THE ADVERB

§ 238. The adverb is a word denoting circumstances or characteristics which attend or

modify an action, state, or quality. It may also intensify a quality or characteristics.
From this definition it is difficult to define adverbs as a class, because they comprise a most
heterogeneous group of words, and there is considerable overlap between the class and other
word classes. They have many kinds of form, meaning and function. Alongside such undoubtful
adverbs as here, now, often, seldom, always, there are many others which also function as words
of other classes. Thus, adverbs like dead (dead tired), clear (to get clear away), clean (I've clean
forgotten), slow, easy (he would say that slow and easy) coincide with corresponding adjectives
(a dead body, clear waters, clean hands). Adverbs like past, above are homonymous with
prepositions. There is also a special group of pronominal adverbs when, where, how, why used
either as interrogative words or as connectives to introduce subordinate clauses.

Where shall we go? (an interrogative pronominal adverb)

We’ll go where you want (a conjunctive pronominal adverb).

Some adverbs may be used rather like a verb, as in “Up. Jenkins! Down, Peter!”, where the
first word is like an imperative.
In many cases the border-line between adverbs and words of the other classes is defined
syntactically.

He walked past. (adverb)

He walked past the house. (preposition)
They took the dog in. (adverb)
They left the dog in the house, (preposition)
He did everything slowly but surely. (adverb)
Surely you know him. (modal word)

There are three adverbs connected with numerals: once, twice, and thrice (the latter being
archaic). They denote measure or frequency.

She went there once a week.

I saw him twice last month.

Twice is also used in the structure twice as long, etc.

He is twice as tall as his brother.

She is twice as clever.

Beginning with three the idea of frequency or repetition is expressed by the phrases three
times, four times; He went there four times; he is four times as bigger; she is ten times cleverer.

Morphological composition

§ 239. Adverbs vary in their structure. There are simple, derived, compound, and composite
adverbs.
Simple adverbs are after, here, well, now, soon, etc.
In derived adverbs the most common suffix is -ly, by means of which new adverbs are
coined from adjectives and participles: occasionally, lately, immediately, constantly, purely,
slowly, charmingly.
 The less common snffixes are the following:

-wise clockwise, crabwise, corkscrew -wise, education- wise

-ward(s) onward(s), backward(s), homeward(s), eastward(s)
-fold twofold, manifold
-like warlike
-most innermost, outermost
-way(s) longways, sideways

Of these suffixes the first two are more ptoductive than the rest.
Compound adverbs are formed of two stems:

sometimes, somewhere, everywhere, downstairs, etc.

Composite phrasal adverbs consist of two or more word-forms, as

a great deal, a little bit, far enough, now and then, from time to time, sort of, kind of, a hell
of, a lot of, a
great deal of.

Morphological characteristics

§ 240. The only pattern of morphological change for adverbs is the same as for adjectives, the
degrees of comparison. The three grades are called positive, comparative, and superlative
degrees.
Adverbs that are identical in form with adjectives take inflections following the same spelling
and phonetic rules as for adjectives:

early - earlier - earliest

late - later - latest
hard - harder - hardest
slow - slower - slowest

Several adverbs ending in -ly (quickly, loudly) form comparatives according to the same
pattern, dropping their adverb-forming suffix. These adverbs acquired the form in -ly only
recently and retained the older forms of the comparative and superlative:

quickly - quicker - quickest

loudly - louder - loudest

However most disyllabic adverbs in -ly and all polysyllabic ones form the comparative and
superlative analytically, by means of more and most:

wisely - more wisely - most wisely

softly - more softly - most softly
deeply - more deeply - most deeply

The adverb often occurs with both types of comparison:

often oftener
more often

As with adjectives, there is a small group of adverbs with comparatives and superlatives
formed from different stems (suppletive forms). These comparatives and superlatives are
identical with those for the corresponding adjectives and can be differentiated from the latter
only syntactically.

well - better - best

badly - worse - worst
little - less - least
much - more - most
further - furthest
far farther - farthest

Which do you like best?

This is least painful for you.

Either farther (farthest) or further (furthest) are used when speaking of places, directions, or
distance:

He is too tired to walk any farther (further).

But only further (furthest) is used with the meaning more, later:

Don’t try my patience any further.

Most of the adverbs, however, stand outside the degrees of comparison:

pronominal adverbs denoting place and time

(here, somewhere, there, sometimes, when),

denoting manner
(somehow, thus), and

adverbs of manner denoting gradation

(minimally, optimally, proximally - ближе к центру).

Semantic characteristics

§ 241. According to their meaning adverbs fall into many groups. Here are the main ones:

Adverbs of place: outside, there, in front, etc.

Adverbs of time include those denoting duration (long, continually), interval (all day), timing
(yesterday, today, recently, lately, immediately, once, at once, now), frequency (often, now and
then, occasionally). Several of them denote an indefinite time - soon, yet, always, already, never,
ever.

Adverbs of manner: well, carefully, intentionally, silently, clearly, etc.

Adverbs of degree: thoroughly, very, much, completely, quite, rather, a lot, a little, a great
deal, badly, greatly, hardly, barely, scarcely, narrowly, just, almost, mostly, enormously,
largely, tremendously, keenly, somewhat, too, so, most, all but.
Among these some are synonymous (much, very), but their combinability is different. Thus
much is used to modify verbs, nouns, statives and adjectives, and very is used with adjectives and
adverbs in the positive and superlative degrees, whereas with comparatives only much is used:

to travel much very nice

to be much improved very glad
much better very slow
much slower very quickly
very much in love
very much alive
very much alike
very much afraid

With participles, however, both much and very may be used, often they go together:

much admired, very surprised, very much amused.

Among adverbs of degree there are many the meaning of which has become weakened and
which are used as intensifiers, adding emotional colouring to the content of what is said. This
group of adverbs is very difficult to define because adverbs of other semantic groups can
occasionally function as intensifiers:

awfully painful, terribly unjust, extremely beautiful,

very quiet, faintly uneasy, too frightful,
rather calm, really pretty, so nice,
most expensive, positively wonderful, etc.

Syntactic functions and patterns of combinability

§ 242. Adverbs may perform different functions, modifying different types of words, phrases,
sentences. Some adverbs are restricted in their combinability whereas others may modify
different words, for instance enough, which may be used in to work enough, not quickly enough,
quick enough. The most typical function of the adverb is that of adverbial modifier.

The combinability and functions of the adverbs are as follows:

1. Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers of manner, place, time, degree to a finite or
non-finite form of the verb:
He spoke aloud; I quite forgot about it; he spoke well.

Some adverbs of time though synonymous, are used in different syntactical patterns. Thus,
already is used in affirmative sentences, and yet - in interrogative and negative sentences:

They have already finished.

They haven’t finished yet.
Have they finished yet?

However, already may occur in interrogative and negative sentences when there is an element
of surprise or the question is suggestive, that is the speaker expects an affirmative answer.

Have they finished already? (The speaker is surprised at their having already finished.)

In the same way still, meaning “continuously, up to this moment”, is used in affirmative
sentences and any more in negative sentences. If any more is used in a question, it implies that
the speaker expects a negative answer.

He still works at the library.

He does not work there any more.
Does he take music lessons any more? - No, he doesn’t.

2. Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers to an adjective or another adverb. Usually

the modifying adverb is an intensifier:
very, rather, awfully, so, terribly, extremely, most, utterly, unusually, delightfully,
unbelievably,
amazingly, strikingly, highly, that, etc.

The same applies to composite adverbs, such as

kind of, sort of, a good bit of, a lot of, a hell of, a great deal of, etc.

She is terribly awkward; they are very happy: Meg is clever enough; you speak so slowly;
they settled in a rather quiet street; the boy is unbelievably fat; she was strikingly handsome;
we did it sort of proudly; quite definitely, too much, right there, a great deal too much.
Some adverbs - still, yet, far, much, any combine with comparative adjectives: much worse,
not any better, still greater, etc.

He could not speak any plainer.

You could do it far more neatly.
She is much wittier than her friend.

Comparative adverbs are used in clauses of proportional agreement, that is, parallel clauses
in which qualities or actions denoted in them increase or decrease at an equal rate. (See Syntax §
177)

The longer I think about it the less I understand your reasons.

To express the idea that a quality or action decreases or increases at an even rate the
comparative may be repeated, the two identical forms being connected by and:

He ran faster and faster.

3. There are some adverbs which may modify nouns or words of nominal character,
functioning as attribute, as in:

the way ahead, the trip abroad, the journey home, his return home, the sentence above
(below), my friend
here, the house opposite, the day before, etc.

A few adverbs can premodify nouns without losing their adverbial character:

the then president, in after years, the above sentence, the now generation.

Their combinability with prepositional phrases can be illustrated by the following:

right up to the ceiling.

 Positional characteristics

§ 243. As adverbs modify words of different classes, they accordingly occupy different
positions in the sentence. In comparison with other words, adverbs may be considered as the
most movable words. However, adverbs are not identical in their ability to be moved to another
position in the structure. Thus, adverbs of manner and degree are very closely attached to the
word they modify and cannot be moved away from it. He sings well – is the only possible
arrangement of the three words, unless the change of position is caused by inversion and a
general shift of the communicative focus: Only well does he sing (он поет только хорошо). If
such an adverb is put in other positions this may result in a change of meaning in which case it is
no longer an adverb (it has already been mentioned that adverbs are often defined by position
rather than form): well, he sings when nobody is in.
If the predicate is an analytical form adverbs of frequency and indefinite time are usually
placed between its parts:

Have you ever seen him?

You are always laughing at me.

Adverbs of degree usually premodify adjectives or verbs:

awfully painful, terribly unjust, really pretty, so nice, to thoroughly understand, etc.

The most mobile are adverbs of time and place, which can occupy several positions without
any change in their meaning, as in:
Usually he sings well.
He usually sings well.
He sings well usually.

The initial position of the adverb of manner always makes it emphatic.

Proudly he showed his diploma to his parents.

Carefully he signed his name.

In these sentences, despite the detachment of the adverbial modifier, its connection with the
verb is evident (showed proudly, signed carefully).

Note:

Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs of manner and modal words, which may have the
same word-form and occur in the same position. The only guide in these cases is punctuation and
the relation between the words:
Naturally I wanted him to answer - modal word.
I wanted him to answer naturally - adverb.
They wanted to live naturally - adverb.
They wanted to live, naturally - modal word.