of inorganic particles

- Amount of water available
- Amount of air
- Presence of humus and organic matter
- Soil pH
- Soil temperature
- Dissolved mineral salts
2. Climate
Climate refers to the predictable long-term pattern of rainfall, temperature and light. Weather is
more short term. It may be cold, windy and wet one day and warm, calm and dry the next.
Elements of climate are

(i) Rainfall; areas with much rainfall thought the year contain more living organism that those
that do not
(ii) Sunshine/light

Effects of light on living organism
a. Photosynthesis in plant
b. Photoperiodic behavior in plants i.e. influence flowering in plants
c. Phototropism
d. Phototaxis
e. Vision in animals
f. Migration of animals
g. Reproduction
(iii) temperature
most organism survive between 0 -400C though, some thermophilus [heat – loving]
bacteria can complete their entire life cycle at temperature in excess of 100 0C.
(iv) Air; One of the most important component of air is oxygen and few organism can live
without it. CO2 is a reagent in photosynthesis
(v) Relative humidity

This the measure of the amount of water vapor in air. Low humidity lead to high evaporation
that may cause dehydration of organism.
Hot and humid climate may be harmful because reduced evaporation prevents cooling of
organisms.
(vi) Wind.
- Occasional stormy wind can flatten trees that are 100 years old.
- Continuous strong wind can prevent trees from becoming established.
- Wind serves a useful function in the pollination and seed dispersal in plant
- Migratory birds may use winds to minimize.
3. Fire
Fire may result from light, volcanoes and human setting fire.
Ecological effect of fire

- kill slow animals & plants
- some animal migrates
- encourage soil erosion &leaching
- release poisonous gases
- encourages regeneration in some grasses e.g. Cymbopogon
- destroys or chase away vectors, pests and parasites, e.g. tsetse flies
- accelerates nitrogen recycling of plastic waste.
- Enable vision of distant are for prey and predator.
- Allow growth of fire resistant species which are often not palatable.
- Destroys humus
4. Topography

Topography means altitude, slope and aspects of a place.
This affects distribution of organisms by determining the amount of rain, light, humidity and
wind.
Factor that affect distribution of organisms in water include

(i) Salinity affects osmoregulation in animals
(ii) Nutrient availability
The most important nutrient in water are the nitrates and phosphate. Lake with low
phosphate and nitrate (oligotrophic) contain more species than lakes with high levels of
nitrates and phosphates (eutrophic lakes)
In eutrophic lakes, the high levels of nitrates and phosphate promotes high growth rates of
algae and other photosynthesis organism. This in turn support large number of aerobic
bacteria which decompose the dead photosynthetic organisms. However, the aerobic bacteria
take up more oxygen from water thus oxygen concentration may fall below that, can support
life of big organism.
(iii) depth of water

shallow water is not able to support big animals like whales
(iv) how permanent is the water body
temporary water bodies do not support organisms that live permanently in water
(v)tide strength
Very strong tides prevent the growth of plant near the lake and big animals in water.
Biotic factors
These include ways by which living organisms influence the distribution of others through
interspecific and intraspecific associations.
Intimate associations include
1. Parasitism;
A parasite is an organism that lives on or in another organism from which feed. A parasite which
lives on the surface of its host is called an ecto-parasite and that lives inside it’s called an endo
parasite. Most species, including human, harbor parasites that reduce their health and may cause
death.
Challenges faced by a parasite

(i) Locating a new host
(ii) Overcoming host rejection
(iii) Entering a host
Parasitic adaptations

Parasite show many different adaptations of overcoming these challenges, depending on whether
they are ecto-parasites or endo-parasites.
(i) Many endoparasites show degeneration, or even total loss of certain organs which reduces
their energy and material requirements and hence a reduced burden on their host. For
example, gut parasites like the tapeworms lack an alimentary canal.
(ii) Many parasites especially ecto-parasites have attachment devices such as sucker, hooks or
anchors enabling them to cling to the host. Tapeworm has hooks and suckers to anchor on
host digestive canal.
(iii) Some parasites have penetrative devices for gaining entrance into the host and its cells. For
example, miracidum larva of the liver fluke, has a slender tip on to which open a group of
glands which secrete tissue- digesting enzymes. By softening the tissue, the enzyme
enables the larva to bore into the foot of a freshwater snail the intermediate host.
(iv) Gut parasite live in a particularly hazardous environment. They typically have protective
device which protects their being harmed by the host’s digestive processes. These devices
include the possession of a thick protective cuticle, the secretion of large quantities of
mucus and the production of inhibitory substances which locally inactivate the host’s
digestive enzymes.
(v) To protect themselves from the host’s immune system, some parasites such as the blood
fluke, schistosoma, that cause, bilharzia, synthesizes chemicals, which switch of the host’s
immune system; The parasite coat’s itself with molecules which the host recognizes as self.
(vi) Parasite overcome a problem of moving from one host to another by a number of
strategies, one of which is to wait until the host mates. The various organism responsible
for sexually transmitted diseases in human spread in the same manner
(vii) Many parasites employ a secondary or intermediate host which conveys the parasite from
one primary host to another. Thus, the Anopheles mosquito transfers the malaria parasites
from one person to another.
(viii) To raise the probability of success vast number of offspring are produced
(ix) The parasites may have a dormant resistant stage in its life cycle to survive adverse
conditions until a suitable host is found.
(x) Some parasites are closely linked with their host that their tissue are actually
interconnected.
E.g., certain plant parasites such as mistletoes plug into other plants and tap off nutrients
from the host’s tissue.
Exercise

Which one of the following characteristics of a parasite is not a means of ensuring continuity of
the species of the parasite?
A. Degeneration of redundant body structures.

B. Means of penetrating another organism.
C. Protection against host enzymes.
D. Means of dispersing offspring
The answer is A
Degeneration of redundant body structures is an adaption of a parasite to it mode of life,

but does not directly ensure continuity of its species.
Note :some of the adaption of a parasite that ensure continuity of the parasite species
include
 Possession of penetrative devices for gaining entrance into the host.

 Possession of protective devices which prevent the parasite from being harmed by the
host’s digestive processes. For example, gut parasites inhibitor substance which inactivate
the host’s digestive enzymes.
 Having a means of dispersing its offspring. For example, employing a secondary
(intermediate) host which disperses the parasite over a wide area.
 Producing a large number of offspring to increase the chance of success in getting from
one host to another as is the case in a parasitic fungus and malaria (plasmodium) parasite
 Production of chemicals which protect some parasite against the host’s defense
mechanisms.
2. Commensalism
This is a relationship between two organisms. One of the two organisms, the commensal
benefits from the association, while the other organism usually the larger partner, neither
lose nor gain.
3. Mutualism; Here the association benefit both the participant, i.e., the gain is mutual. E.g.
lichen is an association between a fungus and an alga. The fungus absorbs water from
atmosphere while an alga photosynthesizes for both.
4. Predation
In this relationship in which one organism lives the other dies instantly. For example lion
the predator kills the zebra (prey) instantly.
Energy transfer; food chains and trophic levels.

Within the ecosystem the energy- containing organic molecules produced by autotrophic
organisms are the source of food [material and energy] for heterotrophic organisms; a typical

example is a plant being eaten by an animal. This animal may in turn be eaten by another animal,
and in this way energy is transferred through a series of organism, each feeding on the
preceding organism and providing raw materials and energy for the next organism. Such a
sequence is called a food chain.
Definition
A food chain is a sequence of organisms with arrows pointing from organisms being eaten to
organism that eats it.
Example of food chain
Grass Grasshopper chicken man
Each stage of the food chain is known as a trophic level, the first trophic level being occupied
by the autotrophic organisms, the primary producers. The organism of the second trophic level
are called primary consumer, those of the third level are secondary consumer and so on. There
are usually four or five trophic levels and seldom more than six because;
-There simply not enough energy in ecosystem to support more than this number of steps. As it
is, top carnivores often have to roam over huge area to find enough food.
-It is difficult to imagine a species with the hunting abilities necessary to feed on eagles, loins,
killer whales or any other existing top carnivores,
-The more levels in food chain the less stable it becomes.
Food webs
Is feeding relationship showing organisms feeding on more than one organisms.
Example of a food web

Hawk
Snake
Toad
Lizard Field mice
Worm Insect
Grass
Ecological pyramids
Food webs give a useful description of the feeding relationships in a community. However, they
are non- quantitative. Feeding relationship and energy transfer through the biotic component of
ecosystem may be quantified and shown diagrammatically as ecological pyramid. These give an
apparently simple and fundamental basis for comparing different ecosystem, or even seasonal or
variation of pollution induced charged with a single system.
Pyramid of number
These are pyramid drawn base on the number of organism in each tropical level it’s based on
ideology that preys are usually smaller and more numerous than their predators.
Tertiary consumer
Secondary Consumer
Primary consumer
Producers
However, pyramid of numbers, despite their name, need not always be pyramidal in shape.
Consider the situation where a single very large producer, such as tree, supports a large number
of primary consumers. In this case an inverted pyramid of numbers result.
Inverted pyramids of numbers can also result when a community contain parasites. Imagine for
instance, a mammal infected with tick or fleas. These parasites are in a trophic level above the
mammal, yet their numbers will be greater. Some of inverted pyramids of numbers are shown
below.

Tertiary consumer The producer is a single
A plant feed on by
Secondary Consumer caterpillars feed on by
Primary consumer birds feed on by kites
Producers
The producer is single plant which is

B Secondary Consumer infected with Parasites (primary
Primary consumer consumer) and the latter are
Parasitized by further parasite
Producers (hyper parasites)
e.g. fruit tree monkey worms
A large number of producers are

C Secondary Consumer eaten by single primary consumer
Primary consumer which is infected with parasite
(secondary consumers)
Producers (Grass cow worms]
Pyramid of biomass
This a type of ecological pyramid base not on numbers but biomass. Here instead of counting the
number of individual at each trophic level. The total mass (biomass) of organisms at each level is
measured. The rectangles used in constructing the pyramid then represent the masses of
organisms at each trophic level per unit area or volume. The greatest mass is usually found with
the producers, but measurement of the biomass at the various trophic levels in the community
may also give an inverted pyramid. For instance, at certain times of year, the biomass of the tiny
herbivorous organisms that float in lake and oceans (zooplankton) may exceed the biomass of the
tinny photosynthetic organisms (phytoplankton) on which they feed. This is because biomass
refers to the mass of organism present a particular moment, the so- called standing crop. At this
time of the year phytoplankton are able to support the zooplankton due to high rate of
turnover than that of zooplankton.
Pyramid of energy
This is the most fundamental and ideal way of represent relationship between organisms in
different trophic levels. A pyramid of energy shows the transfer or flow of energy through a
community. As a result, pyramids energy are expressed in units of energy per area per time e.g.,
kilojoules m-2yr-1. A generalized pyramid of energy is shown below.

Pyramid of energy
carnivore
s
Herbivores
Producers
Consequently, the number of trophic levels in a food chain or the length of the food chain is limited
by the energy wasted as it is transferred from organism, i.e. by the efficiency of energy transfer
between trophic levels
Other factors are the availability of sufficient food of the preferred types and territorial space
Cycling of matter and flow of energy in eco system.

In almost all ecosystem, the organisms fall into three nutritional groups.
 producers
 Consumers
 Decomposers
These are related as follows;
Consumers
Ingestion
(organic Death /
compound) excretion
death
Producer Decomposer
Organic material synthesized by the producers are eaten and assimilated by the consumers, all
the organic materials incorporated into the bodies of the consumers are eventually broken down
into inorganic materials. These are then rebuilt into organic compound by the synthesis activity
of the producers.
Although matter circulates repeatedly around an ecosystem, this is not the case with energy.
Instead, energy is continually lost from ecosystem as heat energy. The photosynthetic producers
transfer some of the radiant energy of sunlight to chemical energy in plant carbohydrate. By their
respiratory activities the producer, consumer, and decomposers transfer this energy to ATP,
whose subsequent hydrolysis provides energy for the cells vital activities. Both in the formation

of ATP and subsequent usage, a proportion of the energy is lost from an ecosystem as heat
energy. Ultimately, all the energy in an ecosystem is transferred to heat energy. However, the
continual trapping the energy of sunlight by green plant compensate for this loss and maintains
the flow of energy.
Nutrient cycle.
In order for organisms to maintain themselves, grow and reproduce, they need supply of
elements of which they are made. These they regenerate from the cycling of matter or nutrient
cycle.

Carbon cycle. Pool of carbon dioxide in
atmosphere
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Eaten
Animal Plants Industry
Death
Gradual production
of fossil fuel
Peat
Coal
Oil and gas
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen in atmosphere
1, 2, 3, 4
Protein in plants Protein in

And microbe Eaten animals
death
death
1, 2, 3 Dead organic
matter
And excreta assimilation
Decay by decomposer
Ammonia, NH3
Ammonium compounds
e.g. nitrosomonas
NO2-, nitrites
e.g. nitrobacter
1, 4
NO3-, nitrate

Nitrogen fixation process in order of magnitude.
1. industrial fixation e.g., Haber process
2. mutualistic blue- green bacteria e.g., Rhizobium e.g. legume
3. free- living blue- green bacteria e.g. Azobacter, clostridium
4. Action of lighting etc. on oxygen and nitrogen.
7. Which of the following is the correct sequence representing the action of nitrifying bacteria?
A. Nitrites — nitrates — ammonium salts.

B. Ammonium salts — nitrites — nitrates.
C. Nitrites — ammonium salts — nitrates.
D. Ammonium salts — nitrates — nitrites.

Lesson 2 of 2
Population and niche concept

Population.
A population is group of individuals of the same species in a defined area. The number of
individual in a population is called the population size e.g. all Tilapia living in a lake, all fleas on
a dog, lion (in a National park). It is important to estimate the population in a given area.
Importance of estimating the population size

i. To be able to construct food webs and chains, pyramid of numbers, biomass and energy
ii. To understand the existing food relationship within a habitat.
iii. To observe population changes with time/seasons to understand the way population affect
each other at different environmental factors.
iv. To know the population of pests in order to work out control method.
v. For management purpose i.e. Plan for cropping programs in game and national parks.
vi. To value and conserve biodiversity/ natural reserves/ wild life and national parks.
vii. To understand dispersal/spread of organisms
viii. To understand the impact of population in the environment.
Estimating population size.

A. Factors to be considered to select a method to be used.
i. Size of the organism e.g. big organisms such elephants are easily counted directly
ii. Mode of the organism such as
iii. Motility; plants and sessile or slow-moving organism may be counted directly, while
indirect methods may be required for fast- moving organism in large open grass land.
iv. Association between organism- some methods such as capture – recapture method
requires organism that associate randomly.
v. Hostility hostile organism may require special gadgets for collection and/or counting.
vi. Size of the area under investigation. For big area, population may be estimated basing
on samples
vii. Physical and climatic factors
viii. Climatic condition
ix. Topography
x. Nature of vegetation
B. Method for estimate of population size of large animals living in unconcealed

habitats, e.g. Antelopes, Hippopotami, lions etc.
 Direct counting method using a low flying aircraft.

Basic requirements are an aircraft, survey map of the area and a counter
Procedure
The aircraft is flown on a transect section of the area of a known dimension and the animals in
each transect are counted. The aircraft is then flown back along another adjacent transect and

counting continues until the whole a rea is covered. Several counts are made and an average is
determined. The estimated population in a given unit area is determined.
Advantage
(i) The method gives a quick estimate of the population of animal in an area.
(ii) It can also be done concurrently with studies on other aspect of population like
feeding habits
(iii) It reduces the risk of attack from aggressive animals
(iv) It reduces the risk of counting the same organism more than once
(v) There is no disturbance to the environment.
Disadvantage
(i) It is sophisticated and expensive
(ii) Aircraft may scare away some animals to be counted
(iii) It cannot be applied to small animals in concealed habitats such as forest.
(iv) It is greatly hampered by climate; i.e., cannot work in cloudy or mist climate.
 Aerial photography
Basic requirement are aircraft and good camera
Procedure
Photographs are taken from a low flying aircraft usually on scale over the whole
study area. They are developed and animals counted from the photographs. As in
direct counting method, a population density is a given number per unit area
Advantages and disadvantages are similar to those for direct count using an aircraft
 Drive and count
In this method, animals are driven by a number of people into a particular spot and counted.
Advantage
- it reduces the chances of counting animals more than once
- gives accurate results
Disadvantage
- it can’t be used on aggressive animals
- it is tedious on fast moving animal
- it is difficult to apply on animals that do not live in herd
 Strip census
In this method animals are counted a long path while walking or in a vehicle. The population
density of an area is determined as the number per unit area (of strips)

Advantage
It gives a quick estimate of the animal population of an animal
It is cheap
Disadvantage
- Some animals such paths and are unavailable for counting
- People of vehicle may scare away the animals
- Fist moving animals may be counted more than once
 Direct counting (Census)

Large organisms that are not aggressive and are living in open habitat e.g. buffaloes, Elephants
and trees in the forest are counted one by one.
Advantage
- Quick and accurate
- More than one population can be estimated at the same time
- Other aspects of an organism ecology, behavior can be taken at the same time.
- There is minimal disturbance to environment.
Disadvantage
- It may be difficult to count overcrowded acid organism, e.g. flock of weaverbird.
- Some organisms avoid being seen.
- Difficult to use on animals that concealed in their habitat.
- Bad weather may affect visibility and hence the count.
- Does not take into account the immigrants
- Tedious
C. Determining the population of small animals
 Quadrat
Suitability: plants, immobile or easily caught animals
This a small area marked out for study. A quadrat flame (1m2) is thrown randomly and the
number of organism within a number of quadrats that represent a known fraction of the total area
determined to estimate the total number in the whole area by simple proportion multiplication.
This method provides a mean of calculating three aspects distribution.

i. Species density. Number of organism per unit area; limitation. It’s time consuming
to count each and every individual in a quadrant
ii. Species frequency; this is a measure of the probability [chance] of finding a given
species with any one throw of a quadrat in a given area. The limitations are quadrat
size, plant size and spatial distribution [random, uniform or clumped].
iii. Specie cover; this is a measure of the proportion of the ground occupied by the
species and give an estimate of the area covered by the species as a percentage of the
total area. Limitation it is slow and tedious.

Advantage of quadrat method
- Accurate
- Enable the comparison of different areas and species
- It does not have to be completed over a short time
- It reduces the chances of counting same individual twice
- It is possible to estimate population of more than on species at the same time
Disadvantage
- In practice animals are not randomly distributed therefore random plots may give
inconsistent results.
- Not appropriate for large area
- Not applicable in water and concealed habitat
- Time consuming to do well/tedious
- Causes some level of disturbance to the environment
- Not suitable for fast moving organism
Assumptions
- the quadrats are chosen randomly.
- The organism do not move from one quadrat to another
- The samples taken are representative of the population as whole
- The population is uniformly distributed
Reliability of the quadrat method depend on
- The population of each quadrat must be known exactly
- The area of each quadrat should be the same shape
- The quadrate size must be appropriate for the organisms being sampled.
 Capture – recapture or mark-release methods. Here a sample of individual is caught,

counted and marked in some ways. Then these individuals are released.
After being allowed to mix with the rest of un marked population a second sample is
caught and the number of marked individual noted. An estimate of population size can
then be made from.
𝑛1 𝑥 𝑛2
Population size =
𝑛𝑚
Where
n1 is the number of individuals marked and released
n2 is the number of individual caught in a second sample
nm is the number of marked individual caught in a second sample
Precautions for capture-recapture methods

1. Organism should mix uniformly within the population.
2. Sufficient time must elapse between capture and recapture to allow uniform mixing.
3. There must be no emigration and immigration to the specified area.
4. Making does not hinder movement of organism or make the conspicuous to predators.
5. Marking should be permanent.

 Removal method
The removal method is very suitable for estimating number of small organism particularly
insects, within a known area of grass land or volume of water. Using a net in some form of
standard sweep; the number animals is recorded and the animal kept. This procedure is repeated
a further three times and gradually reducing number recorded. A graph is plotted of number of
animal captured per sample against the previous cumulative number of animal captured. By extra
plotting the time of the graph to the point at which no further animal would be captured (that is
the number in sample = 0) The total population may be estimated, e.g.
Sample number in Sample cumulative sample size

1 120 0
2 93 120
3 60 213
4 35 273
120
Number in a sample
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Previous cumulative number
From the graph the estimated number organisms is = 425s
Population growth and growth curves

Populations grow and decline in characteristic ways. The size of population increase will be
determined by the reproductive potential of the organism concerned and by environmental
resistance. A Plot of the number of individuals against time form a growth curve.
Two basic forms of growth curves can be identified by the J-shaped growth curve and the S-
shaped or sigmoid growth curves.

S-shaped curve
J-shaped curve
No. of individuals
No. of individuals
time time
The S- shaped or sigmoid growth describes a situation in a new environment:

- initially the population density of an organism increases slowly because there is a shortage
of reproducing individual which may be widely dispersed as it adapts to new conditions and
establishes itself;
- then increases rapidly, approaching an exponential growth rate. During this growth phase
there are optimal environmental conditions- No environmental resistance, birth rate exceeds
death rate.
- It then shows a declining rate of increase until a zero-population growth rate is achieved
where the reproduction (natality) equals rate of death (mortality). The declining rate of
increase reflects increasing environmental resistance, which become proportionately more
important at higher population densities. In other words, as the number increase, the
competition for essential resource such as food or nesting materials, increases until
eventually feedback in terms of increase mortality and reproduction failure [fewer mating,
stress induced abortion] reduces population growth to zero with natality and mortality in
approximate equilibrium.
The J-shaped growth curve describes a situation in which, after initial establish phase (lag phase)
population growth continues in an exponential form until stopped abruptly, as environmental
resistance becomes suddenly effective. In very general terms the J- shaped growth form may be
considered an incomplete sigmoid curve where a sudden limiting effect comes into play before
the self- limiting effect within the population assume importance.
The maximum population of an organism that a particular environment can sustain is termed the
carrying capacity. This is identified theoretically as the k-value [or upper asymptote] of the
sigmoid curve
Factors that affect the size of the population

The number of individuals in a population is affected by four factors; birth, deaths, immigration
and emigrations. The change in the size of any population over a period of time can be summed
by the equation. Change in the population size = B+I- D- E where
B=birth, I= immigration, D=death and E=emigration.
Environmental resistance
The form that the environmental resistance takes depends on the species in question.

Here are the main factors that limit population growth
- lack of food or water
- lack of light
- lack of oxygen
- predator and parasites
- Disease
- lack of shelter
- Accumulation of toxic waste e.g. CO2 and nitrogenous waste
- stress in some case overcrowding may excess stress leading to abnormal behaviors. E.g.,
Female rats kept in capacity at a high population density show a breakdown in normal
maternal behavior, failing to build adequate next and abandoning their young ones.
Some biologist argue that in the wild the males of some species of small mammal die
prematurely because of excessive stress.
-Weather and catastrophes. Weather conditions and generally, may drastically reduce population.
The effect is perhaps most severe for small organism, but in particularly bad winter even large
species may show significant decline in population size
-Predator -prey relationship; the population of the prey is usually high when that of the predator
is low. That of the predator increase with the population of the prey [which provide food]
Survivorship curves
Ignoring for the moment immigration and emigration, birth and death are the two processes
which affects population size. However, these processes depend on the age of individuals and on
their sex. The crucial factor is the chance of an individual has of surviving to a given age, This
can be shown by means of survivorship curve, To understand a survivorship curve, image a
population of 100 individuals borne at the same time. The curve shows how many of them are
likely to be alive at any particular age. There are three main types of survivorship curve and
these are shown below;
(I)
(II)
(III)
Curve (I) is typical of organism such as ourselves that have few young ones. After an initial
period of low juvenile mortality, mortality is very low until late in life

Curve (II) is found in many small birds, notice that as the vertical axis is logarithmic, the curve
actually shows an exponential decline in the number of individual surviving overtime.
The individuals do not die of old that is, there is no senescence.
Curve III The lower curve is typical of many plants and fish. Thousands or millions of young are
produced, few of which mature into adults. The vast majority die as juveniles.
The niche concepts

Precise place of an organism and what it does there
The competitive exclusion principle states that two species cannot occupy the same
niche in a habitat.
In other words, different species cannot coexist in a community if they are competing for
all the same resources.
An example of this principle is shown in Figure below, with two protozoan

species, Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum.
When grown individually in the laboratory, they both thrive. But when they are placed
together in the same test tube (habitat), P. aurelia outcompetes P. caudatum for food,
leading to the latter’s eventual extinction.

Communities
This a sum of all living organism found in a specified. Species within a community interact with
each other, sometimes these interactions benefit both species. For example. The fruit produced
by the plant supply birds with food, however, the birds disperse the seeds of these fruit which
benefits the plant.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a self-sustaining unit consisting interacting organisms in area together with the
non-living constituents of their environment. Example an oak wood ecosystem consists of living
organisms such as trees and animals and the physical environment such as rain, the inorganic
components of soil, sunlight and atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Succession
This is the change of community overtime that is replacement of some species by other through
time.
Primary succession
begins with a bare rock where there is not form of organic matter. Usually the first organism
(pioneer community) to colonize a bare rock is the lichen followed by mosses and ferns, big
plants and animals as organic matter accumulate. It must be noted that the first organisms to
colonize a bare rock must be photosynthetic.
Secondary succession
Occurs when the surface in completely or largely stripped of vegetation but has already been
influenced by living organism and has an organic component. For example, a cleared forest or a
previous burned or farmed area. Seeds and pores and organs of vegetative reproduction, such as
rhizomes, may be present in the ground to influence the succession.
The climax community is often described as having one dominant [those with the greatest
collective biomass or productivity] or several co-dominant species
Productivity and biomass

1. Gross primary production is the total organic material made by photosynthesis in a specified
time s known as the.
2. Net productivity is amount of organic material produced by synthetic organisms actually
available to the herbivores since part of gross primary production is respired or decomposed
transferred to herbivore or carried downstream.
i.e., Net primary productivity = Gross primary – respired organic matter+ organic matter
productivity decomposed
Trophic efficiency
Is the percentage of the energy at one trophic level which ends up in the next trophic level is
called the

A climax community is the final stage of succession, remaining relatively unchanged until
destroyed by an event such as fire or human interference.
Environmental carrying capacity is as the population of organisms that can be sustained at a

steady state by the resources available in the ecosystem in which they reside.
Deflected succession- A community that remains stable only because human activity
prevents succession from running its course. This happens all the time, for example, sheep
grazing prevents grassland from developing into woodland

The changes in gross productivity, respiration and biomass during a typical succession is shown
below
Climax
reached
Photosynthetic
Increasing quantity
energy
Energy loss in
respiration
The figure shows time

- that in climax community these terms become more or less constant.
- an upper limit of biomass is reached when total respiratory losses [R] from the system
almost equal gross primary productivity [P], i.e. P/R = 1
- The decreased productivity with succession could be due to lock up of the available nutrients
in the biomass of the community leading to decrease in available nutrients in the abiotic
component of the ecosystem [such as soil and water]
The factors which influence the size of the population in ecosystem

- Natality or birth rate; this is the rate at which new members are added to the population
by reproduction. Birth of younger ones increases the population size.
- Mortality or death rate; the rate at which individual die, the higher the death rate, the
higher the rate of decrease in the population.
- Immigration rate; organisms moving into the population increase its size
- Emigration rate; organisms moving out of the population decreases its size.
- Environmental factors; changes in environment factors affect population size. These can
be biotic or abiotic.
Abiotic factors that affect population size includes
 Whether, this include daily duration of the sun and its intensity, rainfall, humidity and
temperature. Most organisms adapt to live in specific whether conditions. Their
population increase when favorable conditions prevail and decrease when unfavorable
conditions prevail.
 Natural calamities such as feminine, flood, drought, fire, earthquake cause large scale
down of the population
 Availability of food and space are limiting factors to the population. When food, water
and space are available the population increase in size. Otherwise the population
decreases in size
The biotic factors include

o Predator prey relationship: availability of the prey, the population of predators increase
while increase in the population predator reduces the population of the prey.
o Disease reduce the population organism
o Parasites only exist where there is the hosts
o Inter and intraspecific competition; increase in competition of organisms for resources
reduce the population of the organism.

Lesson 3 of 3
Pollution and conservation

Pollution is the damaging release by humans of materials and energy to environment than can be
removed by the environment. The materials or energy released are called pollutants.
The pollutants may be biodegradable or non-biodegradable. Biodegradable pollutants like

sewage are broken down by micro-organism to harmless substances fairly quickly, whereas non-
biodegradable pollutants cannot be so readily broken down. They tend to accumulate and are
therefore potentially more dangerous. Below are specific examples
1. Carbon dioxide
Accumulation of carbon dioxide (from burning fossil fuel, deforestation, etc.) contributes to the
global warming or greenhouse effect. The greenhouse is a slow progressive increase in the
average temperature of the earth over a time.
The effects of global warming

- Melting of ice on mountain tops and earth pole leading to floods
- Droughts in subtropical latitude (5-350N)
Causes of increase of carbon dioxide

 Deforestation contributes to the accumulation of carbon dioxide, be reducing on the trees
that would reduce carbon dioxide by photosynthesis
 Burning of fossil fuel and emission of gases from industries add carbon dioxide to
atmosphere
Means of reducing carbon dioxide concentration in air

a. Using alternative source of energy other than fossil fuel such as solar electricity or
nuclear energy
b. More energy-saving measures could be introduced.
c. Massive tree planting programs to lock up carbon dioxide in the wood
d. Nutrient enrichment of the oceans might allow huge algal blooms which would trap
carbon dioxide in organic matter.
2. Oil pollution
Oil pollution results in spillage from the petroleum carrying ship. When inevitable accidents
happen or when oil refineries are bombed during the time of war. Oil being lighter than
water, floats on sea, killing birds and other animals it may also prevent photosynthesis by
blocking carbon dioxide.
Methods of treating oil pollution include

a. Setting fire on the oil
b. Pumping the oil back into special oil collecting ship
c. Adding naturally occurring bacteria that can digest oil
d. Adding special spill cleaners that are relatively nontoxic and biodegradable than
previously used detergents.

3. Damage to ozone layer
Ozone, O3, is found at low concentration in the earth’s stratosphere, 15 to 50km up. Here it
protects the earth from dangerous radiations that out damage the cell genetic material leading
to cancers. Ozone layer may be damaged by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)used as coolant in
refrigerators
4. Pesticides
Pests are organisms which people consider a nuisance or harmful. Pesticide are substances
that kill pest.
Qualities of a good pesticides are

- It must be specific
- It must remain for a short time in the environment i.e. easily transform to a nontoxic
form
- It must kill the designated population only or should be specific.
- Low toxicity to other organisms
- Cheap
- Readily available
Challenges of using pesticide

a. Non-biodegradable pesticides accumulate in plants and animals causing death
b. Indiscriminately kill organisms including useful ones including useful ones
c. Prolonged use may lead to resurgence of pest because
d. May kill natural predators to the pest that we become defendant to the pesticide.
An example persistent pesticide is DDT
Effect of DDT to organism

- it interferes with conduction of impulses in nervous system
- in birds it interferes with formation of egg shell
- reduces sperm count in animals
- DDT has a possible mutagenic effect especially on pests and lead to flourishing of pests
on prolonged use.
An alternative pest control method is biological control
Biological control, the use of living organisms to control pests.
A natural enemy such as a parasite, predator, or disease organism is introduced into the
environment of a pest or, if already present, is encouraged to multiply and become more
effective in reducing the number of pest organisms.

Qualities of a biological control agent
(i) Narrow host range. Generalized predators may be good natural enemies but they don't
kill enough pests when other types of prey are also available.
(ii) Climatic adaptability. Natural enemies must be able to survive the extremes of
temperature and humidity that they will encounter in the new habitat.
(iii) Synchrony with host (prey) life cycle. The predator or parasite should be
present when the pest first emerges or appears.
(iv) High reproductive potential. Good biocontrol agents produce large numbers of
offspring. Ideally, a parasite completes more than one generation during each
generation of the pest.
(v) Efficient search ability. In order to survive, effective natural enemies must be
able to locate their host or prey even when it is scarce. In general, better search
ability results in lower pest population densities.
(vi) Short handling time. Natural enemies that consume prey rapidly or lay eggs
quickly have more time to locate and attack other members of the pest
population. Small populations of efficient natural enemies may be more effective
biocontrol agents than larger populations of less efficient species.
(vii) Survival at low host (prey) density. If a natural enemy is too efficient, it may
eliminate its own food supply and then starve to death. The most effective
biocontrol agents reduce a pest population below its economic threshold and
then maintain it at this lower equilibrium level.
5. Acid rain
Acid rain is due to releases of acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) usually from unregulated industries. Low pH of acid rain is damaging to
organism tissues. It causes skin corrosion, and contributes to destruction of forests in Europe
and Northern America.
6. Sewage is the water-borne waste of society. It includes both domestic and industrial sewage.
Domestic sewage contain human feces and urine, water used to wash these away and dirty
water flows from our baths and sinks.
Industrial sewage includes the dirty water from industry, hospital and abattoirs.
Agricultural sewage is not allowed to mix with domestic and industrial waste and is treated
separately.
Ecological problems of domestic wastes

 Untreated sewage may end up in water bodies, causing eutrophication.
 Destruction of habitants where they pile
 Bad smell/air pollution

 Leads deadly communicable diseases
 Decay of wastes in absence of oxygen produce methane, a greenhouse gas.
Ways of reducing domestic wastes

 Recycling of non-biodegradable materials in domestic waste
 Burying biodegradable rubbish
 Burning rubbish or treating with chemicals to reduce bulk.
 Use of organic wastes to generate power
 Use of organic waste to produce electricity
 Use of organic waste to generate fuel
Eutrophication
When untreated sewage or agricultural fertilizers enter lakes or rivers, eutrophication may
occur.
Eutrophication is enrichment of water with nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
This leads to overgrowth of algae (or algal blood) which use up oxygen in water leading to
death of fish. Death of fish lead to over multiplication of aerobic decomposers, cause further
depletion of water and death of fish.
Properties for a suitable chemical to use in water purification

- specific to intended organism
- biodegradable
- less toxic to aquatic organism and human life
- unable to change the taste, color or smell of water
7. Radiation from radioactive substance lead to death and oor injury of people and animal by
causing cancers.
Conservation
This involves managing the earth so as to restore and maintain a balance between the
requirements of human and those of other species.
There are two main reasons why we should conserve.

a. The ethical reason is that we have a moral duty to look after the environment.
b. The pragmatic argument says that it is to our advantage to ensure the integrity of our
environment. If we preserve the tropical rain forest, the greenhouse effect will be
lessened; if we conserve fish stock, we get more food from seas, etc.

(a) What is meant by eutrophication? (2marks)
Eutrophication is the heavy nutrient enrichment and low oxygen content of a water body
because of excessive discharge of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers into the water body. It is the
presence of higher than normal amounts of nitrates and phoshate in water body coupled with a
low oxygen concnetration.
(b) State two human activities that may encourage eutrophication (2marks)
 Excessive use of fertilizers on agricultural land
 Untreated sewage (rich in phosphorus and nitrates)
(c) What is the effects of eutrophication? (04marka)
 Species diversity decrease and dominant biota change
 Plant, algae and animal biomass increase
 Turbidity of water increase
 Rate of sedimentation increase, shortening life span of the lake
 Anoxic condition may develop
 Less ligth penetration
 Proriferation of algae, fungi and other aquatic animals due to availability of nutrients

(d) Effects of eutrophication are more severe in water bodies where thermal polution occurs.
Explain. (2marks)
 Warm water has lower solubility for oxygen
 High respiration of organism at high temperature reduce oxygen content of water.
(a) What is ecological impact of each of the following human activities?

(i) Use of pesticide (6marks)
- They are nonspecific and may kill other unintended organisms. This reduces they
biodiversity of ecosystem
- Most pesticides are persistent. They accumulate along the food chain and may eventually
kill/damage other unintended organism at higher trophic levels including man.
- Predator of the organism targeted by the pesticide may be deprived of their only source
of food and therefore upset the food chain.
- Use of broad-spectrum pesticide can lead to pest resurgence after the period of treatment
because some pest become resistant yet the pesticide kills the pest and predator.
- Pesticide pollute air, water and soil.
(ii) Use of artificial fertilizers (4marks)
- Fertilizers applied to crop plants are lost in surface run-off water and pollute soil and
water resource.
- Increase crop yield
- Increase nutrient content of the soil
- Decrease in the number of microorganisms in the soil such as saprophytic bacteria.
- Nitrogen and phosphate-base fertilizers leach into ground water and increase its toxicity
leading to water pollution.
- They change the chemical composition of the soil.
(iii) Over fishing (5marks)
- Extinction of some species

- Reduction of the population of adult reproductive fish, leaving a population of mainly
young individuals because fish caught as soon as they reach catchable size
- It may lead to rapid increase in the number of fish prey.
- May lead to reduction or even extinction of some aquatic fish predators
- Disruption of aquatic
(a) Outline the causes of nutrient deficiency in soil (4marks)

- Soil exhaustion due to over cropping without intervals of resting of the soil
- Leaching nutrients to deeper soil
- Excessive use of fertilizers
- Water logging
- Soil pollution
- Burning causes loss of non-metallic nutrients such as carbon
- Monoculture
(b) Explain how plants have overcome the problem of nitrogen and phosphorous deficiencies
in soils they grow in. (16marks)
Plants living in soil deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus overcome this problem by any
of the following means:
- Living in symbiotic relationship with organism that are capable of producing such
minerals. For example, symbiotic bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere to nitrates that can be used by the plant.
- Some plants live association with the fungi such as mycorrhiza association whereby the
fungi digest organic matter, absorb the nutrients and pass them to the plant.
- Adopting parasitic mode of feed, to obtain nutrients from another plant that can easily
obtain nutrients from deeper soil
- Developing long roots that can absorb nutrients that are leached into deeper soil
Adopting carnivorous behavior in order to obtain mineral from digested animals such
Venus flytrap.

Exercise
Objective type questions
1 2015/1/3 The number of trophic levels in a food chain is mainly determined by the
A. Deficiency of energy transfer between levels
B. Biomass of the producer
C. Net productivity of ecosystem
D. Species diversity of the ecosystem
2 2015/1/5 Which one of the following characteristics of a parasite is not a means of
ensuring continuity of species of the parasite?
A. Degeneration of redundant body structures
B. Protection against host enzymes
C. Means of penetrating other organisms
D. Means of dispersing offspring
3. 2015/1/17 The biomass of consumer is always less than that of producers because
A. Producers have to support consumers
B. Consumers have a low productive rate
C. Energy is lost through body process of consumer
D. Consumers are small in size
4. 2015/1/25 In estimating the population of tilapia in a fish pond, 60 fish were captured,
marked and released. After 2days, 50 were captured and out of which 10
were marked. The population of tilapia in the pond was
A. 300
B. 400
C. 200
D. 100
5. 2015/1/28 A good pesticide is one which
A. Kills a wide range of organism
B. Persist for a long time after its application
C. Kills pests at different trophic levels
D. Easily transforms to non-toxic forms
6. 2015/1/34 Which one of the following is not used to describe a population of
organism?
A. Density
B. Biodiversity
C. Size
D. distribution
7. 2015/1/35 Mosses growing on the bark of a tree form an association with the tree is
called
A. mutualism
B. parasitism
C. commensalism
D. predator
8. 2014/1/10 Which one of the following equation shows the correct relationship between
gross primary productivity (GPP) and net productivity (NPP) in plants?
A. GPP = NPP – photosynthesis
B. NPP = GPP – photosynthesis

C. GPP = NPP – plant respiration
D. NPP = GPP – plant respiration
9. 2014/1/26 Which one of the following activities does not contribute to the greenhouse
effect?
A. Deforestation
B. Use of SFCs
C. Burning of fossil fuel
D. Emission of gases from industries
10. 2013/1/3 Which one of the following is correct about organism in an ecosystem?
A. Some organisms exist in isolation
B. Every organism can be independent
C. Each organism has a different source of food
D. All organism interacts with each other
11. 2013/1/17 Which one of the following methods of estimating population has the
highest chances of error?
A. Removal method
B. Quadrat method
C. Capture-recapture method
D. Direct count method

12 2012/1/9 The figure shows a pyramid of numbers for a food chain
Tertiary consumer
Secondary Consumer
Primary consumer
Producers
The most likely mode of nutrition relationship between producer and

primary consumers is
A. Mutualistic
B. Symbiotic
C. Parasitic
D. autotrophic
13. 2013/1/23 Which one of the following environmental factors has direct effect on all
organisms?
A. Light
B. Humidity
C. Temperature
D. rainfall
14. 2013/1/24 Which one of the following factors reduces interspecific competition in a
community?
A. Resource partitioning
B. High intraspecific competition
C. Large number of species
D. Similar producer-prey strategies among the species.
15. 2013/1/39 Which one of the following is not exhibited by well adapted parasite?
A. Inflicting moderate harm to its host
B. Employing an intermediate host
C. Killing the host
D. Using more than one host
16. 2012/1/13 Depletion of the ozone layer is caused by
A. Greenhouse effect
B. Release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
C. Penetration of ultraviolet light
D. Release of the chlorofluorocarbon in atmosphere
17. 2012/1/17 The type of succession where recolonization of an area results into a
different community from the original one is known as
A. Primary
B. Dominant
C. Deflected
D. secondary

18. 2012/1/18 Radioactive rays are particularly dangerous in nature because they
A. cannot be absorbed by plant so they only affect animals
B. accumulate in animals and return to the soil animals die
C. cause extremely high temperatures in the environment
D. accumulate in high concentrations at high trophic levels
19. 2012/1/33 Determining the commonest plant species in a large habitat within a short
time can be best carried out using the
A. line transect
B. quadrat
C. direct count
D. aerial view
20. 2012/1/35 Excessive use of pesticides in the long term affect mostly
A. carnivore
B. parasites
C. producers
D. herbivores
21 2012/1/37 Which one of the following is true about the environment of a forest floor
under a thick canopy?
A. Has wide temperature fluctuations
B. Receives far red light
C. Develop dense plant growth
D. Has heavy soil erosion
22 2011/1/13
A B C D
In which pyramid does the primary consumer make efficient use of the
producer
23 2011/1/14 Which one of the following factors, has the greatest limiting influence on
the population of algae at the bottom of a pond?
A. Light
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Mineral salts
D. oxygen
24. 2011/1/21 Which one of the following factors does not affect the distribution and
abundance of organism?
A. Mimicry
B. Predation
C. Human species
D. speciation

25. 2011/1/36 Which one of the following would be an effect of decreasing competition on
a stable population?
A. Increasing the environmental resistance thereby increasing the
population
B. Lowering the environmental resistance thereby increasing the
population
C. Lowering the environmental resistance thereby decreasing the
population
D. Increasing the environmental resistance thereby decreasing the
population
26. 2010/1/19 Algae have much smaller biomass compared to a large producer such as
trees but may have the same productivity because
A. A lot of material and energy are locked up in the dead xylem tissue
of the tree.
B. The algae have a very high turn-over
C. Algae have a high rate of reproduction
D. The rate of growth and death in algae is high
27. 2010/1/23 Predators in top trophic levels in food chain are most severely affected by
persistent pesticides because
A. Their system are highly sensitive to chemicals
B. They have high reproductive rates
C. They cannot store pesticides in their tissues
D. The pesticides become concentrated in their prey
28. 2010/1/38 Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites and nitrites into nitrates in
order to
A. Enrich the soil
B. Generate energy for synthesis of organic compounds
C. Maintain the nitrogen cycle
D. Reduce the amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere
29 2010/1/40 Three counts of 103, 46 and 20 of plant species, were made using a quadrat
of 25cm2. The density of plant per m2 is
A. 169
B. 56.3
C. 225
D. 676
No answer
30. 2009/1/29 Which one of the following ecological pyramid may be used to determine
the productivity in an ecosystem?
A. Pyramid of energy
B. Pyramid of biomass
C. Pyramid of numbers
D. Pyramid of productivity

31. 2009/1/32 Which one of the following forms of environmental hazards is attributed to
application of CFCs?
A. Greenhouse effect
B. Acid rain
C. Ozone layer depletion
D. Eutrophication.
32. 2009/1/33 Which one of the following processes does not affect the biochemical
oxygen demand?
A. Ammonification
B. Nitrogen fixation
C. Nitrification
D. denitrification
33. 2009/1/38 Which one of the following constitutes the most energy transfer?
A. Praying mantis feeding on flies
B. Aphids feeding on plant sap
C. Cat feeding on small mammals
D. Beetle larvae feeding on dung
34. 2008/1/22 Which one of the following has the greatest biomass in an ecosystem?
A. Tertiary consumer
B. Primary producer
C. Secondary consumer
D. Primary consumer
35. 2008/1/29 Which one of the following is not a problem that endoparasite face in their
transmission?
A. Leaving the host
B. Entering the host
C. Living away from the host
D. Identifying the host
36. 2008/1/30 Which one of the following statement is correct about the exponential phase
in the population growth?
A. Death rate and birth rate are equal
B. Number of individuals and rate of growth increase
C. The number outstrip the supply of factors for support
D. Slow growth of the population
37. 2008/1/35 The number of organisms in each trophic level reduces as one moves up a
food chain because
A. Energy is lost in moving from one trophic level to another
B. Energy is lost from the top levels
C. Organism in higher trophic levels are less productive
D. Of high level of predation at the top trophic levels
38. 2007/1/2 Which of the following activities does not contribute to global warming?
A. Use of pesticide
B. Deforestation
C. Burning fossil fuel
D. Use of CFCs

39. 2007/1/15 During which energy transfer is most energy lost in an ecosystem?
A. Producer Primary consumer
B. Primary consumer secondary consumer
C. Secondary consumers tertiary consumer
D. Tertiary consumer decomposer
40. 2006/1/12 The bacteria which convert nitrates to nitrites during the nitrogen cycle are
example of
A. Nitrogen fixing bacteria
B. Nitrifying bacteria
C. Decomposing bacteria
D. Denitrifying bacteria
41. 2006/1/24 A climax community is one in which
A. Succession
B. A carrying capacity has been reached
C. Succession has ceased
D. Death rate of organism is at its lowest
42. 2006/1/29 Good drainage and ploughing of soil reduces the process of
A. Nitrification
B. Decomposition
C. Denitrification
D. Nitrogen fixation
43 2006/1/36 In any ecosystem, a continued input of energy is required because
A. Matter is continually used in metabolism
B. Biological succession occurs very slowly
C. Of the continued increase in population in ecosystem
D. Energy is lost each time it is transferred between organisms
44. 2005/1/12 Which of the following would contribute to greenhouse effect
A. Use of nuclear power
B. Use of fossil fuels
C. Excessive use of fertilizers
D. Accumulation of sewage in water bodies
45. 2005/1/30 In the energy transfer in an ecosystem, the greatest loss in energy is between
A. Primary producer and primary consumer
B. Primary consumers and secondary consumers
C. Secondary consumer and tertiary consumer
D. Tertiary consumers and decomposers

46. 2005/1/33 From a bush, 120 beetles were collected and, marked and released back into
the bush. A few days later 120 beetles were collected from the same place,
and 30 of them carried the mark. The estimated number of beetles in the
bush is
A. 240
B. 360
C. 480
D. 560
47 2005/1/5 Energy flow in an ecosystem refers to the energy
A. Consumed in total, by all organisms
B. Consumed by the organism at each energy level
C. Converted from light to chemical energy by the primary producer
D. Transferred from the primary producer through the various
consumers.
48. 2004/1/7 Which one of the following parasites is unicellular?
A. Taenia
B. Plasmodium
C. Ascaris
D. trypanosome
49. 2003/1/30 Which of the following ecological effects may not be caused by
deforestation?
A. Species extinction
B. Reduction in soil fertility
C. Acid rain
D. Flooding and land slides
50. 2003/1/40 Which of the following characteristics of a parasite would increase its
chance of survival?
A. Being highly specific
B. Inflicting severe effects on host
C. Parasitizing more than one type of host
D. Employing no vector
51. 2002/1/1 Which one of the following would be a characteristic of a poorly adapted
parasite?
A. Employing vectors
B. Inflicting mild harm to the host
C. Having a dormant stage during the life cycle
D. Inflicting severe harm to the host
52 2002/1/23 Which of the following methods of controlling malaria would cause least
damage to the environment?
A. Draining swamps
B. Spraying swamps and ponds
C. Spraying oil over stagnant water
D. Introducing fish into the swamp and ponds

53 2002/1/28 The mycorrhiza on some plants serve to
A. Fix nitrogen from atmosphere
B. Absorb mineral salts from the soil
C. Break down humus
D. Synthesize carbohydrates
54 2001/1/6 In which of the following situations would population growth occur?
When the number of
A. Birth equals the number of deaths
B. Birth plus the number of immigrations is less than the number of
deaths plus the number of emigration.
C. Birth plus the number of immigrations is greater than the number of
deaths plus the number of emigration.
D. Deaths plus the number of emigration is greater than the number of
births plus the number of immigration.
55 2001/1/8 Which of the following features are most useful to amphibians in living in
aquatic habitat?
A. Moist skin, membrane around eggs, and gills
B. Membrane around eggs, gills and webbed feet
C. Long hind limbs, short fore limbs and gills
D. Webbed feet, moist skin and gills
56 2001/1/9 Which one of the following is an intracellular parasite?
A. Trypanosome
B. Plasmodium
C. Schistosome
D. Hook worm
57 2001/1/10 There is a limited biomass at each trophic level in a food chain because at
each level, there is
A. Reduction in the number of organisms
B. Loss of energy
C. Reduction in size of organisms
D. Reduction in amount of food.
58 2001/1/32 How many reproductive stages does malarial parasite undergo to complete
the life cycle?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
59 2000/1/2 Which one of the following describes greenhouse effect?
A. Depletion of the ozone layer increases atmospheric temperature.
B. The earth retains the heat gained from the sun
C. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide prevents heat loss from earth
surface
D. The earth gives out carbon dioxide which prevents light rays from
the sun reaching the earth.

60 2000/1/3 The reproductive stage of plasmodium in the liver is represented by the
A. Zygote
B. Gametocyte
C. Merozoite
D. sporozoite
61 2000/1/26 Plant roots in association with symbiotic bacteria is an indication that
A. the plant is unhealthy
B. the roots have been attacked
C. soil around roots lacks nitrogen
D. soil around roots lack humus
62 2000/1/29 Which one of the following in not a component of environmental stress?
A. Lack of light
B. Lack of shelter
C. Topography
D. diseases
63 1999/1/12 A dodder plant, which attaches on stems of various plants is yellow in
appearance. This indicates that the plant
A. lacks roots
B. lacks certain minerals
C. is parasitic
D. lacks supporting tissues
64 1999/1/32 Which one of the following is not a structural component of ecosystem?
A. Green plants
B. Decomposers
C. Predators
D. Solar system
65 1998/1/16 The existence of ring worm on human skin is an example of
A. Parasitism
B. Mutualism
C. Commensalism
D. symbiosis
66 1998/1/21 What is meant by ecological niche?
A. Conditions in which the organism lives
B. Specific localities with particular set of conditions
C. Geographic region, cutting across continents
D. Precise place of an organism and what it does there
67 1998/1/32 Which of the following best describes how pesticides have become
dangerous today?
The pesticide
A. Persist in the soil and make it infertile
B. Harden the soil
C. Pass through food chains in more concentrated forms
D. Cause eutrophication in water and kill fish.

68 1997/1/21 The competitive exclusion principle attempts to explain why
A. A particular niche contains one species
B. Pioneer plants are not found in established community
C. There is rarely more than five trophic levels in an ecosystem
D. The diversity of a habitat increases as succession proceeds
69 1997/1/37 Insectivorous plants are most likely to be found growing in
A. Soil with high organic matter contents
B. Soil with low nitrogen content
C. Soil with low pH
D. Alkaline soil
70 1997/1/40 A species of beetle recently introduced to control the water hyacinth in
Uganda lakes. If the beetles reduced the spread of the weed, this would be
an example of
A. Ecological balance
B. Biological control
C. Dominancy of species
D. Successful competition
70 2014/1/7 Which of the following is the correct sequence representing the action of
nitrifying bacteria?
A. Nitrites → nitrates → Ammonium salts
B. Ammonium salts → Nitrites → nitrates
C. Nitrites → Ammonium salts → nitrates
D. Ammonium salts → nitrates → Nitrites
71 2013/1/31 Which one of the following process does not affect the biochemical oxygen
demand in an environment?
A. Nitrification
B. Ammonification
C. Nitrogen fixation
D. Denitrification
72 2011/1/15 A non-mutualistic role of bacteria in ruminant animals is that they
A. Secrete enzymes for hydrolysis of carbohydrates
B. Break down food into small fragments to ease enzyme action
C. Produce bacterial proteins which is used by ruminant
D. Are preyed on by the ruminants
73 2007/1/30 Which of the following is the main reason why insects eggs usually hatch
rapidly into larvae?
A. Eggs have little yolk
B. Hatching is controlled by external factors
C. It is a way of avoiding predators
D. Due to excessive production of juvenile hormone
74 2006/1/29 Good drainage and ploughing of soil reduces the process of
A. Nitrification
B. Decomposition
C. Denitrification
D. Nitrogen fixation

75 2002/1/2 Which of the following is true about a population where there is no
environmental resistance? The population
A. Grows exponentially
B. Inflicts mild pain to the host
C. Having a dormant stage during the life cycle
D. Inflicting severe harm to the host
76 2001/1/19 Which of the following would does not affect the pH directly?
A. Absorption of bases by plant roots
B. Production of carbon dioxide by plant roots
C. Leaching
D. Water logging
80 2001/1/26 Plant roots in association with symbiotic bacteria is an indication that
A. The plant is unhealthy
B. The roots have been attacked
C. Soil around the roots lacks nitrogen
D. Soil around the roots lacks humus
81 1997/1/9 Which one of the following sequence correctly represents the action of
nitrifying bacteria?
A. Ammonia → nitrites → nitrates
B. Ammonia → nitrate → nitrites
C. Nitrite → nitrate → ammonium
D. Nitrite → ammonium → nitrates
82 1997/1/14 Which of the methods below is most suitable for estimating the population
of paramecium in a pond?
A. Capture-recapture method
B. Total count
C. Removal method
D. Random sampling
83 1996/1/10 The introduction into Uganda to species of South American beetles which
naturally feed on water hyacinth is an example of:
A. Herbivory
B. Predatory
C. Biological control
D. Ecological balance
84 1996/1/34 The data below indicate the concentration, in parts per million, of a
pesticide in the bodies of some organisms that in an area after 20years of
use of pesticide.
Phytoplankton tilapia zooplankton fish eagle
0.04 2.07 0.23 13.80
The most probable reason for the fish eagle to have the highest
concentration of the pesticide is that
A. The pesticide accumulates in the fatty tissue of fish eagle
B. Fish eagles are at the end of food chain represented by organisms.
C. Fish eagle take more food than other organisms

D. The elimination of pesticides is less efficient in fish eagle than in
other organisms.

Structured questions
1. 2014/1/42 (a) What is parasitism? (1mark)
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(b) State three physiological adaptations of endo parasites. (3marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(c) Give three advantages of a parasitic mode of life to the parasite
(3marks)
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(d)Describe three ways of a parasite-host relationship which ensures the
success of a parasite. (3marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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2. 2014/1/43 The figure shows energy flow in a food chain
10,000kJ
800kJ 160kJ
Plants Herbivores Carnivores
(a) (Assuming 10% of the energy received by herbivores is lost,

calculate the energy retained. (03marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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…………………………………………………………………………….
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(b) Explain why
(i) Energy transfer from herbivores to carnivores is more
efficient than that from producers to herbivores. (3marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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…………………………………………………………………………….
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(ii) The efficiency of energy transfer from herbivores to
carnivores is less than 100%. (02marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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…………………………………………………………………………….
(c) State the factors which limit the number of trophic levels in a food
chain. (02marks)
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3. 2013/1/42 The below show the two forms of population growth curves of animals
A B
Population
Population
time time
(a) Indicate by drawing on curve The carrying capacity of the

environment (01mark)
…………………………………………………………………………….
(b) Compare the pattern of population changes in curve A and curve B
(2marks)

…………………………………………………………………………….
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…………………………………………………………………………….
(c) Suggest an explanation for the population changes in curve B.
(4marks)
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(d) Suggest three biotic factors which can result into a change in
carrying capacity, in an environment. (03marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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4. 2012/1/46 (a) State three ecological problems which arise from accumulation of
domestic waste in urban communities (03marks)
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(b) Give two ways of reducing domestic waste (2marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(c) The figure below shows lichen species growing along a 20Km
transect from an urban Centre.
Number of lichen species
5 10 15 20
Distance from urban center (km)
(i) Explain the trend in the lichen species with distance from urban
centre (3marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(ii) Suggest an explanation for the observed number of lichen species at a

distance of 10km from urban center (2marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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5. 2010/1/45 (a) How can predation be beneficial to the prey? (02marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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…………………………………………………………………………….

(b) Give factors that may affect the predator prey balance in nature
(4marks)
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(c) Outline ways by which humans affected the predator-prey balance
resulting into harmful consequences (04marks)
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6. 2007/1/44 (a) (i) Describe how a quadrat method can be used to determine species
density. (2marks)
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(iii) state the advantages and disadvantages of the method.
(2marks)
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(b) (i) why is it important to estimate population size?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(ii) in estimating the number of fish in a small lake, 625 fish
were caught, marked and released. After one week, 920 fish
were caught and of these, 150 had been marked. What was
the estimated size of fish population (2 marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

(iii)
In using the method in b(ii) estimate the population size of
fish, state two assumptions that were made (2marks0
…………………………………………………………………………….
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7 2006/1/46 The table shows the amount of DDT measured in parts per million(ppm)
Found in a variety of organisms associated with a fresh water lake
Where the DDT level was Amount of DDT/ppm
measured
Water 0.0003
Phytoplankton 0.006
Zooplankton 0.004
Herbivorous fish 0.39
Carnivorous fish 1.8
Fish-eating birds 14.3
(a) (i) Calculate how many times the DDT is more concentrated in
carnivorous fish compared with its concentration in water (2marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(iii) What does the results show?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(b) Explain why concentration of DDT changes from water to
carnivorous fish. (03marks)
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© State two effect of DDT to organism (02marks)
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(c) Explain how a pest sprayed with a pesticide may flourish
afterwards? (3marks)
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8. 2005/1/45 (a) State two human activities that increase the levels of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere. (2marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(b) What is the effect of high levels of each of the following gases in
atmosphere? (7marks)
(i) Carbon dioxide
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(ii) Sulphur dioxide
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(c) State one indicator in the environment where there is prevalence of
high level of sulpur dioxide in the environment. (1mark)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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9. 2005/1/44 (a) State the importance of the following elements in plant metabolism
(i) Calcium (1mark)
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

(ii) Magnesium (1mark)
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(b) How does water logging of the soil affect its nitrate content?
(3marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(c) Describe three special ways of obtaining essential elements by some
plants growing in soil deficient on those elements. (5marks)
(i) …………………………………………………………………
(ii) ………….………………………………………………………
(iii) …………………………………………………………………
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(iv) …………………………………………………………………
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10 2002/1/44 (a) In an aquatic ecosystem which was affected by an insecticide, analysis

of energy flow and concentration of the pesticide at each level in a food
chain was made.
The results are shown on the pyramid of biomass of the ecosystem, in
figure below.
Energy flow (kJm-3yr-1) Concentration of pesticide (ppm)
88 Carnivore 2 75
1603 Carnivore 1 50
14098 herbivores 10
87110 Producers 0.04
(a) What does the width of each bar of the pyramid represent? (1mark)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(b) Explain why, from producer to secondary consumer,
(i) The level of pesticide increase (2marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….

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(ii) The flow of energy decrease? (2marks)
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(c) From the biomass, explain how the producer can sustain the
herbivores (2marks)
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(d) Give three ecological problems that may arise through the use of
pesticides. (3marks)
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11 2000/1/45 One strand of spirogyra was placed on each of three microscope slides A, B
and C. the spirogyra was in water contained aerobic, free-moving bacteria.
The three slides were placed under conditions shown in figure below. After
one hour of incubation, the results are shown below.
A B C
Chloroplast
Cell wall
Cell wall
Red light sport
Chloroplast
Green light
sport
bacteria

(a) Describe the distribution of bacteria on the three slides A, B, C.
(3marks)
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(b) Explain the distribution of bacteria on each slide (7marks)

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12 1997/1/45 The table shows the concentration of organism chloride in different
organism inhabiting a pond. Study the table and answer the question that
follow.
organism Planktons Large Fish eagle Small fish
fish
Concentration of 0.04 0.5 25 40
organic chloride
(ppm)
(a) Comment on the data given in table above
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(b) Using the information given in the table, construct a possible food
chain in the pond.
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(c) Explain the high concentration of chlorine in the fish eagle
…………………………………………………………………………….
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(d) Suggest the properties you would recommend for a suitable chemical
to use in water purification
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13. 2012/1/41 The figure shows changes in the size of a population of a producer and the
consumer in a lake over time.
X
Population size
0 Time in years A B
(a) State which curve represents the
(i) Producer ………………………………………… ( ½ mark)
(ii) Consumer …………………………………… ( ½ mark)
(b) Explain the interaction between the two population before point A
(5marks)
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(c) Suggest how human activities could result in the interactions of the
population between points A and B (4marks)
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14 2009/1/45 The figure shows popultation growth curves partten (a), (b) and (c) that
occur naturally
(a) (b) (c)

population
Time
Time Time
Carrying capacity
Describe and suggest reasons for thr observed pattern of each population
growth curve
(a) (3marks)
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(b) (4marks)
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(c) (3marks)
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15. 2004/1/41 (e) What is meant by eutrophication? (2marks)
………………………………………………………………………………..
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(f) State two human activities that may encourage eutrophication
(2marks)
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(g) What is the effects of eutrophication? (04marka)
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(h) Effects of eutrophication are more sevee in water bodies where
thermal polution occurs. Explain. (2marks)
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16. 2003/1/44 (a) What do you understand by biological control? (2marks)
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(b) What consideration must be made before application of a biological
pest control method? (2marks)
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(c) (i) state two ways in which chemical pest control method can upset
ecosystem(2marks)
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(ii) Suggest two reasons why pests eventually flourish after a
period of pesticide application. (2marks)
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(d) Suggest three characteristics of a good pesticide (3marks)
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17. 2001/1/45 The graph below shows the effect of sewage discharge on some chemical
constituents of a river at increasing distance down stream form the point of
sewage discharge
Dissolved oxygen
Concentration
Of constituents
X Distance down stream

Point of
sewage
discharge
(a) Give explanation for the variation in concentration of ammonium ions

and dissolved oxygen, down stream from the point of sewage discharge
(i) Ammonium ion (3marks)
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ii) dissolved ozygen (3marks)

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(b) Describe the effect of sewage on the ecosystem at distance X down
stream.(4marks)
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18

Assay questions
1. 2015/2/6 (a) What is a food chain? (2marks)
(b) Explain how energy flows through an ecosystem? (08marks)
(c) How does temperature influence the distribution of organism?
(8marks)
3. 2013/1/3 (b) What is ecological impact of each of the following human activities?
(iv) Use of pesticide (6marks)
(v) Use of artificial fertilizers (4marks)
(vi) Over fishing (5marks)
(c) Describe advantages of biological pest control over pesticides in an
ecosystem. (5marks)
4. 2013/1/5 (a) Describe the relationship between organisms in the lichen.
(06marks)
(b) Compare mutualism and parasitism. (7marks)
(c) Explain how termite are able to feed on wood. (07marks)
5. 2012/2/5 (a) Explain how ferns are better adapted for terrestrial life than mosses
(08marks)
(b) How does temperature influence the following processes in plant?
(i) Plant growth (07marks)
(ii) Plant distribution (05mark)
6. 2011/2/6 (c) Outline the causes of nutrient deficiency in soil (4marks)

(d) Explain how plants have overcome the problems of nitrogen and
phosphorous deficiencies in soils they grow in. (16marks)
7. 2009/2/6 (a) What is meant by
(i) Biotic potential? (3marks)
(ii) Primary productivity? (2marks)
(b) Discuss the factors which influence the size of the population in
ecosystem (12marks)
(c) Suggest reasons why human populations are not naturally regulated
by negative feedback mechanisms (3marks)
8. 2006/2/1 Figure 1, 2, 3 shows the immigration and extinction of species on different
categories of virgin islands.
Figure 1 shows the rate of immigration of new species on a island nearby

the sore and one that is far from the shore.
Figure 2 shows the rate of extinction of species on a large island and on

small island
Figure 3 shows the rate of immigration and extinction of species on the
island.
Study the information and use it to answer the questions that follow.

of new species to island
Rate of immigration
Island near to shore
Island far from shore
Number of species
Figure 1
Rate of extinction
species to island
Number of species
Figure 2
of new species to island
Rate of immigration
Extinction
immigration
Number of species
Figure 3
(a) Explain the rate of

(i) Immigration of new species on an island that is near to the shore
and one that is far from the shore (figure 1) (10marks)

(ii) Extinction of species on a small island and on a large island (figure
2) (09marks)
(iii) Immigration and extinction of species on an island (figure 3
(7marks)
(b) From figure 1, 2, 3 what conclusions can you draw about what
determines the number of species on an island? (05marks)
(c) Describe how factors other than those depicted in information provided,
may affect the immigration of new species on an island. (4marks)
(d) Suggest the factors that would cause immigration of new species to a
virgin land. (5marks)
9 2004/2/6 (a) What is biological pest control (2marks)
(b) Explain the precautions to be taken in application of biological pest
control (06marks)
(c) Describe the ecological qualities of a good pesticides
10 2003/2/5 (a) Describe the trend of succession that would take place on a bare rock.
(10marks)
(b) Outline the flow of energy in the climax community described in (a)
(10marks)
11 2001/2/5 Describe the influence of biotic factors, excluding man, on the distribution
of organisms in nature. (20marks)
12 2000/2/6 (a)(i) Describe how plants absorb nitrates from the soil.
(ii) Give three ways in which plants use nitrates they have absorbed.
(c) Describe ecological effects of drainage of nitrate fertilizers into
rivers and streams.
13 1999/2/3 (a)(i) outline the importance of population size of different organisms in a

given area to an ecologist
(ii) Differentiate between sample count and total count.
(b) Give five factors to be considered before carrying out counting. exercise
(c) Describe a suitable method you would use to estimate the population of
(i) Fish e.g. tilapia
(ii) Flying insects in a woodland.
Give reasons for your choice
14 1999/2/5 (a) Describe the physiological and structural factors of the water hyacinth
which enabled it to spread and persist on Lake Victoria.
(b) Outline the ecological dangers of this weed on the water
(c) Suggest three control methods of the water weed, and for each method
point out one weakness.
15 2009/2/2 (a) Explain how plants living under the canopy of forest trees are able to
survive (15marks)
(b) Describe how herbaceous plants are supported of the ground (05marks)
16 2004/2/1 Graphs A, B and c shows results of three experiments that were carried out
to study the relationship between a predator, Didinium and a prey
Paramecium under three set of conditions.

In the first experiment, Paramecium was introduced into a culture at point P
and Didinium at point D as shown in figure1
In the second experiment, Paramecium and Didinium was introduced to

ether at point P + D at different population densities. This is shown in graph
B of figure 1
In the third experiment, Paramecium and Didinium were introduced

together at point P +D at different densities. And after every three days as
shown by the arrow in the graph in graph C of figure 1.
Study the graphs and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Describe the trend of the population growth of Paramecium and

Didinium in graph.
(i) A (04marks)
(ii) B (03marks)
(iii) C (04marks)
(b) Explain the interaction of the two species of organism in graph
(i) A (06marks)
(ii) B (06marks)
(c) Compare the trend of the population growth of the two species in graph
B and C. (05marks)
(d) Supposing Paramecium and Didinium were introduced at the same time
under natural environmental conditions, sketch curves to show the
expected trend of population with time (5marks)
(e) Explain the trend of the population curves of Paramecium you hove
drawn in (d) (5marks)
17 2002/2/6 How are vertebrates adapted to terrestrial life (2omarks)
18 2001/2/1 Growth of two microorganisms in culture media and yield of their products
was analyzed. The table shows the growth of the yeast and yield of its
product ethanol.
Time (hrs) Mass of yeast (g per dm-3 of Yield of ethanol (g per
the medium) 100cm of the medium
0 1.0 0.2
2 1.4 0.4
4 2.4 0.6
6 4.2 1.3
8 5.9 2.5
10 6.2 2.8
12 6.1 2.6
14 5.8 2.2

Graph 1 shows the growth of the ascomycete mould Penicillium and the
yield of its products penicillin. Use the data to answer the questions that
follow
Graph 1
(a) Represent the information in the table graphically (6marks)
Use your graph and graph1, to answer question (b) –(f)
(b) Describe the patterns of growth of the mould and yeast (6marks)
(c) Give two differences in the growth pattern of the mould and yeast.
(4marks)
(d) Explain what is happening in the growth of yeast population during each
of the following:
(i) 0 - 2 hours
(ii) 4 - 6 hours
(iii) 8 - 10 hours
(iv) 12 – 14 hours (8marks)
(e) Describe the relationship between the

(i) Growth of mould and yield of penicillin
(ii) Growth of yeast and production of ethanol (4marks)
(f) State three ways in which the pattern of accumulation of penicillin in

graph 1 differs from the pattern of accumulation of ethanol on your
graph. (6marks)

(g) Ethanol is a direct product of metabolic process essential for the life of
the organism. Penicillin is a product of metabolic process which is not
essential to keep the organism alive.
Suggest how the differences in the pattern of accumulation of these two
products may be related to their differing roles in the metabolism of the
producer organisms. (2marks)
(h) State the economic importance of saccharomyces and penicillium

(4marks)
18 2001/2/3 The distribution of the stomata and other leaf modification in plants are
indicative of their habitats. Discuss. (20marks)
a. Which one of the following activities does not contribute to the greenhouse effect?
A. Deforestation.
B. Use of CFCs.
C. Burning of fossil fuels.
D. Emission of gases from industries.
The answer is B
Accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prevents heat energy from escaping from the
earth’s surface. This result in accumulation of heat energy on the earth’s surface, a phenomenon
called greenhouse effect.
Any activity that increase carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere will lead to green house
effect. Such activities include deforestation. burning fossil fuels and industrial emissions.
Note:
Use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) causes depletion of the ozone layer and causes sun rays reaches
the earth directly. This causes direct global warming but not through greenhouse effect.
42. (a) What is meant by parasitism?
(b) State three physiological adaptions of endoparasites.

(c ) Give three advantage of parasitic mode of life to a parasite
(a) Describe three ways of parasite-host relationship which ensure the success of a parasite
Solution
(a) Parasitism is a close association between two organisms of different species in which one
organism (the parasite benefits while the other (the lost) is harmed.
(b) . Ability to respire adequately anaerobic conditions
 Production of digestive enzymes to aid penetration into host.
 Chemosensitivity in order to reach the optimum location in the host’s body
 Others:
 Production of an anticoagulant in blood feeders.
(c) Nutrients are always readily available and so there is no loss energy in searching for
food.
 They live a homeostatically regulated environment and so there is no need for
osmoregulation.
 They are usually provided with already digested food nutrients and so there’s so
need for digestive system.
 Others:
 The parasite is always accorded enough protection shelter and therefore not prone
to predation
(d) Inflicting only moderate to the host

Inhabiting more than on host.
Using a secondary host as a vector for transmission to the definitive host.

43. Figure 4 show energy flow in a food chain.
The figure shows energy flow in a food chain
10,000kJ
800kJ 160kJ
Plants Herbivores Carnivores
(d) (Assuming 10% of the energy received by herbivores is lost, calculate the energy retained.
(03marks)
………………………………………..…………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………..……………………..….
…………………………………………………………..………………………………………
(e) Explain why
(iv) Energy transfer from herbivores to carnivores is more efficient than that from
producers to herbivores. (3marks)
………………………………………..……………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..….
…………………………………………………………..………………………………………
(v) The efficiency of energy transfer from herbivores to carnivores is less than 100%.
(02marks)
………………………………………..…………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..….
…………………………………………………………..………………………………………
(f) State the factors which limit the number of trophic levels in a food chain.
(02marks)
………………………………………..…………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………...…………………………..….
…………………………………………………………..………………………………………

Solution
Energy received herbivores = 800kJ
Energy lost = 10% of 800
10
= x800
100
Energy retained = energy received - energy lost
= 800KJ - 80kJ
Energy retained = 720kJ
(b) (i) producers (plants) contain a high proportion of cellulose and sometime wood which are
relatively indigestible and therefore unavailable as energy sources for most herbivores.
The herbivore transfer animal tissue to the carnivore, which is easily digestible and can therefore
be utilized by the carnivore. As a result, a large percentage of energy is transferred from herbivores
to carnivores than from produces to herbivores
(ii). Some energy is also in the form of excrete and egesta and it transferred to detritivores and
decomposers and never reach the carnivores.
Some structure like teeth cannot be digested to release energy.
(c ) Amount of energy received by producers
Proportion of received energy that is converted into primary productivity (NPP)
Extent of energy loss at each trophic level.
3. Which one of the following is correct about organisms in an ecosystem?
A. Some organisms exist in isolation.

B. Every organism can be independent.
C. All organisms interact with each other.

D. Each organism has a different source of food.
3. The answer is C
An ecosystem consists of different organism that interacts continuously interact with one another
in their environment. They often compete with each other for food , shelter and available resource.
Recall:
An ecosystem is any unit of the environment composed of living and nonliving components
whose interactions result in a stable self-perpetuating system.
17. Which one of the following methods of estimating population has the highest chances of
error?
A. Removal method.
B. Quadrat method.
C. Capture-recapture method.
D. Direct count method.
24. Which one of the following factors reduces interspecific competition in a community?
A. Resource partitioning.
B. High intraspecific competition.
C. Large number of species.
D. Similar predator-prey strategies among the species.
24. The answer is A
Interspecific competition in a community is competition which occurs among organism of

different species. Resource partitioning, the allocation of a particular class of resource to a
given group of species, reduces this kind of competition by ensuring that organism of a given
species are entitled to particular resource, leaving other resource t the other species.

31. Which one of the following processes does not affects the biochemical oxygen demand in an
environment?
A. Nitrification.
B. Ammonification.
C. Nitrogen fixation.
D. Denitrification.
The answer is D
Denitrification occurs in anaerobic conditions. Using nitrate as the oxidizing agent. As such, it
does not affect the biological oxygen demand (BOD) in an environment.
Note:
The other processes, nitrification ammonification and nitrogen fixation require oxygen in order to
occur and therefore directly affect the biological oxygen in an environment.
39. Which one of the following is not exhibited by a well-adapted parasite?
A. Inflicting moderate harm to its host.
B. employing an intermediate host.
C. killing the host.
D. using more than one host.
The answer is C
A well-adapted parasite never kills nor do causes great harm it host. However, it may.
Inflict moderate harm to its host
Employ an intermediate host.
Use more than one host.

1. Figure 5 show two forms of population growth curve of animals.
B
A
Population
Population
time time
Fig. 5
(a) Indicate by growing on curve A the carrying capacity of the environment.

(b) Compare the pattern of population change in curve A and B
(c) Suggest an explanation for the population changes in curve B
(d) Suggest three biotic factors which can result into a change in carrying capacity,in an
environment.
42
(a) A
C
Population
time
C is the currying
capacity
Note: in an examination, this should be drawn on the graph provided in the question
(b). Similarities

In the curves, population of the animals increase gradually initially, then rapidly approaching an
exponential growth rate then show a declining rate of increase to a maximum.
Both population start at zero
Difference
In A, the population attains maximum and maintains it over time while in B after attaining a
maximum; the population shows a gradual decline with time.
(a) Initially , the growth rate is show because
- A few animals have reached reproductive maturity.

- The animals are not yet adapted to the conditions of environment.
Later, growth rate is rapid because
- The animals are now well adapted to environment.

- There are many reproducing animals
The declining rate available occur as a result of environmental stresses ssuch as:
- Competition for available resource such as food and shelter

- Accumulation of waste products
- Reproductive failure
- Predation
The decline after a maximum is a result of
- reduction in sources in the environment to support the animal population.

- Predation
- Competition
- Parasitism
9. Figure 2 shows a pyramid of numbers for a food chain.
Tertiary consumer
Secondary consumer
Primary consumer
Producer
The most likely mode of nutritional relationship between producers and primary consumers is
A. mutualistic. B. symbiotic.
C. parasitic. D. autotrophic.
The answer is C
The pyramid shows few producers supporting very many consumers. This is often true it the
primary consumer is a parasite.
13. Depletion of the ozone layer is caused by
A. greenhouse effect.
B. release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
C. penetration of the ultraviolet rays.
D. release of the chlorofluorocarbons in atmosphere.
The answer is D
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are chemical compounds which directly attack and deplete the ozone
layer.
17. The type of succession where recolonisation of an area results into a different community from
the original one is known as
A. primary. B. dominant.
C. deflected. D. secondary.

The answer is C
When an established community is destroyed and then allowed to regenerate, sometimes

recolonization of the habitat leads to establishment of a climax community different from the
original climax community. This usually occurs as a result of effects of human activities on the
environment. The new communities are referred to as a plagioclimax and occur by a process of
succession termed deflected succession.
Note:
 A succession developing on a newly emerged land ( bare rock) or water is called primary
succession
 A succession that develops following a fire or similar major disruption to an established
community is called secondary succession.
18. Radioactive rays are particularly dangerous in nature because they
A. cannot be absorbed by plants so they only affect animals.
B. accumulate in animals and return to the soil when animals die.
C. cause extremely high temperatures in the environment.
D. accumulate in high concentrations at high trophic levels.
The answer is C
Radioactive rays often cause extremely high temperatures in the environment by giving up their
high energies to materials through which they pass. This is a great disadvantage in nature.

33. Determining the commonest plant species a large habitat within a short time can best carried
out using the
A. line transect. B. quadrat.
C. direct count. D. aerial view method
33. The answer is A
A line transect involves the use of tape or sting running along ground in a straight line between
two designated points. Sampling is rigorously confined to spices actually touching the line. This
gives a quick method of identifying the commonest plant spicies in a large habitat.
Note:
Quadrat and direct count methods are more time consuming while aerial method is not suitable for
plant species.
35.Excessive use of pesticides in the long term affects mostly
A. carnivores. B. parasites.
C. producers. D. herbivores
The answer is A
Pesticide have a property of bioaccumulation; a phenomenon by which the pesticides occur in

increasing concentration among organism at higher trophic levels. As a result, they affect
carnivores mostly because they are at a higher trophic level than producers and herbivores

37. Which one of the following is true about the environment of a forest floor under a thick canopy?
A. Has wide temperature fluctuations.
B. Receives far red light.
C. Develops dense plant growth.
D. Has heavy soil erosion.
The answer is B
In the presence of a thick canopy, ordinary light cannot penetrate to reach the plants under the
canopy. However, far red light has more energy and can therefore penetrate the canopy, therefore,
it is far light that is received and utilized by the plants under the canopy.
41. Figure 6 shows changes in the size of a population of a producer and consumer in alake over
time.
X
Y
Population
size
Time A B
(years)
(a) State which curve represents the

(i) Producer
(ii) Consumer
(b) Explain the interaction between the two populations before point A.
(c) Suggest how human activities could result in the interaction of the population between
points A and B
Solution:
(a) (i) Curve X

(ii).Curve Y
(b) The population of consumers and producers fluctuate because consumer depends on
producers for food.
When the population of consumer is high, they feed o producers at rate which is higher
than the producers can reproduce. The population of the consumers increases as that of the
producer decreases.
When the population of producers falls, that of the consumers also falls due to death of
some consumers from starvation. This allows the population of producers to recover and
the cycle continues.
(c) Between A and B, the population of both organism increases. This may be due to:
Excessive use of fertilizers near the lake.
Dumping of untreated sewage into the lake
Deposition of detergents into the lake.
All these activities increase the nutrient content of the lake (eutrophication) thus
accelerating the growth of producer which in turn support a larger population of consumers.

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Based on rainfall and temperature terrestrial biome is further subdivided into

1. loss of leaves by the trees in winter to reduce on water loss by guttation.

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To survive in the desert organism have developed the following adaptations.

(iv) Tandra have long winters and short growing seasons.

Abiotic/environmental factors that affect distribution of organism on land

Qualities of good soil depend on

- Size and nature of inorganic particles

Elements of climate are

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(v) Relative humidity

Ecological effect of fire

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Factor that affect distribution of organisms in water include

(iii) depth of water

Intimate associations include

Challenges faced by a parasite

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A. Degeneration of redundant body structures.

Degeneration of redundant body structures is an adaption of a parasite to it mode of life,

 Possession of penetrative devices for gaining entrance into the host.

Energy transfer; food chains and trophic levels.

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Example of food chain

Grass Grasshopper chicken man

-The more levels in food chain the less stable it becomes.

Example of a food web

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The producer is single plant which is

A large number of producers are

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Cycling of matter and flow of energy in eco system.

These are related as follows;

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Protein in plants Protein in

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A. Nitrites — nitrates — ammonium salts.

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Population and niche concept

Importance of estimating the population size

Estimating population size.

B. Method for estimate of population size of large animals living in unconcealed

 Direct counting method using a low flying aircraft.

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 Drive and count

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 Direct counting (Census)

C. Determining the population of small animals

This method provides a mean of calculating three aspects distribution.

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 Capture – recapture or mark-release methods. Here a sample of individual is caught,

Precautions for capture-recapture methods

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Sample number in Sample cumulative sample size

From the graph the estimated number organisms is = 425s

Population growth and growth curves

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