UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Week 4: Work and Kinetic Energy

I. Introduction

In the previous lessons, you were able to understand the definitions of position, displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force and Newton’s Laws. You were able to solve kinematics problems. In this chapter, you
will learn a simpler approach, with some quantities whose meaning in Physics is distinctly different from
our everyday meaning, like work, energy and power.

In this chapter, we discuss some basic physical concepts involved in every physical motion in the universe,
going beyond the concepts of force and change in motion. These concepts are work, kinetic energy, and
power. We explain how these quantities are related to one another, which will lead us to a fundamental
relationship called the work-energy theorem.

The application of Newton’s laws usually requires solving differential equations that relate the forces
acting on an object to the accelerations they produce. Often, an analytic solution is intractable or
impossible, requiring lengthy numerical solutions or simulations to get approximate results. In such
situations, more general relations, like the work-energy theorem (or the conservation of energy), can still
provide useful answers to many questions and require a more modest amount of mathematical
calculation. In particular, you will see how the work-energy theorem is useful in relating the speeds of a
particle, at different points along its trajectory, to the forces acting on it, even when the trajectory is
otherwise too complicated to deal with. Thus, some aspects of motion can be addressed with fewer
equations and without vector decompositions.

II. Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Illustrate how the work is done on the system.

2. Evaluate the work done by any force
3. Evaluate the kinetic energy of a body, relative to different frames of reference
4. Apply the work-energy theorem to find information about the motion of a particle
5. Find the power expended by a force acting on a moving body

III. Work

To understand the concept of work, let us define first some terms you will encounter
often. A system can be a single object or particle, a collection of objects or particles, a region of space
(such as the interior of an automobile engine combustion cylinder), and may vary with time in size and
shape, such as a rubber ball, which deforms upon striking a wall. A system boundary is an imaginary
surface, not necessarily coinciding with a physical surface, that divides the Universe into the system and
the environment surrounding the system.

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Work Done by a Constant Force

Let us consider the figure below. The eraser and the chalkboard tray are the system. The friction force and
the normal force are influence from the environment. The force applied by the finger as it pushed the
eraser is internal to the system and therefore are not included as an influence from the environment.

Figure 4. 1 An eraser being pushed along the chalkboard tray at different angles

Now, let us define work. The work W done on a system by an agent exerting a constant force on the
system is the product of the magnitude F of the force, the magnitude Δr of the displacement of the point
of application of the force, and cos θ, where θ is the angle between the force and displacement vectors.
In symbol,

𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑑 cos 𝜃
Work and energy have the same units. From the definition of work, we see that those units are force times
distance. Thus, in SI units, work and energy are measured in newton-meters. A newton-meter is given the
special name joule (J).

1𝐽 = 1𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚/𝑠
Now, be careful, based on the definition we are looking for the work DONE by a force on a system. We
do not only identify the system; we likewise identify what agent in the environment is DOING the
work. Going back to Figure 4.1, the finger is pushing the eraser. So, who is doing the work? Correct! The
finger - because it is exerting the force on the eraser - which is the system.

Now, let us find the displacement and assumes that the magnitude of the exerted force by the finger is
the same in all situations. The exerted force in (b) moves the eraser farther than (a). However, the force
exerted on (c) will not move the eraser at all, regardless of how hard you pushed the eraser unless of
course, you pushed so hard that you break the chalkboard tray!!

Let us try to find the work W done by the finger on the eraser at (a). Say, the magnitude of the force
exerted by the finger is 2 N, the magnitude of the displacement is 0.5 m and the angle between the
exerted force and the displacement is 60 degrees. Therefore, the work W done by the finger on the
eraser is

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Wfinger = FΔdcos θ = 2(0.5) cos 60° = 0.5 N – m.

At (b), θ = 30°, Wfinger = FΔd cos θ = 2 (0.5) cos 30° = 0.866 N – m.

At (c) , θ is 90°, Wfinger = FΔd cos θ = 2 (0.5) cos 90° = 0 N – m.

So, what do we conclude here?

1. The work W done on a force on a system is maximum when the exerted force and the
displacement is parallel with each other.
2. The work W done on a force on a system is zero when the exerted force and the displacement is
perpendicular with each other.
3. There must be displacement for work to be done, and there must be a component of the force
in the direction of the motion.

WHAT IS WORK?
The work done on a system by a constant force is the product of the component of
the force in the direction of motion times the distance through which the force acts.
For one-way motion in one dimension, this is expressed in equation form as

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃

where W is work, F is the magnitude of the force on the system, d is the magnitude
of the displacement of the system, and θ is the angle between the force vector F and
the displacement vector d.

Work is a scalar quantity. Although the formula defines the work in terms of two vectors, work is a
scalar; there is no direction associated with it. All types of energy and energy transfer are scalars. This fact
is a major advantage of the energy approach because we do not need vector calculations!

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Learning Activity 4.1

Check Your Understanding

Figure 3.2 shows four situations in which a force is applied to an object. In all four cases, the force
has the same magnitude, and the displacement of the object is to the right and of the same
magnitude. Rank the situations in order of the work done by the force on the object, from most
positive to most negative. Briefly discuss your answer.

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Examples:

1. A factory worker pushes a 30.0-kg crate a distance of 4.5 m along a level floor at constant
velocity by pushing horizontally on it. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and
the floor is 0.25.
a. What magnitude of force must the worker apply?
b. How much work is done on the crate by this force?
c. How much work is done on the crate by friction?
d. How much work is done on the crate by the normal force and by gravity?
e. What is the total work done on the crate?

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Solution:

Watch: Work Done by a Constant Force: Sample Problem 1

2. Suppose the worker in the above problem pushes downward at an angle of 30° below the
horizontal.
a. What magnitude of force must the worker apply to move the crate at constant velocity?
b. How much work is done on the crate by this force when the crate is pushed a distance of
4.5 m?
c. How much work is done on the crate by friction during this displacement?
d. How much work is done on the crate by the normal force? By gravity?
e. What is the total work done on the crate?

Solution:

Watch: Work Done by a Constant Force: Sample Problem 2

Work Done by a Varying Force

The equation W = F Δr cos θ is valid only if a force is constant. It cannot be used when a particle is displaced
along the horizontal axis under the action of a force that varies with position. Let us use Figure 4.2 this
time. The figure shows a varying force applied on a particle that moves from initial position x i to final
position xf. Imagine a particle undergoing a very small displacement Δx, as shown. The x component F x of
the force is approximately constant over this small interval; for this small displacement, we can
approximate the work done on the particle by the force using the previous equation, W ≈ F x Δx, which is
the area of the shaded rectangle.

Figure 4. 2 The work done on a particle by the force component F x for the small displacement Dx is Fx Dx, which
equals the area of the shaded rectangle.

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If the Fx versus x curve is divided into a large number of such intervals, the total work done for the
displacement from xi to xf is approximately equal to the sum of a large number of such terms, then

𝑊≈ 𝐹 ∆𝑥

And if the size of the small displacements is allowed to approach zero, the number of terms in the sum
increases without limit but the value of the sum approaches a definite value equal to the area bounded
by the Fx curve and the x - axis, then
𝑥𝑓
𝑥𝑓
lim 𝐹𝑥 ∆𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∆ → 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑖
Therefore, we can express the work done by Fx on the system of the particle as it moves from xi to xf as,
𝑥𝑓
𝑊= 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖

Work Done by a Spring

The system on Figure 4.3 is a block on a frictionless, horizontal surface and connected to a spring. For
many springs, it is either stretched or compressed at a small distance from its un-stretched (equilibrium)
configuration, and it exerts on the block a force that can be mathematically modeled as

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥

where x is the position of the block relative to its equilibrium (x = 0) position and k is a positive constant
called the force constant or the spring constant of the spring. This force law for springs is known
as Hooke’s law. The value of k is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. Stiff springs have large k values,
and soft springs have small k values. The figure below shows the force exerted by a spring on a block varies
with the block’s position x relative to the equilibrium position x = 0. At (a) x is positive, at (b) x is zero, at
(c) x is negative, and (d) shows a graph of Fs versus x for the block – spring system.

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Figure 4. 3 Work Done by a Spring

If the block undergoes an arbitrary displacement from x = xi to x = xf, the work done by the spring force on
the block is
𝑥𝑓 1 1
𝑊 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑖 2 − 𝑘𝑥𝑓 2
𝑥𝑖 2 2

Learning Activity 4.2

Check Your Understanding

A dart is inserted into a spring-loaded dart gun by pushing the spring in by a distance x. For the next
loading, the spring is compressed a distance 2x. How much work is required to load the second dart
compared with that required to load the first? Briefly explain your answer.
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Examples:

1. A force of 160 N stretches a spring 0.050 m beyond its unstretched length.

a. What magnitude of force is required to stretch the spring 0.015 m beyond its unstretched
length? To compress the spring 0.020 m?
b. How much work must be done to stretch the spring 0.015 m beyond its unstretched
length? To compress the spring 0.020 m from its unstretched length?

Solution:

Watch: Work Done by a Varying Force: Sample Problem 1

2. A balky cow is leaving the barn as you try harder and harder to push her back in. In coordinates
with the origin at the barn door, the cow walks from x = 0 to x = 6.9 m as you apply a force with
x-component
𝑁
𝐹 = − 20.0 𝑁 + 3.0 𝑥 .
𝑚
How much work does the force you apply do on the cow during this displacement?

Solution:

Watch: Work Done by a Varying Force: Sample Problem 2

IV. Kinetic Energy

KINETIC ENERGY

The kinetic energy of a particle is one-half the product of the particle’s mass m and
the square of its speed v
1
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣
2

We then extend this definition to any system of particles by adding up the kinetic energies of all the
constituent particles:
1
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣2
2

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The units of kinetic energy are mass times the square of speed, or kg⋅m2/s2. But the units of force are mass
times acceleration, kg⋅m/s2, so the units of kinetic energy are also the units of force times distance, which
are the units of work, or joules.

Example:

1. What is the kinetic energy of an 80-kg athlete, running at 10 m/s?

Solution:

1 1
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣 = (80𝑘𝑔)(10𝑚/𝑠 ) = 4000 𝐽
2 2

2. The Chicxulub crater in Yucatan, one of the largest existing impact craters on Earth, is thought to
have been created by an asteroid, traveling at 22 km/s and releasing 4.2×10 23J of kinetic energy
upon impact. What was its mass?

Solution:

Convert first 22 km/s to m/s,

22km/s = 22000 m/s

Thus,
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣
2
1
4.2 × 10 J = 𝑚(22000𝑚/𝑠)
2
𝑚 = 1.7 × 10 𝑘𝑔

3. In nuclear reactors, thermal neutrons, traveling at about 2.2 km/s, play an important role. What
is the kinetic energy of such a particle? m neutron = 1.68 x 10-27 kg

Solution:

Convert first 22 km/s to m/s,

2.2km/s = 2200 m/s

1 1
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣 = (1.68 × 10 )(2200𝑚/𝑠) = 4.1 × 10 𝐽
2 2

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Learning Activity 4.3

Check Your Understanding

(a) A car and a truck are each moving with the same kinetic energy. Assume that the truck has more
mass than the car. Which has the greater speed? (b) A car and a truck are each moving with the
same speed. Which has the greater kinetic energy?
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V. Work – Energy Theorem

We have learned previously that work is an influence on a system from the environment, and the result
of this influence is called as energy. The first type of energy that we are going to consider is kinetic
energy. Kinetic energy represents the energy associated with the motion of the particle. Let us note that
kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and has the same units as work.

Figure 4. 4 An object undergoing a displacement and a change in velocity under a constant force

Consider the block in the Figure 4.4. When we move the block of mass m through a displacement directed
to the right under the action of a net force ΣF, which is also directed to the right, it produced
acceleration a as stated in Newton’s Second Law. The displacement of the block is Δd = (x f - xi), the net
work done W on the block by the external net force ΣF is

𝑥𝑓
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖

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Using Newton’s second law, we substitute for the magnitude of the net force ΣF = ma and then perform
the following chain-rule manipulations on the integrand:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣
2 2

where vi is the speed of block at x = xi and vf is its speed at xf. Therefore, the work done on a particle by a
net force ΣF acting on it equals the change in kinetic energy of the particle. Let us write the equation above
into the form

𝑊 = 𝐾 − 𝐾 = ∆𝐾

Work – Kinetic Energy Theorem

The work – kinetic energy theorem is stated as: “When work is done on a system and
the only change in the system is in its speed, the net work done on the system equals
the change in kinetic energy of the system.”

The theorem indicates that the speed of a system increases if the net work done on it is positive because
the final kinetic energy is greater than the initial kinetic energy. The speed decreases if the net work
is negative because the final kinetic energy is less than the initial kinetic energy.

Learning Activity 4.4

Check Your Understanding

A dart is inserted into a spring-loaded dart gun by pushing the spring in by a distance x. For the next
loading, the spring is compressed a distance 2x. How much faster does the second dart leave the
gun compared with the first? Briefly discuss your answer.
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Problem Solving Strategies for Work – Energy Theorem

Work-Energy Theorem

1. Draw a free-body diagram for each force on the object.

2. Determine whether each force does work over the displacement in the diagram. Be sure to
keep any positive or negative signs in the work done.
3. Add up the total amount of work done by each force.
4. Set this total work equal to the change in kinetic energy and solve for any unknown
parameter.
5. Check your answers. If the object is traveling at a constant speed or zero acceleration, the
total work done should be zero and match the change in kinetic energy. If the total work is
positive, the object must have sped up or increased kinetic energy. If the total work is
negative, the object must have slowed down or decreased kinetic energy.

Examples:

1. A 4.00-kg block of ice is placed against a horizontal spring that has force constant k = 200N/m
and is compressed 0.025 m. The spring is released and accelerates the block along a horizontal
surface. You can ignore friction and mass of the spring?
a. Calculate the work done on the block by the spring during the motion of the block from
its initial position to where the spring has returned to its uncompressed length.
b. What is the speed of the block after it leave the spring?

Solution:

Watch: Work – Energy Theorem: Sample Problem 1

2. A 12-pack of Omni Cola (mass 4.30kg) is initially at rest on a horizontal floor. It is then pushed in
a straight line for 1.20 m by a trained dog that exerts a horizontal force with magnitude 36.0 N.
Use the work- energy theorem to find the final speed of the 12-pack if
a. there is no friction between the 12-pack and the floor, and
b. the coefficient of kinetic friction between the l2-pack and the floor is 0.30.

Solution:

Watch: Work – Energy Theorem: Sample Problem 2

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Learning Activity 4.5

Now You Try!

Solve the following problems.

1. A sled with mass 8.00 kg moves in a straight line on a frictionless horizontal surface. At one point
in its path, its speed is 4.00m/s; after it has traveled 3.50 m beyond this point, its speed is 6.00
m/s. Use the work-energy theorem to find the force acting on the sled, assuming that this force is
constant and that it acts in the direction of the sled's motion.

2. You throw a 20-N rock vertically into the air from ground level. You observe that when it is 15.0 m
above the ground, it is traveling at 25.0 m/s upward. Use the work-energy theorem to find
a. the rock's speed just as it left the ground and
b. its maximum height.

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VI. Power

The concept of work involves force and displacement; the work-energy theorem relates the net work done
on a body to the difference in its kinetic energy, calculated between two points on its trajectory. None of
these quantities or relations involves time explicitly, yet we know that the time available to accomplish a
particular amount of work is frequently just as important to us as the amount itself. In Figure 4.5, several
sprinters may have achieved the same velocity at the finish, and therefore did the same amount of work,
but the winner of the race did it in the least amount of time.

Figure 4. 5 A sprinter exerts her maximum power with the greatest force in the short time her foot is in contact with
the ground. This adds to her kinetic energy, preventing her from slowing down during the race. Pushing back hard
on the track generates a reaction force that propels the sprinter forward to win at the finish. (credit: modification of
work by Marie-Lan Nguyen)

We express the relation between work done and the time interval involved in doing it, by introducing the
concept of power. Instantaneous power P is the time rate of energy transfer. In this lesson, we will focus
on work as the energy transfer, but keeping in mind that the notion of power is valid for any means of
energy transfer we previously discussed.
𝑑𝐸
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡

If an external force is applied to an object (which we model as a particle) and if the work done by this
force on the object in the time interval Δt is W, the average power during this interval is

𝑊
𝑃 =
∆𝑡

In a similar way, the instantaneous power in terms of velocity and acceleration, as Δt approaches zero, is

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𝑊 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑃 = lim = = 𝐹⃗ ∙
∆ → ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑃 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑣⃗

Unit of Power

The SI unit of power is joules per second (J/s), also called the watt (W) after James Watt:

1 𝑊 = 1 𝐽/𝑠 = 1𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚 /𝑠

A unit of power in the U.S. customary system is the horsepower (hp):

1 ℎ𝑝 = 746 𝑊

Power and Energy Consumption

We usually must pay for the energy we use. It is interesting and easy to estimate the cost of energy for an
electrical appliance if its power consumption rate and time used are known. The higher the power
consumption rate and the longer the appliance is used, the greater the cost of that appliance. The power
consumption rate is P=W/t=E/t, where E is the energy supplied by the electricity company. So, the energy
consumed over a time t is

𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡
Electricity bills state the energy used in units of kilowatt-hours (kW⋅h), which is the product of power in
kilowatts and time in hours. This unit is convenient because electrical power consumption at the
kilowatt level for hours at a time is typical. One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is 1,000 J/s. The amount of energy
transferred in 1 kWh is

1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 10000𝑊 ∙ 3600𝑠 = 3.60 × 10 𝐽

A kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy, not power. When you pay your electric bill, you are buying energy, and
the amount of energy transferred by electrical transmission into a home during the period represented
by the electric bill is usually expressed in kilowatt-hours. For example, your bill may state that you used
900 kWh of energy during a month and that you are being charged at the rate of Php 7.50 per kilowatt-
hour. Your obligation is then Php 6,750.00 for this amount of energy.

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Solving Problems Involving Power

1. A 20 kg rock is sliding on a rough, horizontal at 8m/s and eventually stops due to friction. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the rock and the surface is 0.200. What is the average
power produced by friction as the rock stops?

Solution:

Watch: Power: Sample Problem 1

2. Your job is to lift 30-kg crate at a vertical distance not 0.90 m from the ground onto the bed of a
truck.
a. How many times would you have to load onto the truck in 1 minute for the average
power you use to lift the crates to equal 0.50HP?
b. How many cares for an average power output of 100W?

Solution:

Watch: Power: Sample Problem 2

Learning Activity 4.6

Now You Try!

Solve the following problems.

1. A ski tow operated on 15° slope of length 300m. The rope moves at 12 km/hr and provides
power for 50 riders at one time, with an average mass per rider of 70.0 kg. Estimate the
power required to operate the tow.

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2. 5.00-kg package slides 1.50 m down a long ramp that is inclined at 12.0° below the horizontal.
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the package and the ramp is μ k = 0.310. Calculate
(a) the work done on the package by friction; (b) the work done on the package by gravity; (c)
the work done on the package by the normal force; (d) the total work done on the package.
(e) If the package has a speed of 2.20 m/s at the top of the ramp, what is its speed after
sliding 1.50 m down the ramp?

VII. Laboratory

VIII. Summary

 The infinitesimal increment of work done by a force, acting over an infinitesimal displacement, is
the dot product of the force and the displacement.
 The work done by a force, acting over a finite path, is the integral of the infinitesimal increments
of work done along the path.
 The work done against a force is the negative of the work done by the force.
 The work done by a normal or frictional contact force must be determined in each particular case.
 The work done by the force of gravity, on an object near the surface of Earth, depends only on
the weight of the object and the difference in height through which it moved.

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 The work done by a spring force, acting from an initial position to a final position, depends only
on the spring constant and the squares of those positions.
 The kinetic energy of a particle is the product of one-half its mass and the square of its speed, for
non-relativistic speeds.
 The kinetic energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic energies of all the particles in the system.
 Kinetic energy is relative to a frame of reference, is always positive, and is sometimes given special
names for different types of motion.
 Because the net force on a particle is equal to its mass times the derivative of its velocity, the
integral for the net work done on the particle is equal to the change in the particle’s kinetic energy.
This is the work-energy theorem.
 You can use the work-energy theorem to find certain properties of a system, without having to
solve the differential equation for Newton’s second law.
 Power is the rate of doing work; that is, the derivative of work with respect to time.
 Alternatively, the work done, during a time interval, is the integral of the power supplied over the
time interval.
 The power delivered by a force, acting on a moving particle, is the dot product of the force and
the particle’s velocity.

PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS V.1.0 BY: DE VERA 87