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NETAJI SUBHAS OPEN UNIVERSITY

Course: Research and Publication Ethics
Module: RPE-01: PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS
General Introduction
Society is changing, so are also the contours of development. Science and Technology are advancing at a
rapid speed to bring about changes in society, economy, institutions, and people’s lives, and are also facing
challenges and threats. But while scientific progress has been rapid and astonishing, it is still disturbing for
those people who feel excluded from the debate surrounding the application of science in new technologies
and products. Questions arise, motivate scientific enquiries, and human mind responds and reacts, and the
vista of knowledge expands. As scientific progress becomes increasingly fundamental to society, it is
constantly challenging if not completely clashing with long-held traditional beliefs concerning our values.
Philosophy is the repository of knowledge containing all such questions, answers and reactions spanning
diverse dimensions, viz, technical , moral, cultural, and social involving theoretical , institutional ,practical,
and other different sub-branches of knowledge in physical, life and social sciences. The universe of
Philosophy contains all the above.

Scientific enquiries often need to confront ethical discussions/questions in order to adapt the use of
scientific knowledge—namely new forms of technology—to a general context that is in agreement with the
basic principles of our civilisation. The ethical questions enable human society to explore the usefulness of
new knowledge both in the general context of societal welfare and the specific context in which science is
engaged with progress and advancement. In that sense, ‘Ethics’ is an important branch of ‘Philosophy’.

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Unit 1 : Philosophy

Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction to Philosophy: definition, nature and scope, concept, branches
1.3 Ethics : definition, moral philosophy, nature of moral judgements and reactions
1.4 Conclusion
1.5 Key Terms simplified
1.6 Questions with Answer Hints
1.7 References
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1.1 Objectives

After going through this unit you will be able

 To Know about the difference between Philosophy and Ethics;
 To learn about the definition, nature and scope, concept, branches of Philosophy;
 To have an idea regarding Ethics : definition, moral philosophy, nature of moral judgment and
reactions;

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  To note the interactions between rational agents and public officials regarding the appropriateness
of policy interventions in modern society ;

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1.2 Introduction to Philosophy: definition, nature and scope, concept, branches

Philosophy literally means ‘love of wisdom’. It is an attempt to arrive at a rational conception of

the reality as a whole. It enquires into the nature of the universe in which we live, the nature of the
human soul, and its destiny, and the nature of God or the Absolute, and their relation to one another.
It enquires into the nature, meaning, purpose, origin, and destiny of human life, and involves the
interpretation of life, its value, and meaning.

The word ‘philosophy’ is derived from two Greek (Greek is the language of Greece, the land
of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle….) words philos and sophia. Philos stands for love and sophia for
wisdom. It stood for serious cultivation of the intellect and understanding. It was a searching
inquiry into the deeper values of life. It enquires into the nature of matter, time, space, causality,
evolution, life, and mind, and their relation to one another. It is considered as the art of thinking
all things logically, systematically, and persistently.

Historically, philosophy encompassed all bodies of knowledge, and a practitioner of

philosophical traits was known as a philosopher. From the time of Ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, "natural philosophy"
encompassed astronomy, medicine,and physics. For example , Newton's 1687 Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics. It is considered as
an umbrella concept under which activities of physics, chemistry, biology, botany, psychology
etc., i.e., scientific enquiries take place. Under the brand name or umbrella of philosophy,
similarly, some branches of scientific queries called epistemology, metaphysics, ethics,
aesthetics, theology etc. have developed and broadened the vista of our knowledge. The major
subfields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, which is concerned with the fundamental
nature of existence and reality; epistemology, which studies the nature
of knowledge and belief; ethics, which is concerned with moral value; and logic, which studies the
premises- conclusions connect. Other notable subfields include philosophy of science, political
philosophy, aesthetics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of mind etc.
Philosophy is both an activity and a body of knowledge. Philosophers are rarely content to accept
the status quo at face value. That does not mean that philosophers agonize over every decision and
policy constantly—that would make everyday life impossible. Philosophers agonize over every
decision and policy constantly—that would make everyday life impossible. What they do is to
raise serious questions about how and why people behave in a particular way or the nature and
causes of scientific progress and people’s response to them, and also whether such decisions or
actions are justifiable from the point of view of society at large .Norms, morality and judgments

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constitute the core of philosophical discourses , and in modern societies, such discourses are
important in checking the appropriateness/ fairness etc in the context of choice for policy
interventions or public actions. Thankfully, many great thinkers have contributed to a body of
knowledge that will help us sort out questions that vex us at this very fundamental level.
The discipline of philosophy is often associated with the seminal thinker Socrates(ca. 470–399
bce). At one point, Socrates angered the city fathers of Athens so much that they put him on trial
for his life on the charge of subverting the youth. According to the Plato’s dialogue The Apology,
Socrates’ response was that we can maintain the way things are, but there is value in revisiting our
working beliefs. This is true especially when we face novel or difficult issues.One function of
philosophy, then, is to critically examine basic concepts and ideas, and their wider implications
for everyday life. By providing us with the analytical framework to examine ideas and competing
claims, philosophy allows us to see if they are valid and justified.
For example, one theory of justice suggests that we should help those who are unable to benefit
from the virtues of the “genetic lottery”—intelligence, health, aptitudes, and even the capacity to
do hard work. In other words, the theory suggests we have a responsibility to help others who have,
through no fault of their own, a more difficult struggle to survive and prosper. A contrasting theory,
however, says that we are entitled to whatever we earn and we don’t owe anything to anyone else.
By this reasoning, if we are able to use our genetic gifts to generate wealth, we could help others,
but doing so remains our individual choice. When we look at these sorts of claims more closely,
we realize that there is more going on than a simple matter of arbitrarily choosing this or that
theory. If we explore the basic assumptions people make, then we know the possibility of finding
areas of agreement, and at the same time testing whether our own intuitions lead clearly to the
conclusions we draw. For instance, it might seem obvious at first that we are entitled to what we
earn and should spend it how we wish, but it turns out that people disagree about notions of
property, ownership, and the scope of personal choice. Engaging in open dialogue with others,
analyzing their reasoning and evaluating our own, challenges us to explain and justify our views
and perhaps revise them if our logic or basic beliefs are somehow faulty.
If, for example, we talk about why we should keep our earnings, we have to consider what it
means to have the right to property and if that comes about by virtue of the society in which we
live. Additionally, we might consider our duties to others and whether our ability to earn has a
consequent responsibility to help the less fortunate ones. Philosophers often contend that it is
always worth reflecting on our foundational beliefs and the way they play out in our actions.
Socrates would have argued that unexamined life may not be worth living. This means that we
should reflect on our purpose and goals in life, may not be hurriedly or instantly, but thinking
deeply over a period of time about what we do and why. The discipline of Philosophy enables us
to do that reflections and introspection so as to arrive at meaningful conclusions guiding our choice
and actions in future. The traditional divisions include logic , history of philosophy, metaphysics,
epistemology etc. , which are important branches of philosophical discourses.
Philosophy may not always give us the means to reach conclusive answers—in fact, it
frequently raises more questions than it resolves. On the other hand, it raises the standard of

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justification from assertion to argument. An assertion declares something without any support or
need for justification. An argument is a connected series of claims leading to a conclusion, and
when we proceed to examine every step in the series, we find that each individual claim may be
true or false, or the links between them may be invalid. In philosophy all assumptions are up for
reexamination.

There is no single agreeable definition philosophy. Various philosophers have conceptualized from
their personal point of perception. Their remains some similarities in these definitions and some
differences are also there. Some of the definitions propounded by eminent philosophers are given
as:-

According to Aristotle - "Philosophy is the science which investigates the nature of being as it is
in itself and the attributes which belong to it in virtue of its own nature".

Plato - "Philosophy is the acquisition of knowledge."

Hegel - "Philosophy aims at the knowledge of the external, of the essential nature of things."

Immanuel Kant – “Philosophy is the science and criticism of cognition."

Bertrand Russell - "Philosophy is the logical study of the foundations of the science."

Friedrich Paulsen – “Philosophy is the sum total of all scientific knowledge”

Therefore, philosophy is an academic discipline or human activity which is concerned with the
examination fundamental principles of reality.

Characteristics of philosophy

o Philosophy is related with the knowledge of reality.

o Philosophy helps to all for finding the truth.
o Philosophy may be conservative, traditional and flexible in nature.
o The ideas of philosophy are relevant and meaningful.
o Philosophy deals with the nature of reality.
o Philosophy is that which finds out different sense forget the way of knowledge.
o Philosophy is that which is always dynamic.
o Philosophy provides a different direction for the modification of behavior.
o The relationship between ATMA and PARAMATMA can be possible only the
process philosophy
o It is deals with the process of conceptualism.

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Scope

By the term ‘scope’ of anything we mean ‘the area of work’ of that thing. If you ask “what is
the scope of philosophy”, you mean the type of works that philosophy does. There may be a huge
member of works that any study or discipline might be doing and yet there are only some works
which constitute the core of a particular study. There are certain core areas in which philosophical
investigations are active. If these are demarcated, we shall have found the exact scope of
philosophy. However, the scope keeps on increasing or expanding over time.

Philosophy is a very vast area of work where lots of questions are asked and systematic and
logical answers to these are sought. It is the expression of the deep inquisitiveness of human mind,
ever restless and full of curiosity till a satisfactory answer is obtained. There are other manners
and methods (for instance, science) of satisfying curiosity, but philosophy is the earliest and oldest
of them all. It has the merit of being co-extensive with human culture and civilization. Philosophy
began when the first human being asked a deep question and it will continue to be as long as such
questions are asked.

Branches

Traditionally, there are five primary categories or branches of philosophy. They are:

 Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of knowledge –it deals with the process by which we can know that
something is true. It is not knowledge of any specific object or thing, but discussion on the
problem of knowledge itself. In epistemology, you do not consider knowledge of anything –
atom or molecule or whatever, but the fact of knowledge itself. Here you study what is
knowledge, how does it originate, what is its limitation, can we know everything about a
phenomenon, etc. It addresses questions such as (a) what can I know?, (b)How is knowledge
acquired?, ( c) Can one be certain about anything? There may be similar other questions also.

Within Epistemology, there are two important categories- Rationalism and Empiricism.
Rationality stresses reason as the most important element in knowledge. Rationalist
philosophers would argue that knowledge is gained primarily through the mind. It also asserts
that we are born with innate ideas that precede any experiences we may have with our physical
senses. Empiricism, on the other hand, asserts that all our knowledge emanates from our five
senses. John Locke once said that our minds are blank slates at birth- knowledge accrues
through experiences.

 Metaphysics

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 Metaphysics is a study of reality that is beyond scientific or mathematical realms- for example
, existence of God, Soul, Afterlife etc. Knowledge that is studied in epistemology automatically
leads us to the question of the ‘known’. You know, but what do you know? Knowledge is
different from mere thought or imagination. Hence, like thought is related to thing in order to
be complete, knowledge is linked with the known in order to be meaningful. So, philosophy
has a distinct branch devoted to understanding ‘what is known’. It considers the nature of the
real. Whether the real completely reveals itself in the process of knowing or a portion of it
remains beyond the reach of knowledge? That is, is there a scope for assuming that the known
world and the real world are fundamentally different? This is the famous problem of
metaphysics technically known as ‘appearance and reality.’ It is at the heart of every
metaphysical enquiry. It is not necessary that you subscribe to any preconceived idea. You may
have reason to believe that the real completely reveals itself in the knowledge system. You will
be a realist then. You can also come to the conclusion that the real is totally different from the
appearance, but it can be known through some sort of insight. You will be an idealist then. You
may also reach a position that the real is there and it upholds the apparent but it cannot be finally
known, you will be an agnostic. You can also have many more philosophically tenable
positions. You can also argue quite powerfully against the possibility and use of any subject
like metaphysics. It is virtually a philosophers’ paradise.

 Ethics

Ethics or moral philosophy is concerned with human values and how individuals should act.
Ethics is the study of moral values- right, wrong, just, unjust etc. Essentially it belongs to the
normative branches of knowledge and it imparts values to personal actions, decisions,
relations. Given the world as it is, people continuously face more than one alternative courses
of action and are often choosing among them. Any consideration that you will bring to bear on
your choices will have what is commonly called the ‘moral’ implication. If you are walking on
the pavement and an old man has fallen down- you will have two choices before you: (a) let
me pick up the person, (b) let me ignore and hurry up in my work. Most of the time, it is seen
that there is an instinctive or rational impulse in you to help the person. This is your voice of
conscience or your wisdom or whatever you might call it. But you feel like doing ‘good’. This
sense of goodness or propriety or duty is central to all human thought and behaviour. Ethics is
the study of human conduct based on moral impulses and wisdom. In modern times, some of
the important ethical issues in which people are engaged include abortion, sexual morality,
death penalty, euthanasia, pornography and environment.

 Logic

Logic studies the rules of valid reasoning and argumentation, and it enables us to examine our
reasoning to ensure that it is consistent with premises and axioms and thereby reach valid
conclusions. Logic is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead

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 to the acceptance of one proposition (the conclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions
(premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments. As the study of
argument is of clear importance to the reasons that we hold things to be true, logic is of essential
importance to rationality . It is difficult to offer a precise and exact definition of logic, but
broadly construed its scope includes classification and analysis of arguments, deductive and
inductive inferences, examination of paradoxes , study of syntax, semantics , mathematical
formulations of axioms and theorems , and concepts of meaning , denotation and search for
truth. In more recent times, logic has formed the basis of cognitive science of mind , and invaded
into the domain of artificial intelligence in computer science . When our thoughts are organized
in the format of logical systems , we usually check for consistency, compactness , validity,
proofs for validation and completeness and expressivity, although in some cases, there can be
waiver of completeness clause in deriving some mathematical theorems.

 Aesthetics

Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as
the philosophy of art (its own area of philosophy that comes out of aesthetics). It examines
subjective and emotional values, or sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.
Aesthetics covers both natural and artificial sources of aesthetic experience and judgment. It
considers what happens in our minds when we engage with aesthetic objects or environments such
as viewing visual art, listening to music, reading poetry, experiencing a play, or exploring nature.
The philosophy of art specifically studies how artists imagine, create, and perform works of art, as
well as how people use, enjoy, and criticize art. Aesthetics considers why people like some works
of art and not others, as well as how art can affect moods or even our beliefs.[3] Both aesthetics and
the philosophy of art ask questions like "What is art?," "What is a work of art?," and "What
makes good art?"
Scholars in the field have defined aesthetics as "critical reflection on art, culture
and nature". In modern English, the term "aesthetic" can also refer to a set of principles underlying
the works of a particular art movement or theory (one speaks, for example, of
a Renaissance aesthetic). In this sense, Aesthetics has come to mean something like the aura a
given thing produces. The poetic assertion, “Beauty is Truth, Truth Beauty”, falls in the categories
of both Aesthetics and Reasoning. Examples of appreciation of beauty are found in the domains of
literature, music, sculpture.
Distinctions between aesthetics and the philosophy of art are often made on the ground that former
is the study of beauty and taste, while the latter is the study of works of art. But aesthetics typically
considers questions of beauty as well as of art - it examines topics such as art works, aesthetic
experience, and aesthetic judgments. Some consider aesthetics to be a synonym for the philosophy
of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely
related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation
of an object (not necessarily a work of art), while artistic judgement refers to the recognition,
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appreciation or criticism of art or an art work. . A common point of disagreement concerns whether
art is independent of any moral or political purpose.
Aestheticians weigh a culturally contingent conception of art versus one that is purely theoretical.
They study the varieties of art in relation to their physical, social, and culture environments. They
also use psychology to understand how people see, hear, imagine, think, learn, and act in relation
to the materials and problems of art.
The domains of philosophical discourses have expanded over time , with fragmentation and
often intermingling of the diverse traits and in tune with the progress of society through science ,
technology, institutions and public actions including government policies. New branches/
categories like Social Philosophy, Economic Philosophy , Philosophy of language, Theory of
Justice, Philosophy of Mathematics, Philosophy of Religion, Environmental Philosophy etc, have
been developed and identified to incorporate the explosion of knowledge over the centuries. Also,
sometimes, philosophical traditions are demarcated on the basis of region. Indian Philosophy is an
example of region-based philosophical characterisations, although there are considerable
variations within its domain due to the heterogeneity and diversity of our culture and religious
beliefs.

The Indian traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each
other as well as orthodox Hinduism and its six schools of Hindu (Vedic)
philosophy,e.g.,Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta.There are also five
major heterodox (sramanic) schools, namely, Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana,and Charvaka.
Chiefly between 1000 BCE and the early centuries of the Common Era, the main strands of Indian
philosophy were formalized through competition and integration between the various schools.
Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga,Śaivaand Vedanta survived, but others
like Ajñana, Charvaka and Ājīvika did not .

The differences between alternative schools of thought ranged from a belief that every
individual has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that there is no soul, from axiological merit in a
frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no
rebirth. The medieval period witnessed invasion and establishment of Muslim rules and during
that time Muslim philosophy flourished in the Indian subcontinent. The British period in Indian
history witnessed spread of English education and spread of Western philosophy in the minds of
Indian.
Values of Philosophy

Philosophy is a branch of human inquiry and as such it aims at knowledge and understanding. We
might expect that the value of philosophy lies in the value of the ends that it seeks, the knowledge
and understanding it reveals. Bertrand Russell argues that there is great value in doing philosophy
precisely because it frustrates our desire for quick easy answers. In denying us easy answers to big
questions and undermining complacent convictions, philosophy liberates us from narrow minded

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conventional thinking and opens our minds to new possibilities. Philosophy often provides an
antidote to prejudice not by settling big questions, but by revealing just how hard it is to settle
those questions. It can lead to question on comfortably complacent conventional opinions.
(Chapter 15 of Bertrand Russell’s Problems of Philosophy, “The Value of Philosophy.”)

Common sense and Philosophy

The subject philosophy can be better understood if it is compared with common sense, common
sense is the first level of process through which knowledge is obtained. This common sense
knowledge is further sharpened through scientific process of learning. Then this second level of
scientific knowledge is again developed and matured to philosophical knowledge. This can be
better understood from the following figure 1

From this it can be proved that common sense is the foundation of philosophical knowledge and
intimate relation is exist between them.

However, some differences between can be established in the following table:-

Point of difference Common sense Philosophy

1. Definition Common sense is the The knowledge which is
knowledge people achieve achieved through logical
through common observation. analysis and it is achieved by
experts and philosophers.
2. Purpose There is no fixed purpose of The knowledge which is
gaining common knowledge acquired through
and acquired through day to philosophical process bears a
day experience. certain objectives.
3. Certainty and logical General knowledge is Philosophical knowledge is
uncertain, incoherent, certain, concrete, organised
unorganised and illogical. and logical.
4. Superstition Common sense is sometimes In case of philosophical
biased to superstition and knowledge is completely
social culture. impartial from superstition
and social culture.
5. Basis of relationship Philosophy is not at all Common sense can be
considered as the basis of considered as the basis of
common sense. enhancement of philosophical
knowledge.

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 6. Changeability Common sense varies with Philosophical knowledge
the change of space, time and cannot be changed with the
context. So, this knowledge is change of space, time and
not eternal and permanent. context. So, it is permanent
and eternal.
7. Scope Common sense is generated Philosophical knowledge
only from the objective world. focuses not only on this
external world but
supernatural world also.

Relationship between Philosophy and Science

Science is the systematic and well organized body of knowledge which is based upon observation,
experiment and reason. Whereas, philosophy is also sytematised body based upon critical analysis
and interpretation. No experiment is used here. Eminent French philosopher Auguste Comte
opined that philosophy is the science of sciences. So, naturally, it can be said that there remains an
intimate relationship between philosophy and science.

 Philosophy critically analyses the results of all sciences and present a synoptic view of the
life and world. Charlie Dunbar Broad says that the object of philosophy is to collect the
scientific views from different scientific domains and then synthesing this results with the
religious and ethical understanding of human being so as to formulate the reality belongs
in different aspects of life. And thus the scientific results helps to reach some general
conclusion about the natural world where position and prospect mankind are highly
involved.
 Both Science and Philosophy are engaged in the search of truth.
 Philosophy examines scientific method.
 Both are critical in nature.
 Philosophy integrates sciences and examines scientific assumptions.
 Scientific research influences philosophical progress.
 Philosophy guides the future course of scientific process.
 Philosophy provides a constructive criticism of sciences.

Difference between Philosophy and Science

 Philosophy and Science have different scope and problems.

 The attitudes of philosophy and science are different.
 Science and Philosophy differ in their methods.
 Philosophical Conclusions are different from these of sciences.
 Philosophy and science are engaged in different activities.
 Philosophy and Science has much in common. Both grew out of the reflective, inquiring
and are prompted by an impartial love of truth. Both attempt at understanding the world.
But their approaches are different. Science has its goals-description, prediction
experimentation and control while philosophy aims at interpretation, in finding the
purpose and value in life.

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Outlook of Philosophy

Our common discussion is limited within geographical space and time point of view because we
enquire those subjects which belong within these two parameters. We cannot go beyond these two
parameters. But the outlook of philosophy is not confined within these two parameters. It is
complete understanding. Philosophy is aimed at establishing knowledge and understanding.
Therefore, its outlook is different from other disciplines. And the following viewpoints of
philosophy can be estimated.

1. Beyond space and time: Its nature is to present and establish the reality not limited
to geographical space and time. Common subjective discussion is always
influenced by micro interested ideas. However, philosophical thought is never
limited within the self-interested ideas.
2. Collective development: the objective of philosophy is to all round development
of humanity. The idea of trading human is not the outlook of philosophy. Rather
human for mankind is absolute rationality of philosophical thought.
3. Searching the reality of life: being a rational animal, he cannot live in this chaos
of unexplained world, his nature is always to search the reality. He utilizes his
reason to apprehend the truth and feels the urge of the unity of truth, beauty and
god. He wants to search the real existence in this world and to acquire the ultimate
appropriateness of life.
4. Guide to salvation: Human being always wants to have the ultimate reality of his
life moving above his socio-economic environment. This evolutionary
characteristics makes him difference from other creature of this world. This
excellent activity and feelings make him distant as well as free from the narrow
domestic world. Indomitable efforts, perseverance, sacrifice of life enhance the
human journey towards the salvation. And philosophy is defined, thus, as the
criticism of life and experience. The inevitable expression of rationality of human
is nothing but this philosophy which signifies the liberal attitude towards world of
affairs.

Branches of Philosophy

The concrete definition of philosophy is love of wisdom, and so it can be simply said that it is the
rational enquiry of universe of events as well as search of knowledge without any boundary. Very
commonly there are so many branches of philosophy and subject is highly extensive and
interdisciplinary in nature. And some main branches are :- epistemology, metaphysics, logic and
ethics. Besides these other subdivisions can be categorized as aesthetics, analytical philosophy,
social philosophy, political philosophy, philosophy of religion.

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1.3 Ethics: definition, moral philosophy, nature of moral judgments and
reactions

ETHICS
Ethics may be defined as the study of the origin and scope of morality in human behavior and
social values, as the systematic study of human actions from the point of view of their rightfulness
or wrongfulness, as means for the attainment of the ultimate happiness etc. It is the reflective study
of what is good or bad in that part of human conduct for which human has some personal
responsibility. It therefore belongs to the domain of normative philosophy, and is concerned with
questions and judgments about good and bad, right and wrong, justice and fairness etc. Valuation
of norms and decisions about choices underlying human behavior and social responses constitute
the core of normative discourses in philosophy that Ethics connotes. As a philosophical discipline,
ethics is the study of the values and guidelines by which we live, including their justifications, not
merely through a tradition or custom, but in the light of universal principles. As moral philosophy,
ethics is the philosophical thinking about morality, moral problems, and moral judgments. Ethics
is a science in as much as it is a set or body of reasoned truths organised in a logical order and
having its specific material and formal objects. It is the science of what human ought to be by
reason of what one is. It is a rational science in so far as its principles are deduced by human’s
reason from the objects that concern the free will. Besides, it has for its ulterior end the art by
which human may live uprightly or comfortably to right reason. It is a normative/regulative science
in as much as it regulates and directs human’s life and gives the right orientation to one’s existence.
Ethics is also theoretical and practical: it is theoretical in as much as it provides the fundamental
principles on the basis of which moral judgments are arrived at, and it is practical in as much as it
is concerned about an end to be gained, and the means of attaining it. Ethics is sometimes
distinguished from morality. In such cases, ethics is the explicit philosophical reflection on moral
beliefs and practices while morality refers to the first-order beliefs and practices about good and
evil by means of which we guide our behaviour (e.g. music and musicology).

Ethics can be construed as theorizing about the proper regulating mechanisms for our behavior.
The discipline of ethics or moral philosophy enables us to understand values and traits in social
life – individual or social- like sympathy, generosity, compassion, kindness, concern for others, or
even revenge or outrage , status quo, institutional norms and regulations etc. through the lenses of
reasoning .Our notions about right or wrong, justice and fairness to others, social welfare and
challenges to deprivations – all emanate from ethical discourses. Ethics is not merely a set of
‘codes’-- it certainly deals with moral codes, yet its aim is not primarily to restrict one’s behaviour,
rather to help one to find what is good and how to get it. The obligatory character of ethical norms
derives from the very purpose of ethical enquiry, i.e. to discover the most ultimate principles of
explanation or the most ultimate reasons why one ought to do anything.

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 The word ‘ethics’ comes from the Greek word ‘ethos’, meaning custom or behaviour. The
concept of ethics was originally proposed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle for the discussion of
philosophical questions relating to daily life: the ‘ethike theoria’ deals with the study of, and gives
criteria for the evaluation of human behaviour. Since then, ethics has become one of the major
topics in Western philosophy when debating social and individual values, their relationship and
their hierarchy in society. Today, the meaning of ‘ethics’ is more or less equivalent to that of
‘morals’, which comes from the Latin word ‘mos, moris’ and also means custom or behaviour, but
at a more personal level.

When we form our arguments and conclusions in daily life, we take recourse to moral or ethical
theory to base the justifications for our actions. As we go through life, we often encounter moral
issues, and need to make choices or take stands one way or another, based on either reasoning or
experiences. Ethical theories guide us in our endeavour to arrive at appropriate normal behaviors
and often help in making choices that enhance social welfare and justice. In our daily life, we
probably don’t ordinarily distinguish moral questions from all others, deciding in each such case
whether to be good or bad. More typically we judge people on their moral consistency in various
situations and fault them if they adapt their values to changing circumstances around them. Thus
rather than thinking of moral actions as things like working in a particular activity, a more suitable
model of morality might be to say that moral elements are mixed in with everything we do. We
make choices all the time using a constellation of factors, one of which will be the morality of the
issue. The moral aspect is not always at the forefront and has to compete with other impulses and
considerations.

Moralists, such as Nietzsche, Santayana and Russell, claim that ethical values are rather
personal interpretations, deliberations or preferences and not general principles that can be proven
true or false. Indeed, discussions about the ethical foundations of a society and their re-
interpretation usually take place when traditional customs or behaviours are challenged by new
developments. In a static society, values are well codified, usually by religion or by tradition. This
is true for numerous ancient societies, which remained unchanged for centuries. But wars,
invasions or a new culture or religion usually prompt the evaluation of the traditional values. For
instance, the French and Russian revolutions in Europe as well as colonialism on other continents
effectively upset and irrevocably changed society’s traditional values to varying degrees. Later in
the 20th century, the creation of new technologies through scientific progress had a profound effect
on society, public opinion and our way of life and has thus sparked discussion on how to use this
knowledge. In the 1950s and 1960s, ethical discussions dealt mainly with the use of physics and
engineering for the construction of new weapons. In the 1970s and 1980s, the focus was on
environmental problems. Today, most ethical discussions deal with the progress in biology and its
consequences for society. In particular, in the context of raging pandemic of Covid-19 virus, world
at large are debating about the appropriateness of policy interventions to tackle the danger, whether
through technology alone or through public actions .

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In a narrower sense, ethical judgment describes a set of rules or conventions within a specialized
field. Thus some institutions or professions have “codes of ethics,” which tend to give specific
rules about particular situations in which members might find themselves. For example, a doctor
is prohibited by his or her professional organization from having a romantic relationship with a
patient, or an accountant doing an audit cannot invest in a company when he or she has discovered
insider information not available to the general public. Significantly, although the doctor/patient
relationship is a special and privileged one in our society, it is important to realize that medical
ethics is not a distinct morality with a completely different set of governing principles. Instead it
operates as a special case that overlies a general backdrop of principled behavior, such as telling
the truth or treating patients fairly. That is, we work from the very widest sense of common ethics
first, and then narrow it down to deal with ever more special circumstances. Hence, it is important
to begin by understanding the broad picture about the way individuals and communities have
reasoned about the proper ways to treat one another. Seeing ethics only in a narrow sense may lead
to two important misunderstandings. The first suggests that we have different sets of behavior for
the various compartments of our lives—business, friendship, romance, and so forth. Someone with
this approach might claim that we should behave differently in particular situations—“all is fair in
love and war” or “business is business,” where all morality depends on the situation. While this
might be true in some limited spheres, it demands that the individual knows where the boundaries
of each compartment are, and that everyone involved has a shared knowledge of the appropriate
practices. Thus we expect to be fooled by a magician, perhaps, but in general we operate with
background conditions of trust and honesty.

In normal interpersonal dealings, we anticipate that we aren’t routinely being lied to or

constantly duped. As it turns out, moral infractions are dramatic in large part because they depart
from the shared expectations we have and use in our everyday lives. Imagine, for instance, what a
world would be like where no one could ever be trusted and everything had to be policed
constantly. Second, a narrow view implies that ethics is an external set of rules that we are required
to follow, and slavishly doing so discharges our moral responsibility. If this were true, then being
ethical would just consist in knowing the rules and obeying them. It would not allow the individual
to question values enshrined in the code. In contrast, most of us have significant freedom and
discretion in the way we behave, and there is considerable latitude in the interpretation and
application of the rules we live by. Even voluntarily joining a rule-oriented organization such as
the military or a religious order involves initial assent by recruits, which represents their individual
moral choice.

Nature of ethics
Ethics refers to guide what human ought to do, usually in terms of right, obligations, fairness and
specific virtue. It is related to issues of propriety – rightness and wrongness, what is right in ethical,
what is wrong in unethical. Often, the term proper, fair are used in the replace of right and ethical.
Ethics is normative science
Ethics is that science which is used by human by applying his normal rational to judge any action
whether it is wright or wrong.
Ethics is science of character

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Man is bound to follow the right things which will guided by his character.
Ethics is not a practical science
It only guides us to achieve a specific goal. Its way is not like practical science which is a means
for the realization of an end or ideals.
Ethics is not an art
Ethics is based on motive. Better the rationalized motive, better would is the righteousness.
Whereas, art deals with the acquisition of skill to produce objects. So ethics is different art because
it consists of goodness which is actually intrinsic end.

Scope of Ethics
The scope of ethics includes its own subject matter. Ethics is a normative science that deals with
moral ideals or good in the nature of our conduct. As a science of morality it does not enquire into
the origin of human conduct but emphasizes on the contents and various problems of moral
consciousness like motives, intentions, voluntary actions and so on. Ethics is a study of those
cherished ideals and values which is vital for the growth, development and progress of human
society. The scope of Ethics is wide which is mainly concerned with the principles or causes of
action as : - What obligation is common to all ? ; What is good in all good acts?; The sense of duty
and responsibility of Individual and Society etc. Let us elaborate . Every society has got certain
traditions, customs, ethos and mores. The individual is necessary to follow these customs and
traditions. The relation between individual and society is an important problem before ethics. Some
thinkers are of the opinion that morality is an individual phenomenon, but some others believe that
morality should cater to the larger interest of society. Also, each individual must have a personal
code of morality. This is what we call the principles of life. The discipline of Ethics can help us in
framing this code. Secondly, there are certain duties and responsibilities towards society. Ethics
can make us conscious of them. Thus ethics is a guide book of moral rule. Human beings are
endowed with a distinctive faculty of pure reason. They possess a conscience which is different
from consciousness. Aristotle called man a ‘social animal’. It means to have a human interference
to stay in the state of sociability. And their contradictory instincts of survival and domination
constantly push him to confront the dilemma of selfishness and selflessness. Thus ethics has been
a tool for moral excellence of the person to establish an amicable relation with others for present
and future. Whenever there is conflict of human interest/behaviour, the discipline of ethics may
help in resolving them.

The field of Ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. Philosophers today usually
divide ethical theories into three general subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and
applied ethics.

Metaethics investigates the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. It studies where our ethical
principles come from and what they mean. It tries to analyse the underlying principles of ethical
values. Normative ethics tries to arrive at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct.
It is a more practical task. It is a search for an ideal litmus test of proper behavior. Applied ethics

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involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion, infanticide, animal rights,
environmental concerns, homosexuality, and so on. In applied ethics, using the conceptual tools
of metaethics and normative ethics, one tries to resolve these controversial issues. The lines of
distinction between the above three categories are often blurred. For instance, the issue of abortion
is an applied ethical topic in as much as it involves a specific type of controversial behaviour. But
it is also an issue involving normative principles such as the right of self-rule and the right to life
and an issue having meta ethical issues such as, “where do rights come from?” and “what kind of
beings have rights?” etc.

Meta-ethics

Meta-ethics is a branch of Ethics that asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean
when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates
to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, "Is it ever possible to have a
secure knowledge of what is right and wrong?" is a meta-ethical question.

Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics. For example, Aristotle implies that less
precise knowledge is possible in ethics than in other spheres of inquiry, and he regards ethical
knowledge as depending upon habit and acculturation in a way that distinguishes it from other
kinds of knowledge. It is also important in G.E. Moore's Principia Ethica from 1903. In it, he first
wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy. A similar view on the difference between facts
and values,was also held by the Scottish philosopher David Hume

Studies of how we know in ethics are divided into cognitivism and non-cognitivism- i.e., we
take descriptive and non-descriptive approaches to moral goodness or value. Non-cognitivism is
the view that when we judge something as morally right or wrong, this is neither true nor false.
We may, for example, be only expressing our emotional feelings about these things. Cognitivism
can then be seen as the claim that when we talk about right and wrong, we are talking about matters
of fact. The different sub-branches of Meta-ethics include ontology, Moral skepticism etc. Non-
cognitivism holds that we can never know that any moral claim is true because moral claims
are incapable of being true or false - instead, they imperatives (e.g. "Don't steal
babies!"), expressions of emotion (e.g. "stealing babies: Boo!"), or expressions of "pro-
attitudes" ("I do not believe that babies should be stolen.").

Normative Ethics

Normative ethics is the branch of ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when
considering how one ought to act, morally speaking. Normative ethics is distinct from meta-
ethics because normative ethics examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions,
while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.
Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation
of people's moral beliefs. Put differently, descriptive ethics would be concerned, say, with
determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics

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is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief. Thus, normative ethics is sometimes
called prescriptive rather than descriptive. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view
called moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time.

Traditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions
right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in
resolving difficult moral decisions. At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more
complex and were no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but were interested
in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative
ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. At the turn of the century, the traditional
distinction between these two sub-disciplines of Ethics seems to have been blurred through
enmeshing and overlaps of concepts and ideas.

Applied Ethics

Applied ethics is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory to real-life
situations. The discipline has many specialized fields, such as engineering ethics, bioethics, geo-
ethics, public service ethics and business ethics etc. Applied ethics is used in some aspects of
determining public policy, as well as by individuals facing difficult decisions. The sort of questions
addressed by applied ethics include: "Is the act of getting an abortion immoral?";
"Is euthanasia immoral?"; "Is affirmative action right or wrong?"; "What are human rights, and
how do we determine them?"; "Do animals have rights as well?"; and "Do individuals have the
right of self-determination?

A more specific question could be: "If someone else can make better out of his/her life than I can,
is it then moral to sacrifice myself for them if needed?" Without these questions, there is no clear
fulcrum on which to balance law, politics, and the practice of arbitration—in fact, no common
assumptions of all participants—so the ability to formulate the questions are prior to rights
balancing. But not all questions studied in applied ethics concern public policy. For example,
making ethical judgments regarding questions such as, "Is lying always wrong?" and, "If not, when
is it permissible?" is prior to any etiquette.

People, in general, are often more comfortable with dichotomous positions , but the ethical issues
are most often multifaceted and the best-proposed actions address many different areas
concurrently. Therefore, in ethical decisions, the answer is almost never a "yes or no" or a "right
or wrong" statement. There may be “ifs and buts” or ambivalent positions. A classic example is
the dilemma faced by Pandavas and Lord Krishna in the epic Mahabharat. We may have to
consider the character of the moral agent (i.e. a principle implied in virtue ethics), the deed of the
action (i.e. a principle implied in deontology), and the consequences of the action (i.e. a principle
implied in utilitarianism), while formulating moral judgments, but moreover that the effect of each
of these three components depends on the value of each component. Value judgements or
judgements are crucial building blocks of ethical discourses. Business Ethics, Bioethics, Business

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ethics, Machine ethics, Military ethics, Political ethics , Public Sector Ethics and Publication Ethics
are some of the recent areas that have gained momentum of Ethical discourses. Business Ethics,
Bioethics, Business ethics, Machine ethics, Military ethics, Political ethics , Public Sector Ethics
and Publication Ethics are some of the recent areas that have gained importance in Ethical
discourses.

Publication ethics

Publication ethics is the set of principles that guide the writing and publishing process for all
professional publications. To follow these principles, authors must verify that the publication does
not contain plagiarism or publication bias. As a way to avoid misconduct in research these
principles can also apply to experiments that are referenced or analyzed in publications by ensuring
the data is recorded honestly and accurately.

Plagiarism is the failure to give credit to another author's work or ideas, when it is used in the
publication. It is basically an act of theft, which needs be admonished on moral grounds , plus such
acts stand in the scientific progress of the society and therefore be punished. It is the obligation of
the editor of the journal to ensure the article does not contain any plagiarism before it is
published. If a publication that has already been published is proven to contain plagiarism, the
editor of the journal can and should retract the article.

Publication bias occurs when the publication is one-sided or "prejudiced against results". In
best practice, an author should try to include information from all parties involved, or affected by
the topic. If an author is prejudiced against certain results , than it can "lead to erroneous
conclusions being drawn". Misconduct in research can occur when an experimenter falsifies
results. Falsely recorded information occurs when the researcher "fakes" information or data,
which was not used when conducting the actual experiment. By faking the data, the researcher can
alter the results from the experiment to better fit the hypothesis they originally predicted. When
conducting medical research, it is important to honour the healthcare rights of a patient by
protecting their anonymity in the publication. Respect for autonomy is the principle that decision-
making should allow individuals to be autonomous; they should be able to make decisions that
apply to their own lives. This means that individuals should have control of their lives. Justice is
the principle that decision-makers must focus on actions that are fair to those affected. Ethical
decisions need to be consistent with the ethical theory.

Moral judgments and Reactions

Moral judgment is the main cognitive factor in moral consciousness. It involves intuition of moral
standard by reason and comparison of a voluntary action with it. It also involves evaluation of
voluntary action of it as right and wrong.

Judgment is an opinion or decision that is based on careful thought.

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It is the act or process of forming an opinion or making a decision after careful thought.

It is the act of judging something or someone, and the ability to make good decisions about what
should be done.

The emotional factors include the moral sentiments and moral judgments are followed by moral
sentiments and not vice versa. Moral obligation is the main conative factor of moral consciousness
and moral judgment involves moral obligation or the sense of duty or oughtness. It involves the
moral impulse to do the right action. We feel we are under moral obligations to do what is right
and avoid what is wrong.

The moral judgments are the judgments which deal with the moral value or quality of an action. It
is a judgment of value and it evaluates the rightness or wrongness of our actions. When we analyse
a moral judgments then we find that it contains a) a subject which will judge, b) an object whose
action will be judged, c) a standard in conformity to which the action of the subject will be judged
and d) a power of judging the action as required. Moral judgment is the judgment of moral quality
of voluntary habitual actions. Generally, a moral judgment is given on the voluntary and habitual
actions of a rational being. The voluntary actions of a rational person which involve deliberation,
choice, and resolution, have the moral quality of rightness and wrongness. They are considered to
be right or wrong with the reference to the moral standard. And on the basis of this standard, moral
judgment is given. If the voluntary actions have conformity with the standard or the ideal, then the
moral judgment will express it as the right action. If the action has conflict with the standard or
norms, then the moral judgment will express it as wrong. So, moral judgment involves comparison
of voluntary acts with the moral standard.

Moral judgment is active in nature. Because moral judgment is given upon voluntary and habitual
acts of persons and not upon their passive experiences.

Moral judgment is social in character. Because, as we know, voluntary acts of a person are right
or wrong, because they more or less affect of interest of others. Man is a social being. His rights
and duties of actions rise out of his relation to other persons in society. So, moral judgment, apart
from society is inconceivable. Moral judgment can be said to be obligatory in character. Because
a judgment can be given as right, while we feel the moral obligation to do it. Similarly, moral
judgment is given on an act as wrong, when we feel the moral obligation to refrain from it. Thus,
moral judgment is always accompanied by the sense of duty or moral obligation. And this moral
obligation is essentially self-imposed. In this way, we can find out the meaning of moral judgment.

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1.4 Conclusion
Philosophy is the science of knowledge and contains both positive and normative questions about
human behavior, societal well-being and justifications of our cognitive journey from assertion to

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arguments, and it enables us to reflect on the motivations for social and institutional change. Ethics,
being the normative branch of philosophical quests, deals with questions like right and wrong,
justice vs injustice, deprivations and opulence etc., and helps us to identify the conclusions based
on judgments about not only individual behaviors, but also about society and its welfare, defined
in terms of norms , both theoretical and applied . As a philosophical discipline, ethics is the study
of the values and guidelines by which we live, using both the methods of induction and deduction.
Among the different approaches to Ethics , the non-normative component and (descriptive ethics
and metaethics) and normative ethics (general normative ethics and applied ethics) are the most
prominent ones. Although the discipline of ethics can be regarded as a science, it is distinguished
from the natural sciences, inasmuch as it has a direct reference to an end that human person desire
to attain. Ethics, however, is often said to be the fruit of all the scientific ventures as it ultimately
perfects human person, and directs social behavours to usher in social progress and freedom from
deprivations. Truth unites, and philosophy and ethics help this unification in the process of social
progress and development.

1.5 Key Terms

Philosophy and Ethics :

Philosophy is the science of knowledge and contains both positive and normative questions about
human behavior, societal well-being and justifications of our cognitive journey from assertion to
arguments, and it enables us to reflect on the motivations for social and institutional change. Ethics,
being the normative branch of philosophical quests, deals with questions like right and wrong,
justice vs injustice, deprivations and opulence etc., and helps us to identify the conclusions based
on judgments about not only individual behaviors, but also about society and its welfare, defined
in terms of norms , both theoretical and applied .

Logic and Epistemology : Both are components of philosophical discourses- see their definitions
as stated above.

Ethics and Aesthetics: Both are components of philosophical discourses- see their definitions as
stated above.

‘Ethics’ and ‘Morals’:

Ethics is the theory of right and wrong conduct, & Morals, its practice.

While ethics involves the values that a person seeks to express in a certain situation, morals refers
to the way one sets about achieving this. Ethics is concerned with the principles of human
behaviour, morals with the application of these principles, in a particular situation.

‘Moral’, ‘Immoral’ and ‘Amoral’ Actions: An action is said to be moral when it is done
deliberately to attain the ultimate happiness as per norms A morally good action has to be a moral
action and a human action.

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Immoral means ‘not observing a particular known moral rule’. Immoral actions are all those
actions that are morally bad actions (eg. Incest, homicide, etc.). ‘Amoral’ or ‘non-moral’ means
‘not relevant to, or concerned with, morals’. Some of the non-moral actions include actions of
inanimate objects or events (flood, famine, etc.). They are indifferent actions and are beyond the
moral sphere.

Habitual actions are moral actions as the habits are formed deliberately or acquired voluntarily.

In ethics we are concerned with ‘immoral’ actions but not ‘amoral’ actions.

Human Act: A human act is an act done by a human person deliberately, willingly and freely in
view of achieving an end. Morality is spoken of human beings and not of animals. An act to be a
moral act it has to be performed by an individual with reason.

End: End of human action can be different. For a believer in God the ultimate end could be the
eternal happiness of man (God and the beatific vision). God is the highest end of man and God is
involved in every action of man. Happiness consists in the knowledge and love of God. For a non
believer, the well-being of humanity could be the end.

Right and Wrong: Ethics is defined as the science of rightfulness or wrongfulness of conduct.
The word “right” derives from the Latin “rectus”, meaning ‘straight’ or ‘according to norm’. An
action is morally right if it is in conformity with the moral law and morally wrong if it is not in
conformity with the moral law.

Good and Bad: The word ‘good’ denotes the attitude of mind and will. An action is morally good
if it helps one attain the ultimate end and morally bad if it does not fulfil the purpose.

Voluntary and Involuntary Actions: Acts are voluntary if they proceed from an internal principle
with knowledge of the purpose of the act. An act is free if it proceeds from a self-determining
agent.If knowledge or free choice is totally lacking, the act is involuntary. An involuntary act may
be

performed without reference to the purpose of the act. It may be done with knowledge against the
choice of the will, as when a man emerging from an anaesthetic talks foolishly but is unable to
control his words.

Rationalism is the philosophical view that emphasizes the ability of human reason to grasp
fundamental truth about the world without the aid of sense impression.
Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art are often distinguished on the ground that former is the
study of beauty and taste, while the latter is the study of works of art. But aesthetics typically
considers questions of beauty as well as of art - it examines topics such as art works, aesthetic
experience, and aesthetic judgements.

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1.6 Questions and Answer Hints

a. Usually definitional questions like, What is Philosophy? Or What is Ethics ? The answers are
contained in the beginning of discussions in the subject as outlined above.
b. Questions which require you to answer at least a paragraph, like What is Meta-ethics?/ What is
Publication Ethics ?
c. Questions like , “Discuss the scope of ethics as a philosophical category” .There may be similar
queries covering the above materials.

1.7 References

1. Abelson, Raziel and Kai Nielsen. “Ethics, History of” in Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ed.
Donald M. Borchert, 2006, 394-439.
2. Copleston, F.: A History of Philosophy, Image, reprint 1993 .
3.Falckenberg: History of Modern Philosophy, 2014 (2nd ed) Progressive Publishers, 1960.
4. Hill, Walter H. Ethics or Moral Philosophy. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999.
5. Lafollette, Hugh, ed. The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory. Malden: Blackwell Publishers
Inc., 2000.
6.. MacIntyre, Alasdair. A Short History of Ethics. A History of Moral Philosophy from the
Homeric Age to the Twentieth Century. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 1998.
7. Russell , Bertrand, The Problems of Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1986.
8. Sinha , J.N, A Manual of Ethics, Calcutta, 1996

Thank You

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