Analog Communication

Systems I
3. Amplitude Modulation Systems
Assistant Professor
Dr. Ali Yousif Fattah
Communication Engineering Department
University of Technology

1
3.1 Frequency Translation

Frequency translation involves translating the signal from

one region in frequency to another region. A signal band-
limited in frequency lying in the frequencies from f1 to f2 , after
frequency translation can be translated to a new range of
frequencies from f1 to f2 .
The information in the original message signal at baseband
frequencies can be recovered back even from the frequency-
translated signal.
Modulation is a frequency translation process .

2
 3.2 MODULATION
Modulation is a process by which some parameter (amplitude,
frequency or phase) of a carrier signal is varied in accordance
with a message signal. The message signal is called a modulating
signal.
A carrier signal , in analog modulation , usually a simple sine
wave, contains no information in itself. This gives us three
possibilities:
 Amplitude modulation (AM), where the amplitude or strength of
the carrier is varied.
 Frequency modulation (FM), where the frequency of the carrier
is varied.
 Phase modulation (PM), where the phase of the carrier is
varied.
It actually turns out that FM and PM are very close relatives .

3
3.3 Reasons of Modulation

 Frequency Multiplexing.
 Practicability of antenna.
 Reduce the relative bandwidth.
 Less sensitivity to channel distortion.

Demodulation
It is the process of separating the original message
(base-band) signal from the noisy and distorted
received modulated carrier signal .

4
 3.4 Amplitude Modulation
It is defined as the process of varying the amplitude of a sinusoidal
carrier wave in synchronism with , and in direct proportion , to the
amplitude of a modulating signal .

The unmodulated carrier signal is given as :

s (t ) = A cos 2πf c t
A sinusoidal modulated ( band-pass) carrier signal is represented by :

sc (t ) = A(t ) cos θ (t )
where A(t) is the envelope and
θ (t ) = ωc t + ϕ (t ) = 2πf c t + ϕ (t )
ϕ (t )is called the instantaneous phase deviation of sc(t ) and fc is
the carrier frequency.
5
For amplitude modulation, we can write :

sc (t ) = A(t ) cos 2πf c t

where A(t ) is linearly related to the modulating signal m (t).
A(t ) is called the instantaneous amplitude of sc(t ) and
amplitude modulation is also referred to as linear modulation.
Depending on the relationship between m (t ) and A(t ), we
have the following types of amplitude modulation schemes:
 Normal amplitude modulation (AM)
(Double Sideband Large Carrier DSB-LC) .
 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) modulation
 Single-sideband (SSB) modulation .
 Vestigial-sideband (VSB) modulation .
6
3.5. Normal Amplitude Modulation
(Double Sideband Large Carrier DSB-LC)
A normal amplitude-modulated signal is given by :

sc (t ) = [ A + m(t ) ] cos 2πf c t

= A cos 2πf c t + m(t ) cos 2πf c t
carrier sidebands
where A is a constant and m(t ) is the modulating signal.

7
The modulation index m is defined as the ratio of the
amplitude of the modulating signal to that of the unmodulated
carrier. It is a value between 0 and 1 which describes the
“degree of modulation” of the carrier. If m = 0 there is no
modulation, while m = 1 is the maximum modulation that can
occur without distortion.
If the modulating signal is given as in the following figure :

8
Then, the modulated signal is given as in the following figure for different
values of m :

Clearly, the envelope of the modulated signals has the same shape as
m(t) when m < 1. When m > 1, the carrier signal is said to be over-
modulated and the envelope is distorted.
9
 If m(t ) = Em cos ω m t , and ω m = 2πf m

Then , A(t ) = A + Em cos ω m t , and

sc (t ) = A[1 + m cos ω m t ] cos ω c t
= A cos ω c t + mA cos ω m t cos ω c t
= A cos ω c t + 0.5mA cos(ω c − ω m )t
+ 0.5mA cos(ω c + ω m )t
Em
and m=
A
The total average power of normal AM signal is :
Pt = Pc + 0.25m 2 Pc + 0.25m 2 Pc
= Pc (1 + 0.5m 2 )
where Pc = (Arms)2/ R is the power of the unmodulated carrier wave &
Ps = 0.5 m2 Pc is the power of the upper and lower sidebands.

For 100℅ modulation , m = 1 , Pt = 1.5 Pc 10

• When several frequencies simultaneously
amplitude modulate a carrier, the combined
coefficient of modulation is defined as:

m = m + m + m + ... + m
t 1
2 2

2
2

3 n
2

mt : total modulation index

m1, m2, m3, mn: modulation index for input 1, 2 ,3 , n

11
And m can be determined as :
Vmax − Vmin
m= , and Vmax = A(1 + m) , Vmin = A(1 − m)
Vmax − Vmin

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3.5.1 Spectrum of Normal AM Signals
For normal amplitude modulation,
S c (t ) = [ A + m(t )] cos 2πf c t
= A cos 2πf c t + m(t ) cos 2πf c t
The Fourier transform of sc(t) is :

S c ( f ) = 0.5 A[δ ( f − f c ) + δ ( f + f c )] + 0.5[ M ( f − f c ) + M ( f + f c )]

Normal amplitude modulation simply shifts the spectrum of

m (t ) to the carrier frequency fc. The bandwidth of the
modulated signal is 2 fm Hz, where fm is the bandwidth of the
modulating signal m (t ).

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 The spectrum of normal AM signal is as shown in the
following figure :

The efficiency η of a normal AM signal is defined as :

Ps
η = ×100%
Pt
where Ps is the power carried by the sidebands and Pt is the
total power of the normal AM signal.
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 3.5.2 Generation of Normal AM Signals
A process of generating a normal AM signal is shown in the following
figure .

I.Square Law Modulor

Square law diode modulation makes use of non-linear current-voltage
characteristics of a diode.

15
Let the input-output characteristic of a diode be approximated
by a power series :

vo (t ) = avi (t ) + bvi (t ) , where

2
a & b are cons tan ts and
vi (t ) = cos 2πf c t + m(t )

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 Hence :

vo (t ) = a [cos 2πf c t + m(t )] + b [cos 2πf c t + m(t )]2

= a m(t ) + b cos 2 2πf c t + b m 2 (t ) +
a cos 2πf c t + 2 b m(t ) cos 2πf c t

If we pass the signal vo(t) through a band- pass filter centered

at ± fc , we obtain :

v ' o (t ) = [a + 2bm(t )] cos 2πf c t

= 2b [ A + m(t )] cos 2πf c t
where A = a /2b . We generate a normal AM signal.
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II.Switching Modulator
A normal amplitude-modulated signal can also be obtained by
multiplying m (t ) by a periodic signal s(t ). The modulator is
called a switching modulator. If we take a periodic rectangular
waveform s(t ) of period Tc = 1/fc , amplitude Am , and pulse
width τ :

18
the trigonometric Fourier series of s (t ) is :

Where ,
C0 = Amτ
and ,
sin 2πnf cτ / 2
Cn = Amτ
2πnf cτ / 2
The corresponding complex Fourier series is :
∞
1
s (t ) =
Tc
∑
n = −∞
Cn e j 2πnf ct
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therefore ,

1 ∞
sin 2πnf cτ / 2 j 2πnf ct
s (t ) =
Tc
∑
n = −∞
( Amτ
2πnf cτ / 2
)e

and the line spectrum of s (t ) is given in the following figure:

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If the input signal is :

vi (t ) = cos 2πf c t + m(t )

the output of a switching modulator is :

vo (t ) = vi (t ) s(t )
= [cos 2πf c t + m(t )] s(t )
∞
C0 2
= [cos 2πf c t + m(t )] ( +
Tc Tc
∑C
n =1
n cos 2πnf c t )

2 ∞
 C0
=  cos 2πf c t ∑ Cn cos 2πnf c t  + m(t ) +
 Tc n =1  Tc
C0 2 ∞
cos 2πf c t + m(t ) ∑ Cn cos 2πnf c t
Tc Tc n =1

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vo(t ) consists of a dc term, the component m (t ), and an
infinite number of normal AM signals at carrier frequencies
fc, 2fc, 3fc, ... If we pass the signal vo(t ) through a band-pass
filter centered at ± fc, the filtered signal is :

C0 2 C2
v o (t ) =
'
cos 2πf c t + m(t ) C1 cos 2πf c t + cos 2πf c t
Tc Tc Tc

=
2C1
[A + m(t )] cos 2πf ct
Tc
where A =( c0 + c2) / 2 c1 . That is, we obtain a normal AM signal.

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3.5.3 Demodulation of Normal AM Signals
The process of recovering the message signal from the
modulated signal is called demodulation or detection. Two
basic methods are available :
I. Envelope Detection :
In this method, an envelope detector is used to recover the
message signal. An envelope detector consists of a diode and
a resistor-capacitor combination.

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During the positive half-cycle peaks of the modulated signal,
the diode is forward biased, and the capacitor charges up to
the peak value of the modulated signal. As the modulated
signal falls from its maximum, the diode turns off and the
capacitor discharges through the resistor. The process
repeats in this way. For proper operation, the discharge time
constant RC must be chosen properly.

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II.Synchronous (Coherent) Detection :
Here, a product detector is used to convert the band-pass signal
to base-band.

At the receiving end, the band-pass signal is multiplied by a

locally generated carrier signal
cos (2πf c t + φ0 )
where φ0 is an initial phase.
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 The output of the multiplier is

x ( t ) =[ A+ m ( t ) ] cos 2πf c t cos ( 2πf c t +φ0 )

= 0.5[ A+ m ( t ) ][cosφ0 + cos ( 4πf c t +φ0 ) ]
= 0.5 [ A+ m ( t ) ] cos ( 4πf c t +φ0 ) +
0.5 A cos φ0 + 0.5 m ( t ) cos φ0

If we suppress the first term by a low-pass filter, we get

y ( t ) = 0.5 A cos φ0 + 0.5 m ( t ) cos φ0

It can be seen that we can recover the component m(t) if the initial
phase φ0 is constant and small.

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Suppose that the local carrier signal is :

cos [2π ( f c + ∆f ) t ]
The multiplier output becomes :

x ( t ) =[ A+ m ( t ) ] cos 2πf c t cos [ 2πf c + ∆f ) t ]

= 0.5[ A+ m ( t ) ][cos 2π∆ft + cos 2π ( 2 f c + ∆f ) t ]
= 0.5 [ A+ m ( t ) ] cos 2π ( 2 f c + ∆f ) t +
0.5 A cos 2π∆ft + 0.5 m ( t ) cos 2π∆f

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If we suppress the first term by a low-pass filter, we get

y (t ) = 0.5 A cos 2π∆ft + 0.5 m(t ) cos 2π∆ft

We cannot recover the component m(t) unless the frequency

drift ∆f is zero. Therefore, the local carrier must not only be
of the same frequency but must be synchronized in phase
with the carrier signal. If the carrier shifts in frequency or
phase, the resultant signal is distorted or attenuated.
Synchronous detection is sometimes called coherent
detection.

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3.6. Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier
Modulation (DSB-SC)
A normal amplitude-modulated signal is given by :

sc (t ) = [ A + m(t )] cos 2πf c t

For DSB-SC modulation, A = 0 and

sc (t ) = m(t ) cos 2πf c t
The Fourier transform of sc(t) is

S c ( f ) = [M ( f − f c ) + M ( f + f c )]
1
2

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The following figure shows the waveforms and spectra associated with a
DSB signal. Clearly, the envelope of the modulated signal does not have
the same shape as m (t ). As with AM, DSB modulation shifts the spectrum
of m (t ) to the carrier frequency fc. The bandwidth of the modulated signal
is 2 fm Hz, where fm is the bandwidth of the modulating signal m (t ) .

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3.6.1 Generation of DSB-SC Signals
I.Product Modulator
The generation of a DSB-SC modulated wave consists simply of the
product of the message signal m(t) and the carrier wave cos ωc t .
A device for achieving this requirement is called a product modulator, as
shown in the following figure .

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 II.Balanced Modulator
DSB-SC is obtained in practice using two AM modulators arranged in a
balanced configuration to cancel out the carrier. Figure below shows a
diagram of a balanced modulator.

The input applied to the top AM modulator is m(t), whereas that applied to
the lower AM modulator is – m(t).
The output s(t) of the balanced modulator consists of a DSB-SC
modulated signal.
s (t ) = s1 (t ) − s2 (t )
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DSB modulation can be achieved by using non-linear devices, such as
a diode.

Let the input-output characteristic of a diode be approximated by a power

series :

vo (t ) = avi (t ) + bvi2 (t )
where a, b are constants. 33
Consider the diode D1 in the upper portion of the circuit . The input voltage
to the diode D1 is

vi ,1 (t ) = vi (t ) = cos 2πft + m(t )

let the output voltage of the diode be

vo ,1 (t ) = vo (t ) ,
then , we have :

vo ,1 (t ) = a[cos 2πf c t + m(t )] + b[cos 2πf c t + m(t )]2

= am(t ) + b cos 2 2πf c t + bm 2 (t ) +
a cos 2πf c t + 2b m(t ) cos 2πf c t
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Now, consider the diode D2 in the lower portion of the circuit . The input
voltage to the diode D2 is :

vi , 2 (t ) = vi (t ) = cos 2πf c t − m(t )

and let the output voltage of the diode be

vo , 2 (t ) = vo (t ) ,
then we have

vo , 2 (t ) = a[cos 2πf c t − m(t )] + b[cos 2πf c t + m(t )]2

= − am(t ) + b cos 2 2πf c t + bm 2 (t ) +
a cos 2πf c t − 2b m(t ) cos 2πf c t

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 Hence ,

vo (t ) = vo ,1 (t ) − vo , 2 (t ) = 2a m(t ) + 4b m(t ) cos 2πf c t

If we pass this signal through a band pass filter centered at ± fc,

we obtain

v 'o (t ) = 4b m(t ) cos 2πf c t

That is, we generate a DSB-SC signal. It can be seen that the

circuit is balanced with respect to the carrier signal s(t);
however, the modulating signal m(t) still appears at the output
of the second transformer T2. For this reason, the modulator is
called a single-balanced modulator.

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 III. Single-Balanced Shunt-Bridge Diode Modulator

The following figure shows a single balanced shunt-bridge

diode modulator, where diodes D1, D2 and D3, D4 are matched
pairs.

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During the positive half-cycle of cos ωct , terminal c is
positive with respect to d , so all the diodes conduct.
Terminals a and b have the same potential and are
effectively shorted. vo(t ) is zero.
During the negative half-cycle of cos ωct , terminal c is
negative with respect to d , all the diodes are open.

vo(t ) = vi(t )

m (t ) is effectively multiplied by a non-negative periodic

signal. Therefore, the component m (t ) appears at the input
to the bandpass filter. If we pass the signal vo(t ) through a
bandpass filter centred at ± fc , we generate a DSB-SC
signal.

38
 IV. Switching Modulator

A DSB-SC signal can also be obtained by multiplying m (t ) by

any periodic signal s (t ) . The modulator is called a switching
modulator.
If we take a periodic square waveform s (t ) of period
Tc = 1/fc , amplitude ± Ac /2 , and pulse width of Tc .

39
The trigonometric Fourier series of s(t ) is :

where ,

The corresponding complex Fourier series is :

40
The line spectrum of s(t ) is as shown below

If the input signal is vi(t) = m (t ) , the product of vi(t ) and s(t) is :

41
vo(t ) consists of an infinite number of DSB-SC signals at carrier
frequencies fc , 2fc , 3fc , ... If we pass the signal vo(t ) through a
bandpass filter centered at ± fc, the filtered signal is :

That is, we obtain a DSB signal.

42
The following figure shows the waveforms and spectra
associated with a switching modulator.

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 V. Double-Balanced Ring Modulator

It is possible to design a balanced modulator such that the input to the

bandpass filter does not contain the message signal m (t ) or the carrier
signal s (t ). A circuit balanced with respect to both input signals is called a
double-balanced modulator. The following figure shows a double-
balanced modulator , known as a ring modulator .

44
 During the positive half-cycle of s (t ) , diodes D1 and D3
conduct, and D2 and D4 are open. Terminal a is connected to
c , terminal b is connected to d, and vo(t ) is
proportional to m (t ) .

 During the negative half-cycle of s (t ) , diodes D1 and D3

are open, and diodes D2 and D4 are conducting. Terminal a is
connected to d, terminal b is connected to c, and vo(t ) is
proportional to –m (t ) .

 m (t ) is effectively multiplied by a sinusoidal carrier

waveform. Therefore, the components m (t ) and s (t ) do not
appear at the input to the bandpass filter. If we pass the
signal vo(t ) through a bandpass filter centered at ± fc , we
generate a DSB-SC signal.

45
3.6.2 Demodulation of DSB-SC Signals
Since the envelope of the modulated signal does not have the same shape as
m (t ), an envelope detector cannot be used to recover the message signal.
Demodulation of DSB signals can be accomplished by using a synchronous
detector.

Let sc(t) be the input signal to the synchronous detector. At the receiving
end, the bandpass signal is multiplied by a locally generated carrier signal
cos 2πfc t , which is in synchronism with the transmitted carrier signal.
The output of the multiplier is :
x (t ) = m (t ) cos 2πfc t cos 2πfc t
= 0.5 m (t ) + 0.5m (t ) cos 4πfc t
46
 If we suppress the last term by a low-pass filter, we get :

y (t ) = 0.5 m (t )
That is, we can recover the component m (t ).
If the carrier signal shifts in frequency or phase, the resultant signal is distorted
or attenuated.
For the demodulation of a DSB-SC signal, we can use a squaring loop to
generate a local carrier signal. The following figure shows a carrier-
recovery squaring loop for a DSB- SC signal .

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 3.7 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
We have seen that DSB-SC signals require a transmission bandwidth equal to
twice the bandwidth of the message signal m (t ). To increase the transmission
bandwidth efficiency, it is possible to send two DSB-SC signals using carriers of
the same frequency but in phase quadrature. Both modulated signals occupy
the same frequency band. Yet they can be separated at the receiver by
synchronous detection using two local carriers in phase quadrature. The
technique is known as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) or quadrature
multiplexing .

48
49
50
A QAM signal is given by :

sc (t ) = m1 (t ) cos 2π fc t + m2 (t ) sin 2π fc t

At the receiving end, the modulated signal is multiplied by two carriers in

phase quadrature.
The signals at the outputs of the multipliers are :

x1 (t ) = 2 sc (t ) cos 2π fc t
= m1 (t ) + m1 (t ) cos 4π fc t + m2 (t ) sin 4π fc t
and
x2 (t ) = 2 sc (t ) sin 2 π fc t
= m2 (t ) – m2 (t ) cos 4 π fc t + m1 (t ) sin 4 π fc t
If we suppress the high-frequency components by low-pass filters, we get
y1 (t ) = m1 (t )
and
y2(t ) = m2(t )
51
 Supposing that the local carrier signal is cos (2πfc t + ϕ0), then the
multiplier output in the upper portion of the circuit becomes :
x1 (t) = 2 sc (t ) cos (2 π fct + ϕ0)
= m1 (t ) cos ϕ0 + m1(t) cos (4 π fc t + ϕ0) -
m2 (t ) sin ϕ0 + m2(t ) sin (4 π fc t + ϕ0)

If we suppress the second and the last terms by a low-pass filter, we get

y1 (t ) = m1 (t ) cos ϕ0 + m2 (t ) sin ϕ0
The desired signal m1(t ) and the unwanted signal m2(t ) appear in the
upper portion of the circuit . Also, it can be shown that y2(t ) contains the
desired signal m2(t ) and the unwanted signal m1(t ).

Modulated signals having the same carrier frequency now interfere with each
other. This is called cochannel interference and must be avoided .

52
Worse problems arise when the local carrier frequency is in
error. Therefore, the local carrier must not only be of the same
frequency but must be synchronised in phase with the carrier
signal. A slight error in the frequency or the phase of the local
carrier signal will not only result in loss and distortion of signals,
but will also lead to interference.
Quadrature multiplexing is used in colour television to multiplex
the signals which carry the information about colours .

53
 3.8 Single-Sideband Modulations
We have seen that both normal AM and DSB-SC signals require a transmission
bandwidth equal to twice the bandwidth of the message signal m(t). Since
either the upper sideband (USB) or the lower sideband (LSB) contains the
complete information of the message signal, we can conserve bandwidth by
transmitting only one sideband. The modulation is called single-sideband (SSB)
modulation.

3.8.1 Generation of SSB Signals

There are two common methods to generate a single-sideband signal.

I. Filter Method
In this method, a balanced modulator is used to generate a DSB-SC signal,
and the desired sideband signal is then selected by a bandpass filter for
transmission.

54
The following figure shows the generation of a SSB signal using the filter
method.
The technique is suitable for message signals with very little frequency
content down to dc and hence does not require sharp filter cut-off
characteristics.

55
The following figure shows the Spectra associated with SSB signal using filter
method.

56
 II. Phasing Method
A single-sideband signal is given by :

57
The following figure shows the Spectra associated with SSB signal using
phasing method .

58
 3.8.2 Demodulation of SSB Signals

Demodulation of SSB signals can be accomplished by using a synchronous

detector as used in the demodulation of normal AM and DSB-SC signals.

At the receiving end, the bandpass signal is multiplied by a locally generated

carrier signal cos 2π fc t , which is in synchronism with the transmitted carrier
signal.

59
The output of the multiplier is :

If we suppress the last two terms using a low-pass filter, we get :

y (t ) = 0.5 m (t )

That is, we can recover the component m (t ). If the carrier signal has phase
or frequency errors, the recovered message is distorted.

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3.9 Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
Vestigial sideband modulation is a compromise between DSB-SC and SSB
modulations. It relaxes the sharp cutoff requirement of a SSB signal by
retaining a trace of the other sideband in the transmitted signal. Typically,
the bandwidth of a VSB modulated signal is about 1.25 times that of the
corresponding SSB modulated signal. It is commonly used for transmission
of video signals in commercial television broadcasting.

3.9.1 Generation of VSB Signals

The following figure shows the generation of a VSB signal .

61
 The Spectra associated with VSB signal are shown in the following figure .

The Fourier transform of a VSB modulated signal sc(t) is :

Sc(f ) = 1/2 [M (f -fc) + M (f +fc)]H (f )
where H(f ) is the transfer function of the bandpass filter. 62
 3.9.2 Demodulation of VSB Signals
Demodulation of VSB signals can be accomplished by using a synchronous
detector. Let sc(t ) be the input signal to the synchronous detector. At the
receiving end, the bandpass signal is multiplied by a locally generated carrier
signal cos 2π fc t , which is in synchronism with the transmitted carrier signal.
The output of the multiplier is :

x (t ) = sc(t ) cos 2πfc t

and the Fourier transform of x(t ) is :

X(f ) = 1/2 [Sc(f –fc ) + Sc(f +fc )]

Substituting , we get

X(f) = 1/2{[ 1/2 [M (f -2fc) + M (f )]H (f -fc)] +

[ 1/2 [M (f ) + M (f +2fc )]H (f +fc )]}
63
We can suppress the frequency components at ± 2fc by a low-pass filter and
we get :

Y(f ) = 1/4 M (f )[H(f -fc) + H (f +fc)]

For distortionless detection, we must have

H (f -fc) + H (f +fc) = K, |f | ≤ B

where K is a constant and B is the bandwidth of the message signal.

64