Phase 2 : Systems Analysis

Chapter 4
ENTERPRISE
MODELLING
 Course Learning Outcome (CLO2)

Describe the system requirements and

use fact finding techniques (C5).

2
Chapter Learning Outcome

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Describe data & process modelling concepts & tools.

Describe the symbols used in DFD & explain the rules for their
use.
Draw DFD in a sequence, from general to specific.
Explain how to level & balance a set of DFD.
Describe how data dictionary is used and what it contains.
Use process description tools (structure English, decision tables &
decision trees).
Describe the relationship between logical & physical models.
TOPIC OUTLINES

Overview of Data and Process Modelling

Data Flow Diagram (DFD)

Data Dictionary

Process Description Tools

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OVERVIEW OF DATA & PROCESS
MODELLING
Introduction

❖You use data and process modeling techniques

to develop a logical model of the proposed system
and document the system requirements.

–Logical model shows what the system must do

–Physical model describes how the system’s
requirements are implemented will be
constructed
During the systems design phase, you create a physical
model of the new IS that follows from the logical model &
involves operational tasks and techniques.
Entity Relationship Diagram - ERD

ERD ➔ is a model that show the logical

relationships among the system entity.

❑ Entity  a person, place, thing or event for which

data is collected & maintained.

❑ Relationship types:-
1. One to One (1:1)
2. One to Many (1:M)
3. Many to Many (M:N)
DATA FLOW DIAGRAM
Data Flow Diagram - DFD
DFD ➔ shows how the system transform input data into
useful information.
➢ Shows how data moves through an information system BUT
doesn’t show program logic / processing steps.
➢ Shows what does the system does NOT how it does it.
➢ DFDs use four basic symbols that represent processes, data flows,
data stores, and entities
➢Gane and Sarson symbol set
➢Yourdon symbol set
➢ Symbols are referenced by using all capital letters for the symbol
name
DFD Symbols: 1- PROCESS

Receives input data and produces output

Contain the business logic, also called business
rules
Referred to as a black box:
the inputs, outputs, and general functions of the process are
known, but the underlying details and logic of the process are
hidden.
an analyst can create DFDs that show how the system functions,
but avoid unnecessary detail and clutter.
When the analyst wishes to show additional levels of detail, he or
she can zoom in on a process symbol and create a more in-
depth DFD (a series of increasingly detailed pictures) 11
DFD Symbols: 2 – DATA FLOW

A data flow is a path for data to move from one part of the
information system to another.
A data flow represents one or more data items.
The symbol for a data flow is a line with a single or double
arrowhead
Three data flow and process combinations that must be
avoided:
▪ Spontaneous Generation ➔ a process that produces an output but
has no input.
▪ Black Hole ➔ process that receive input but have no output
▪ Gray Hole ➔ input is insufficient to produce the output 12
Developing a DFD
DFD Symbols: 3 – DATA STORE

Represent data that the system stores.

A DFD does NOT show the detailed contents of a data
store — the specific structure and data elements are
defined in the data dictionary.
The physical characteristics of a data store are
unimportant because you are concerned only with a
logical model.
The Gane and Sarson symbol for a data store is a flat
rectangle that is open on the right side and closed on the
left side.
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A data store must be connected to a process with a data flow. Figure above illustrates
typical examples of data stores. In each case, the data store has at least one incoming
and one outgoing data flow and is connected to a process symbol with a data flow.
Examples of incorrect uses of data store symbols: Two data stores cannot
be connected by a data flow without an intervening process, and each
data store should have an outgoing and incoming data flow.
DFD Symbols: 4 - ENTITY

A person, place, thing, or event for which data is collected and

maintained.
Symbol is a rectangle, which may be shaded to make it look three-
dimensional.
Also call as ‘Terminators’ ➔ Data origin / final destination / external
entity.
Source ➔ entities that supplies data to the system.
Sink ➔ receives data from the system.
An external entity can be a source or a sink or both, but each entity
must be connected to a process by a data flow.
21
DFD Connection
Drawing Set of DFD

Create a graphical model of the information system

based on your fact-finding results
Performing three main tasks

Step 1: Draw a context diagram

Step 2: Draw a diagram 0 DFD
Step 3: Draw the lower-level diagrams
 Guidelines for Drawing DFDs

▪ Draw the context diagram so that it fits on one page

▪ Use the name of the information system as the process
name in the context diagram.

▪ For example, the process name is GRADING SYSTEM. Notice that the
process name is the same as the system name. This is because the
context diagram shows the entire information system as if it were a
single process.

▪ For processes in lower-level DFDs, you would use a verb followed by a

descriptive noun, such as ESTABLISH GRADEBOOK, ASSIGN FINAL
GRADE, or PRODUCE GRADE REPORT. 24
 Guidelines for Drawing DFDs

▪ Use unique names within each set of symbols

▪ Do not cross lines
▪ Restrict the number of symbols in any DFD. On lower-level diagrams with multiple
processes, you should not have more than nine process symbols. If more,
reconsider your analysis.
▪ Another way to avoid crossing lines is to duplicate an entity or data store. A
special notation, such as an asterisk, next to the symbol name and inside the
duplicated symbols signifies that they are duplicated on the same diagram.

▪ Provide a unique name and reference number for

each process
▪ Obtain as much user input and feedback as
possible
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Step1: Context Diagram

❑ A top-level view of an information system

that shows the boundaries and scope.

❑ Do not show any data stores in a context

diagram because data stores are internal to
the system
Step1: Context Diagram

The first step in constructing a set of DFDs is to draw a context diagram.

A context diagram is a top-level view of an information system that
shows the system’s boundaries and scope.
Start by placing a single process symbol in the center of the page that
represents the entire information system, and identify it as process 0 (the
numeral zero, and not the letter O).
Then you place the system entities around the perimeter of the page
and use data flows to connect the entities to the central process.
Data stores are not shown in the context diagram and remain hidden
until more detailed diagrams are created.
How do you know which entities and data flows to place in the context
diagram?
You begin by reviewing the system requirements to identify all external data sources and
destinations. During that process, you identify the entities, the name and content of the data
flows, and the direction of the data flows. 27
Step 1: Context Diagram
Step 1: Context Diagram
Step 2: Draw a Diagram 0 DFD
Diagram 0 is an exploded view of process 0 (context diagram)
It is like zooms in inside the black box, to show details of major internal
processes, data flows, and data stores.
Diagram 0 also repeats the entities and data flows that appear in the
context diagram. When you expand the context diagram into DFD
diagram 0, you must retain all the connections that flow into and out of
process 0.
If same data flows in both directions, you can use a double-headed
arrow known as a diverging data flow.
Parent diagram - the higher-level diagram.
Child diagram - the lower-level diagram.
Functional primitive - process that consists of a single function that is not
exploded further.
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Step 2: Diagram O

To show
detail inside
of context
diagram
Step 3: Draw the Lower-Level Diagrams

Step 3: Draw the

Lower-Level Diagrams
Must use leveling and
balancing techniques
Leveling examples
• Uses a series of
increasingly detailed
DFDs to describe an
information system
• Exploding, partitioning,
or decomposing
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Creating a Set of DFDs

Step 3: Draw the Lower-

Level Diagrams
Balancing Examples
• Ensures that the input and
output data flows of the
parent DFD are maintained on
the child DFD

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Conventions for DFDs

✓ Each context diagram must fit on one page

✓ The process name in the context diagram should be the

name of the information system

✓ Use unique names within each set of symbols

✓ Do not cross lines

✓ Use a unique reference number for each process symbol

DATA DICTIONARY
Data Dictionary
❑ Data Dictionary @ Data Repository.
❑ A central storehouse of information about the
system's data.
❑ Defines & describes all data elements & meaningful
combinations of data element.
❑ Why need to document the data element?
❑ to provide clear, comprehensive information about
the data and processes that make up the system
 Data Dictionary

❖ A data element, also called a data item or field, is the

smallest piece of data that has meaning.
❖ Data elements are combined into records, also
called data structures
❖ A record is a meaningful combination of related
data elements that is included in a data flow or
retained in a data store.
Data Dictionary
What need to document in Data Dictionary?

Data Elements
Data Flows
Data Stores
Processes
Entities
Records
Reports
Data Dictionary (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-23 Using an online documentation form, the analyst has recorded information for a data element
named SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER. Later, the analyst will create a data dictionary entry using a CASE tool
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PROCESS DESCRIPTION TOOL
Process Description Tools

❑ A process description, documents the details of a

functional primitive, which represents a specific set of
processing steps and business logic.

❑ Typical process description tools include Structured

English, Decision Table and Decision Tree.

❑ When analyzing a functional primitive, it can be

broken into small units called modular design.
Modular Design
➢ Based on combinations of 3 logical structures @ control structures which
serve as building blocks for the process.
✓ Sequence
✓ Selection
✓ Iteration – looping
➢ Rectangles shape➔ a step / process
➢ Diamond shape ➔ condition / decision
➢ Arrow line ➔ logic follows
➢ Each logical/control structure must have a single entry & exit point
➢Flowcharts can be useful in visualizing modular program designs.
Modular Design

Sequence :
The completion of steps is in sequential
order, one after another.
Modular Design
Selection :
The completion of the process based on the
results of a test condition.
Modular Design
Iteration / Looping :
The completion of a process step that is
repeated until specific condition changes.
Structured English
Describe logical processes clearly & accurately
Must conform to the following rules
• Use only the three building blocks of sequence, selection, and
iteration.
• Use indentation for readability.
• Use a limited vocabulary, including standard terms used in the
data dictionary and specific words that describe the processing
rules.

Might look like pseudocode in doing programming

language.
Structured English
• Might look familiar to programming students because
it resembles pseudocode
• The primary purpose of structured English is to
describe the underlying business logic
Decision Tables
– Shows a logical structure, with all possible combinations of
conditions and resulting actions.
– It is important to consider every possible outcome to ensure that
you have overlooked nothing.
– Can have more than two possible outcomes.
– Often are the best way to describe a complex set of conditions.
 Process Description Tools (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-34 The Verify Order business process has two conditions. For an order to be
accepted, the product must be in stock and the customer must have an
acceptable credit status

FIGURE 5-35 Example of a simple decision table showing the processing logic of the
VERIFY ORDER process
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Decision Tree
– Graphical representation of the conditions,
actions, and rules found in a decision table.
– Whether to use a decision table or tree often is a
matter of personal preference.
Logical vs Physical Models

While structured analysis tools are used to develop a logical

model for a new information system, such tools also can be
used to develop physical models of an information system.

A physical model shows how the system’s requirements are

implemented.
Logical vs Physical Models
Sequence of Model
Many systems analysts create a physical model of the current
system and then develop a logical model of the current system
before tackling a logical model of the new system.
Four-Model Approach
Develop a physical model of the current system ➔ a logical model
of the current system ➔ a logical model of the new system ➔ a
physical model of the new system.

• Advantage: Performing that extra step allows them to understand

the current system better
• Disadvantage: The added time and cost
Four-Model Approach

physical model of the current system

logical model of the current system

logical model of the new system

physical model of the new system

 Summary

❑ During Data & Process Modeling, a systems analyst develops graphical

models to show how the system transforms data into useful information.

❑ The end product of Data & Process Modeling is a logical model that
will support business operations and meet user needs

❑ Data & Process Modeling involves four main tools:

✓ entity-relationship diagrams
✓ data flow diagrams
✓ a data dictionary
✓ process descriptions