ARTICLES

WHAT IS AN ARTICLE?
An article, in grammatical terms, is one of three words which comes before a noun. Its role is to indicate
whether that noun is something specific and is already known by the listener/reader (definite), or whether it
is something unknown or non-specific (indefinite).
These are the 3 articles:

• the the definite article

• a
the indefinite articles
• an

In academic writing, it is sometimes difficult to know which article to use, or whether it is not necessary to use
one at all ('zero article'). The following guide will help you with some general rules.

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

A noun is definite if it refers to something specific (either singular or plural) that is known to both the writer
and the reader. The noun may be:

something previously mentioned, or related • I went to a lecture yesterday. The lecture was very interesting.
to something previously mentioned • We went to a wedding on Saturday. The bride looked beautiful.

• The second chapter of her book is the longest.

a superlative, or an ordinal number
• The best essays are those which are well structured.
the name of a river or a musical • The Murray
instrument. Some countries (mainly plural • I play the piano
names) also take “the” • The Philippines
• The French
an adjective used as a noun • The west
• The rich

an organisation • The World Health Organisation

a class or category • The Sturt desert pea is the floral emblem of South Australia.

• The subjects [who are] participating in our study agree to the guidelines.
modified by a relative clause,
• The rats [which were] used in this experiment all survived. They will be the
which may be shortened people [who] I need to learn from.
• The earth revolves around the sun.
a unique person, place or thing
• The queen of England

• None of the projects was satisfactory.

plural and preceded by “of”
• All of the questionnaires were returned.
• The same
• The only EXCEPTIONS:
a unique adjective • An only child (a child with no brothers or sisters)
• The principal • A principal cause (there are several major causes)
• The whole
• The use of this procedure was approved by the Experimental Ethics Committee
specific and followed by “of” of the University Central Hospital.

• The 1990s
a decade or century th
• The 15 century

• The dollar
a currency • The yen

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THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
The indefinite article can only be used for singular nouns. A noun is indefinite if it does not refer to something
specific. “A” is used before a consonant sound (e.g. a uniform), and “an” is used before a vowel sound (e.g.
an hour).
The indefinite article is used before:

a singular noun which is mentioned for the first • A uniform is necessary if you are a school student.
time • This will make a difference.
• Twice a day • The seminar is an hour long.
a measurement, rate or expression of frequency
• Four times an hour • The fees are $600 a semester.
the first mention of something which is part of a • A piece of information.
whole • A molecule of oxygen.
exclamations (where the noun is indefinite and • “What an awful shock!”
singular) • “That’s a pity!”
• The sun is a star.
what a thing or person is
• I’m an engineer.

ZERO ARTICLE
We do not need an article when:
• Women generally live longer than men.
a noun is plural and indefinite
• Long reports are difficult to write.
• The country’s major exports are wool and oil.
a noun is uncountable and indefinite • The river mouth is full of mud and silt.

• She is my grandmother.
another word, such as a personal pronoun, • These countries can be seen as economically reliable.
demonstrative adjective or quantifier, is used • Several answers may be given.
• Most researchers agree on this point.

a noun which is mentioned for the first time is • DNA that has been exposed to ultraviolet radiation is
followed by a phrase which gives a description of sometimes unable to replicate.
a process, or alteration • Animals that become infected with rabies must be killed

a noun is a proper noun, name, place, country, • Tom • Monday

day, festival or season. • Adelaide • Christmas
(This is only a general rule, & there are many exceptions.) • Australia • Summer

COUNTABLE & UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

English nouns are either countable or uncountable:

A countable noun can be made plural. It can take a • one house/two houses
definite or indefinite article. • a house/the house/the houses

For example, we cannot say:

An uncountable noun cannot be made plural.
• two bacons
Uncountable nouns cannot take an indefinite article. • a furniture

• I have a lot of experience [uncountable] in administration.

Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable • My experiences [countable] in the lab were very informative.

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Some uncountable nouns (such as money) may appear to be countable. These are called mass nouns and
represent groups of countable nouns. (Money, for example, is the mass noun for individual nouns such as
dollar or coin.)
You will need to decide if a noun is countable or uncountable before you can choose an appropriate article
Uncountable nouns can be grouped to make remembering them easier. For example:

GENERAL GROUPS WITH INDIVIDUAL PARTS ABSTRACT IDEAS ACADEMIC SUBJECTS

Mass Noun Individual Parts (often countable) • Love • Biology
Advice suggestions, recommendations… • Beauty • Economics
Equipment machines, computers, tools… • Anger • Literature
Information facts, figures, statistics…
• Courage • Art
News weather, sports, events…
Work jobs, tasks, responsibilities… • Fun • Science
Art paintings, sculptures, drawings… • Happiness • Linguistics
Clothing shirts, dresses, socks, pants… • Health • Mathematics
Apparatus bunsen burner, test tube… • Hate • Psychology
Furniture sofas, chairs, tables… • Honesty • Physics
Grammar verb tense, word order… • Intelligence • Music
Homework exercises, assignments… •
• Knowledge Poetry
Housework cleaning, cooking, shopping…
• Luck • Chemistry
Jewellery necklaces, rings, brooches…
Luggage suitcases, bags… • Peace
Mail letters, postcards, parcels… • Poverty MATERIALS
Money notes, coins, dollars, cents… • Progress • Gold
Music songs, pieces, symphonies… • Time
Noise traffic noise, voices, sounds… • Silver
• Wealth • Cotton
• Communication • Plastic
THINGS THAT MUST BE IN CONTAINERS TO BE • Justice • Paper
COUNTED • Patience
LIQUIDS SOLIDS GASES • Iron
• Trouble • Rubber
• Water • Toothpaste • Air • War
• Milk • Film • Smoke • Wood
• Petrol • Powder • Steam • Chalk
NATURAL CONDITIONS
• Soup • Salt • Fog
• Wine • Cement • Oxygen • Wind LANGUAGES
• Shampoo • Pollution • Darkness • Indonesian
• Oil • Sunshine • English
• Blood • Electricity • Arabic
• Coffee • Gravity • Cantonese
• Weather • Mandarin
FOOD USUALLY CUT THINGS WITH MANY • Fire
INTO PIECES PARTS • Heat
• Bread • Hair • Humidity
• Cheese • Grass • Light
• Meat • Wheat
• Ice cream • Corn GERUNDS
• Dirt • Walking
• Dust • Studying
• Flour • Researching
• Salt

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Words that have different meanings when used as countable or uncountable nouns:
UNCOUNTABLE COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE COUNTABLE
Chicken (food) One chicken/two chickens Glass (the material)
(animal) A glass/glasses
One lamb/two lambs (drink holder)
Lamb (food) (animal) Glasses (spectacles)

Liver (food) One liver/two livers Paper (the material) A paper

(animal part) (newspaper or report)
Fish (food) One fish/two fish Iron (the material) An iron/irons
(animal) (for ironing of clothes)
Wine (general) A wine/wines Wood (the material) A wood/woods
(means ‘a kind of’) (place with trees)
A food/foods A fire/fires
Food (general) (means ‘a kind of’) Fire (the condition) (one specific occurrence)
Fruit (general) A fruit/fruits Light (the condition) A light/lights
(means ‘a kind of’) (produces light)
Meat (general) A meat/meats Time (abstract idea) A time/times
(means ‘a kind of’) (one specific period)
Education (general) An education Cake (type of food) A cake/cakes
(means ‘a kind of’) (specific occurrence)
An experience/experiences A change/changes
Experience (general) (means ‘a kind of’) Change (money) (alteration)
A company / companies A room/rooms
Company (visitors) (establishment or military Room (space) (a partitioned area)
unit)
Business A business/businesses A work/works
(establishment) Work (job/task) (building under construction
(occupation/interest) or artistic piece)
CHOOSING THE RIGHT ARTICLE
Use the quick guide below to assist you in choosing the correct article

Singular countable noun Plural uncountable noun

Is the noun definite? Is the noun definite?

YES NO YES NO

Use “the” Use “a/an” Use “the” Use no article

Much of the material in this sheet is adapted from:

Kohl, JR & Katz, S, Article usage, viewed 6 November 2013,
www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/stonebrink/SLO40/Articles_ESL. Pdf; www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/esl.html
(Please note that this text is no longer available )
Master, PA 1986, Science, medicine and technology: English grammar and technical writing, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey
Swales, JM & Feak, CB 1994, Academic writing for graduate students, 3rd edn, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

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EXERCISES
Now try the following exercises. Use “a”, “an” or “the” where necessary.
Remember, sometimes more than one answer is possible, other times no article is required.

EXERCISE 1
Egypt is (a) _______ model birthplace for (b) _______ major civilisation. If you were to head south into
(c) _______ countryside from (d) _______ Cairo, (e) _______ modern capital of Egypt, you would soon
be in (f) _______ narrow valley. You would soon see (g) _______ fields, vivid green with (h) _______
fine crops. You would also see (i) _______ vast expanse of dry, golden desert that borders this river
valley.

(j) _______ Nile River makes this contrast possible. Without (k) _______ river, all would be desert. Every
September, (l) _______ Nile floods, bringing (m) _______ huge amount of water that can be used for (n)
_______ irrigation. Floods also make the soil richer by depositing (o) _______ mud and (p) _______ silt.
These conditions have been the same for (q) _______ thousands of years. (r) _______ fertile soil allows
for (s) _______ rich harvests.

EXERCISE 2
(a) _______ library catalogue is (b) _______ key to (c) _______ library’s resources. It gives you

(d) _______ information about materials held in (e) _______ library, and (f) _______ details you need to
locate them. All (g) _______ Australian and New Zealand university libraries have online or computerised
catalogues. Most libraries have their catalogue terminals scattered throughout (h) _______ building. This is
(i) _______ distinct advantage over the old card catalogues, which could only be in one location. Moreover,
in many cases you can connect to (j) _______ computer catalogue from home if you have (k) _______
personal computer and (l) _______ modem. However, (m) _______ card catalogue is not quite extinct; some
academic libraries still retain one for details of older material. (n) _______ oldest books may be on

(o) _______ separate record.

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EXERCISE 1
(a) the singular, countable noun; unique – there can only be one birthplace
(b) a singular, countable; not specific; could be any civilisation
(c) the singular, uncountable noun; definite (this is the countryside near Cairo)
(d) - proper noun which needs no article
(e) the singular, countable noun; unique – there can only be one capital; specific and followed by ‘of’
(f) a singular, countable noun; not definite; not mentioned previously
(g) - plural, countable noun; indefinite (we do not know which fields) needs no article
the plural, countable noun; could be definite (the fields near Cairo)
(h) - plural, countable noun; not specific or previously mentioned (crops are general) needs no article
(i) the singular, countable noun; definite (it borders this river valley)
(j) the name of river; defined as the Nile River
(k) the singular, countable noun; already identified
(l) the name of river
(m) a singular, countable noun; first mention of something that is part of a whole, needs no article
(n) - uncountable noun; not definite; general, needs no article
(o) - uncountable noun; not definite; general, needs no article
(p) - uncountable noun; not definite; general, needs no article
(q) - plural, countable noun; not definite; has a quantity word
(r) the singular uncountable noun; previously mentioned indirectly (mud and silt make the soil rich)
- uncountable noun; general statement; needs no article
(s) - plural, countable noun; not specific, needs no article
EXERCISE 2
Your answers to this exercise will vary according to whether you have interpreted the passage as referring to a non-specific library
(any library anywhere) or a specific library (such as the one you are in)
(a) the singular, countable noun; definite and unique; a category
a singular countable noun; not definite (any catalogue is important)
(b) the singular, countable noun; definite and unique
a singular, countable noun; not definite (one of several keys)
(c) a singular, countable noun; not definite (we don’t know which library and it doesn’t matter)
the singular, countable noun; the entire class of libraries
(d) - singular, countable noun; not definite, needs no article
(e) the singular, countable noun; already referred to in the passage
a singular, countable noun; not definite (any library)
(f) the plural, countable noun; defined in the phrase (i.e. which details? The details you need…)
(g) - plural, countable noun; not definite or specific, needs no article
the plural, countable noun (the libraries in Australia and New Zealand)
(h) the singular, countable noun; definite (refers to one library building)
a singular, countable noun; indefinite (the library may have several buildings, but it’s not important which
one is referred to here)
(i) a singular, countable noun; not definite, not mentioned before
the singular, countable noun (the advantage is distinct
(j) the singular, countable noun; already referred to in the passage
a singular, countable noun (any catalogue)
(k) a singular, countable noun (could be any kind of PC)
(l) a singular, countable noun (could be any kind of modem)
(m) the singular, countable noun; acting as a whole category
(n) the singular, countable noun; definite; superlative
(o) a singular, countable noun; not definite, not mentioned before
Remember, sometimes two answers are possible
ANSWERS
ARTICLES