LECTURE NOTES AND PLAN OUTLINES FOR CAPE LITERATURES IN

ENGLISH UNIT 2

Texts: ‘Antony and Cleopatra’ by William Shakespeare

‘An Echo in the Bone’ by Dennis Scott

NB: in addition to these notes, discussions will take place and active listening
and performances will be practised. The students’ research for their essays
will become a part of class notes. After essays are edited and corrected, they
will be shared among the members of the class as references.

OUTLINE FOR LECTURES

1. The significance of the title, ‘Antony and Cleopatra’.
2. The interrelatedness of the elements/ features/ contexts/ devices of drama to life.
3. The various contexts of the texts- moral, social, historical and political.
4. Gender Roles
5. SETTING: ROME vs EGYPT
6. Feminist reading of ‘Antony and Cleopatra’.
 Establishing and defending equal political. Economic, social rights/ opportunities for
women
 Search for gender equality
 Search for justice for women
 Highlighting the qualities of women
 Highlighting the resistance of male domination
 Showing how women are oppressed or disadvantaged by comparison to men and that
their oppression is embedded in beliefs and norms.
7. CONFLICT in Drama: ‘DOUBLE TROUBLE’
8. ‘THE Power / of Love
9. WAR and its Effects: “Now Everywhere is War!”
10. The Hero – Who’s the man?
11. Discussion on Male Pride and Female vulnerability OR VICE VERSA
i ) What does Antony/ Cleopatra take pride in / what does he or she pride himself / herself for?
ii) What makes the fe/male vulnerable? Do they try to assert themselves? If so, what is the
outcome?
12.
a. Morality – good vs. evil; right vs. wrong; rules and regulations; norms and values;
expectations and traditions.
b. Observe morality in terms of:
i) The institution of marriage
ii) Leadership (acquisition and rule)
iii) Battles
iv) Love/ relationships/ death
13. The Resolution – ACT 5 of the play
 14. Critical reading and practice past paper questions (Nb. This will be done throughout the
year)

GENERAL INFORMATION:

 Social context: ref. To the relationships characters have with each other. One is able
to see these relations in terms of the traditions and customs of society. It stresses the
classes to which characters belong. It looks at the institutions of society as well.
Highlight – relations in the family; status in society; the monarch...

 Historical context: refers to how a work reflects the thoughts, feelings, and customs
of the age in which it was written. What the society valued is also important such as:
the books read, games played, ideas discussed, clothes they wore, things they took for
granted. The ideas in the genre are bound to reflect the ideas held at the time. The
author examines the thoughts, feelings and customs of the age.

 Political context: government/ laws/ rules/ regulations/ rights and responsibilities.

KEY TERMS RELATED TO DRAMA

TERM DEFINITION
1. Playwright The person who writes a play.
2. props Furniture or any other object that the
actors use while on stage.
3. script This is the text of the play from which
the actors study.
4. stage directions a. These are the notes put into the
script by the playwright to tell the
director and actors what s/he wants
them to do and how s/he wants them
to do it.
b. information given by the
playwright about the time of day or
night, pieces of furniture and how
they are placed on stage, lighting,
music, the way the performers dress,
how they move, how they speak –
softly, harshly, haltingly, etc., what if
any other sounds intrude and so on.
5. act This is the major division of a play
that has a major development that
moves to a climax. It often makes time
gaps or changes in a scene.
6. scene This is a smaller part (or sub-division)
of an act. A specific development
occurs in a scene.
7. denouement (French – ‘unknotting’)This is the
way tangled elements of a plot are
untied. It may be the event or events
following the major climax of a plot,
or the unravelling of a plot’s
complications at the end of a story or
play.

8. peripeteia (Gk. ‘sudden change’) A sudden

reversal of fortune or change in
circumstances; a fall. In drama,
usually the sudden change of fortune
is from prosperity to ruin; but it can
be the other way around.
9. dialogue 1. The words which the characters say
to each other.
2. The verbal give-and-take between
the characters. It serves as a medium
of human interaction in the play.
10. soliloquy A long speech made by a character
while s/he is alone on stage and in
which s/he reveals his/her private
thoughts.
11. asides Words said by actors on the stage to
the audience. These words, however,
are not heard by the other actors.
12. dramatic irony This occurs when the audience knows
more about the dramatic situation
than some of the characters in the
play. It is usually created by
soliloquies in which one character
reveals his plans, thoughts, and ideas
 to the audience. This character may
then say or do something before other
characters, which would have a
meaning that only the audience fully
understands.
13. characterization A description of the distinctive
character(s) / the method an author
uses to acquaint the reader with his
characters.
14. protagonist The character who plays the
central/major role and who is usually
good.
15. antagonist The character who is opposed to the
protagonist and who is usually
associated with evil.
16. Hamartia Tragic flaw or weakness.
Shakespeare’s tragic heroes all have
jealousy or great ambition or
procrastination.
17. tragedy/ tragic play This is a play that deals with
problems which face a major
character, who has a character flaw
which leads to his death. The
protagonist – sometimes known as the
hero is an important person, well-
known. The tragic hero, however, has
a fatal flaw or weakness.
18. comedy This is a dramatic work which deals
humorously with characters and
themes and has a happy ending.
Human weaknesses are brought out in
such ways as to make the characters
ridiculous – in other words their
words and actions make us laugh at
them.
19. Allusion A reference to a topic, person or
incident that is related to what is
being discussed in the text. This is to
give further insight into the meaning
 of what is being discussed.
20. chorus This is an individual or group who
speaks directly to the audience about
the action of the play.
21. disguise A convention of action which offers
dramatic opportunities for characters
to say what they would otherwise be
unable to say or hear what they would
be unable to hear.
22. tragicomedy A serious play with a happy ending.
23. melodrama Plays that appeal strongly to the
emotions.
24. realism Plays that deal with serious themes
and credible characters and they
depict real, everyday situations.
25. motif One of the dominant ideas in a work
of literature; a part of the main
theme. It may consist of a character, a
recurrent image or a verbal pattern.
26. imagery As a general term, it covers the use of
language to represent objects, actions,
feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of
mind and any sensory or extra-
sensory experience.
27. symbol and symbolism It is an object, animate or inanimate,
which represents or ‘stands for’
something else. Actions and gestures
are also symbolic. For example, the
clenched fist symbolizes aggression.

STRUCTURE OF DRAMA
The term describing a play’s pattern of organization is structure. Most plays have a five- stage
structure:
1. exposition / introduction
2. complication and development
3. crisis / climax
4. falling action
5. denouement / resolution / catastrophe

In the 19th century this pattern was viewed as a pyramid:

The above organization can be observed throughout the play.

1. EXPOSITION/ INTRODUCTION: in the first part of the drama, the dramatist introduces the
play’s background, characters, situations, and conflicts. Although exposition is occasionally
through direct statements to the audience, most times it is acted out – and it is the best way to do
it. Both major and minor characters thus perform the task of exposition through dramatic
dialogue – describing situations, actions, and plans and also explaining the traits and motives of
the other characters.

2. COMPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT: in the second stage, also called the rising action,
we see the onset of difficulties that seem overwhelming and insoluble. Complication develops as
the characters try to learn answers to some of the following perplexing questions.

3. CRISIS/ CLIMAX: the uncertainty and anxiety of the complication led to the third stage, the
crisis (turning point) or climax (high point). In this third stage, all converging circumstances
compel the hero or heroine to recognise what needs to be done to resolve the play’s major
conflict. Another way of considering the crisis or climax is to define it as that point in the play
when uncertainty ends and inevitability begins.

4. FALLING ACTION: the downward shape of the pyramid is the falling action which contains
complicating elements deferring the play’s conclusion.

TONE IN LITERATURE

When you read a novel or a short story you should give some attention to the writer’s tone. Tone
refers to the writer’s attitude toward characters, setting and events. The writer’s tone might be
sympathetic, sarcastic, or impersonal. How does the writer want you to feel about the character
and the setting of his novel?
What words/ phrases help to create the tone – whether positive / negative?
Do any details suggest that something sinister might happen?
GRADE 12 & 13
LITERATURES IN ENGLISH

KEY TERMS
1. GENRE – signifies an attempt to classify literary works.
It is useful to distinguish among different ways of classifying literary works. The term genre is
used to indicate the distinction between fiction, poetry and drama. Genres can be subdivided
according to characteristics they have in common.

2. MODE –
as a literary term it is used to indicate basic literary patterns of organizing experience.
The narrative mode tells a story and organizes experience along a time continuum.
The dramatic mode presents a change, usually an abrupt one, and organizes experience
emotionally according to the rise and fall of someone’s fortunes.
The lyric mode reflects upon an experience irrespective of time and space, though it may
describe a particular time or specific place.
One may also think of modes in terms of the conclusions they draw about experience or
the dominant emotions they arouse in their presentations of experience. Such a use of the term
“mode” also has the sanction of time, and four such divisions are popularly used:
a. tragedy or tragic mode
b. comedy or comic mode
c. romance or romantic mode
d. satire or satiric mode

TRAGEDY or TRAGIC MODE: describes someone’s downfall, usually in stately language.

Tragedy exists in poetry as well as drama.

COMEDY or COMIC MODE: describes in more common language someone’s triumph or the
successful emergence of some order which encompasses and mutes all disorderly forces.

ROMANCE or ROMANTIC MODE: describes the ideal or what ought to be, often in terms of
nostalgia or fantasy or longing.

SATIRE or SATIRIC MODE: attacks the way things are and usually distribute the blame.

Northrup Frye argues that these modes correspond to the myths of the four seasons (comedy –
spring; romance – summer; tragedy – autumn; satire – winter) and thus considers them
universal ways of organizing experience.

3. CONTEXT
- the circumstances that surround the making of a literary work.
No literary work is altogether self-existent. In a sense, they create a world of their own, but every
literary work also reflects aspects of a larger world from which it derives. It is important, and
sometimes it is crucial for a reader to recognize CONTEXT. When examining a literary work,
one should look at the times and circumstances in which the literary work was written. All
matters of time and circumstances that might affect either the conception or execution of a
literary work are part of the work’s historical or cultural context.
 One has to determine exactly which factors are relevant and which are not; deciding just
what information is necessary and how to use it in order to carry out the task of good
interpretation.
Literary historians often designate periods in which cultural and aesthetic assumptions
are more or less shared:
1. The Elizabethan period (literally, 1558 – 1603, the reign of Queen Elizabeth in England)
2. The Romantic period (approximately 1790 – 1830).

Another kind of context involves individual traits of the author themselves. By reading a
group of the author’s work, the reader can develop a sense of the author’s distinctive style,
strategies and ideas. The total work of an author is called a CANON. The authorial context
may include biographical detail, psychological analysis, and specific facts about the
conditions under which the work was created.

DRAMA – A PERFORMING ART (p.288).

Drama is what is called a performing art. Plays are the most immediate, the most intense and the
most communal of all literary works. They are immediate because they are acted out in front of
an audience, intense because what is said is concentrated into a few hours and communal
because they are enjoyed and judged by a group of people who have specifically gathered to
view them.
When you are reading a play, you will have to picture for yourself all the elements that go to
make up a theatrical performance. Four areas of the theatre are:
 Atmosphere
 Staging
 Actors
 Performance

ATMOSPHERE
The play creates a particular mood or feeling. On the page a play often seems to lack
atmosphere. What you must do in order to appreciate the play is look at three aspects which
create atmosphere:
 The characters
 The actions
 The imagery

THE CHARACTERS:
You can sometimes tell what the atmosphere of a play is by looking at the characters. If there are
a number of stock characters, the play is likely to be light-hearted. If it concerns kings and
soldiers, the atmosphere is likely to be grave and serious.

THE ACTIONS:
The actions of a play create atmosphere. Plays containing murders and battles are likely to be
serious and even tragic. Eavesdropping, disguise and trickery produce an atmosphere of light-
hearted merriment.

THE IMAGERY:
Shakespeare’s plays have their own distinctive atmosphere. Each play has its own set of images.
In Shakespeare, plays are built around a family of images, which are repeated as the action
unfolds. Readers and theatre-goers often notice the recurrence of a word or image which gives a
play a particular mood or colour. (Discuss motif in literature. MOTIF refers to the tuned or
repeated lyric in a work of art having a significant meaning)

STAGING – the stage itself

Always ask: what kind of stage would be most appropriate for this play?

When you think about staging Shakespeare, it is useful to bear in mind the kind of stage for
which he wrote. (THEATRE IN THE ROUND – THE APRON STAGE)

Scenery – you should try to imagine what kind of sets would be appropriate to the atmosphere of
the play

Costume –this should be appropriate to the play. It should express the particular character of an
individual and contribute to the atmosphere of the play. Always ask – how should the characters
be dressed?
In the case of Shakespeare, it is interesting to ask about the period of the play. Therefore, you
can ask yourself: would a particular historical period be appropriate to this play?

Lighting – although lighting is a recent introduction to the theatre, it is a very powerful way of
creating atmosphere. You should always ask yourself: how should this scene be lit? The point to
remember about lighting – and also about scenery and costume – is that particular effects can
interpret the play.

ACTORS
1. You are free to imagine the kind of movements an actor makes and the kind of
groupings that would be suitable on stage.
2. You must remember that in many plays you are offered a number of opportunities. It is
very rare that a play needs to be acted in one particular way. You should also remember
that actors bring their own particular personality to bear upon a part.
3. The words of a play are a starting point for a number of different performances.
4. The actor’s size and voice should be appropriate to the character.

PERFORMANCE
When you have thought about the kind of actors that would be suitable, you can go on to
consider how the play is performed. The points to consider are:
 the effect of an actor’s presence
 the use of the pause
 the contribution of music and dance
 the effect of spectacle, ghosts and fights

- When you read a play, you will have to remind yourself that though a character is not
saying anything his or her very presence might be effective.

- In a theatre the audience is aware of pauses. When an actor stops speaking, the audience
feels that the pause indicates that either something important has or will happen. In
modern plays pauses are part of the text. However, in Shakespeare’s plays, there are no
pauses in the text. Therefore, when you study a play you have to ask: would pauses be
suitable in this scene and, if so, where?

- On stage music can have a transforming effect upon a scene, and dance adds a physical
excitement that is very difficult to convey in words. Songs should echo and contribute to
the mood of the scene. Dances are understood as expressions of harmony and concord.
Always consider what kind of dance would be suitable: rapid and lively, slow and
languid, smooth and graceful?

- SPECTACLE: when you want to talk about the total impact of words, action and
dance, a useful word to use is ‘spectacle’. Some scenes in plays demand the colour of
settings and costume, the stylised gestures of actors, the accompaniment of music, and
the excitement of dance. Such a scene is the wedding masque in ‘The Tempest.’ The
allegorical figures speak in elaborate, lyrical verse. It would be appropriate to imagine
them richly costumed, moving with delicate, stylised steps, and being accompanied by
mysterious music.
LITERATURES IN ENGLISH – DRAMA: UNIT 2

Text: ‘Antony and Cleopatra’

ASSIGNMENTS
You will be required to participate in activities and submit two pieces of writing:

1. An essay based on themes in the play (October )

2. Research findings and presentation on the forms of drama, especially tragedy,
history and the Romances as they can be applied to the prescribed play.
(November)
3. A review of the film production of the play (December , with a repeat in February
for comparative purposes)

o The research will enhance your understanding and /or interpretation

o The review: you will view a version of the play(s) being studied, and then write a critical
review on the production.
Attention should be given to various aspects of the production: set and costume design,
actor’s performance, movement and use of space, special effects (sound and lighting), and
the overall effectiveness of the film production.

o The essay aims at objectivity and a well-supported argument, informed by critical

reading.
These assignment grades will be a part of your SIX WEEKS GRADE.
Internal Assessment – See Syllabus
FIRST DRAFT – DUE DECEMBER
FINAL DRAFT – DUE FEBRUARY/ MARCH (after Easter holidays)

Nb. All due dates are subject to change.

CRITIQUING A PLAY

Present your critique in the present tense.

First, you need to summarize the play that has been viewed in parts and in its entirety.
Next, you identify the strengths of the play in terms of the following:
1. Characters (their development throughout the play). Assess their physical characteristics
and their language. Is it appropriate?
2. Dialogue- does it advance the plot and speak of the characters’status.
3. the set
4. lighting – setting and mood
5. music – the type of music used, and at what pitch
 6. costumes: do they help to develop or change the setting; do they speak to the personality
of the characters
7. Techniques and literary devices: identify them and comment on them then state how
effective they are in the performance.

Possible weaknesses could be:

 inappropriate attire of the actors
 unsuitable speech
 time to change sets
 characters on and off set
 unsequential development of the plot
 use of stage
 scene changes

General Standards for All Written Work

This is a general reminder of what makes a good essay, at least in this

course.)

1) When writing an academic essay, get to your topic swiftly you don't usually need
more than a couple of introductory sentences. Opening passages of fine writing ("Once,
in another galaxy, far, far away" or "Throughout the history of humankind, blah blah
blah") are boring and waste space. You may need to draft such a passage to get your
mental wheels turning, but it can usually be condensed or cut altogether once you know
what you are really writing about.

2) Somewhere in the opening paragraph, there should be a thesis statement. A thesis

statement not only announces your topic but also makes a significant statement about
that topic. Some examples:

a) "York is the most interesting character in Richard II."

"Political issues are important in Richard II."
Both of these are poor: they make no statement. They give me no idea what I'm going to
be persuaded to believe. Probably not much; it'll just be random chatter decorated with
quotations, perhaps with a bright idea popping up occasionally.
b) "York embodies the values of the old nobility."
"In Richard II, Shakespeare upholds the idea of the divine right of kings."
These are better theses: they make definite statements. They are, however, rather simple
ideas. In fact, in my judgment, each is a half-truth. Each will produce, at best, a B/B-
paper, OK so far as it goes but not plumbing the character or the play very deeply.
c) "In York, Shakespeare combines earnest nobility with ludicrous comedy."
"In Richard II, the theory of divine right collides with the practical facts about a
misguided king to produce an insoluble political dilemma."
Now these are interesting theses: each has some tension, some resistance, some internal
pull and contrast. The reader can foresee not only the substance but also the structure of
the paper: it will (in some proportion or other) be divided between two lines of
argument that will qualify each other and pose a significant problem about how to
conclude the paper.
Many students cannot formulate a good thesis statement until fairly late in the process
of working on the paper. They know what they're interested in, they gather material,
they arrange notes, they write commentary on particularly quotable passages, they
draft a few paragraphs and maybe the whole paper but only in revision do they see
how it all comes together. (It's hard to come up with a good thesis if you've left the
whole job till the night before deadline.)

3) There should be a conclusion that is not just a restatement of the opening thesis.
(Forget what they told you in high school. They merely wanted to make sure your
flighty young mind stayed on the same subject throughout the whole essay.) A paper
should get somewhere, should conclude by placing the matter discussed into some
larger context, e.g. some major issue raised by the play, or the power or design of the
play as a whole, or the artistry or interests of the playwright, or an aspect of Elizabethan
thought, or art in general, or life.

4) Avoid plot summary. Assume your readers have read the play: they doesn't need to
be told the story. If you find yourself writing several sentences that merely summarize
events, you are going astray. We may need to be reminded of a plot detail at a moment
when that detail is important for your case, when, for example, you jump from
generalizations to a specific moment in the action, or from the middle of Act 1 to the
middle of Act 4. In such cases it helps if you make such reminders grammatically
subordinate: e.g. not "Richard hands the crown to Bolingbroke in the deposition
scene," but "When Richard hands the crown to Bolingbroke, he turns what could have
been a simple gesture of surrender into an elaborate ceremony of decoronation." The
main clause is your analytic statement the plot reminder lurks in adverbial
subordination.

5) The main thread of a good paper is analytic: try not to

let description or summary usurp the place of analysis. Such usurpation often happens
in papers about ideas and themes: the student says that the play is about X, and then
merely summarizes the scenes and paraphrases the speeches in which the characters
discuss X. To analyze you must ask questions. Why did the playwright give a certain
personality to a character, arrange for a particular incident, put one scene right next to
another or make one scene late in the play echo one early in the play, use these
particular words or metaphors, write a very long (or very short) speech at this moment?
How do these playwriting choices give fuller expression to idea X? The elements of a
play not only have particular natures that the critic must point out; they also have
particular functions in the design, economy, and effect of the scene or the play as a
whole.

6) Try to use your quotations thoroughly. A good critic quotes, not just for decoration
or factual support, but because there is something about those particular words some
word choice, metaphor, rhythm, placement, implication, allusion, echo or contradiction
of a previous line some quality that you proceed to point out that develops and
refines the analysis you are making. Let me stress this again: as more and more of you
are intelligently interested in big subjects like values and gender and power and
representation, you tend to forget about the words. The words are not mere
transparent signifiers. Their choice and placement in relation to each other are, with
good writers, the result of conscious thought and have effects both powerful and subtle.
A good critic asks why these words and arrangements were chosen, what effect they
have. The first exercise in this course was designed to increase your awareness of the
local texture of the writing. Now you can put your developed awareness to use.

7) Quotations from the plays should be acknowledged by the parenthetical use of the
act, scene and line numbers (not the page numbers) of the Norton edition. The older
practice was to use Roman numerals: Arabic is now customary. If you quote the tenth
and eleventh lines of act five, scene two, you put (5.2.10-11) after the quotation. It's
easier for you and for the reader if you put this parenthetical acknowledgement in your
main text not in a footnote, after the quotation or at the end of your sentence
containing the quoted words. If you are not using Norton, tell the reader what edition
you are using in a footnote to your first quotation. (Line numbers vary from one edition
to another, especially in prose scenes, and editors make different decisions about the
exact wording of the text in places where the earliest editions have mistakes or
conflicts.) The point is to make it easy for the reader to check the lines, to reread them in
context.

8) Other borrowings (whether word-for-word quotations or paraphrases or summaries)

from outside sources, the reserve books, etc. should be acknowledged in accordance
with the standard rules about plagiarism. You must acknowledge your indebtedness,
whether it is strictly verbal or a matter of a general idea. If you are uncertain how to do
this, see the Dartmouth publication, Sources: Their Use and Acknowledgment. If you
have lost your copy, get one from the dean's office.
Dartmouth courses differ as to whether collaboration among students is permitted. This
course encourages students to talk with one another, to discuss Shakespeare on their
own time and help each other develop ideas, even to read over a classmate's paper to
help him/her know whether the ideas are clear. One of the good things about
Shakespeare is that he provokes discussion. But there are no collaborative projects in
this course. Each paper is expected to be the student's own work, except where
acknowledged by footnotes, which can include the acknowledgement that "My
roommate George Spelvin '00 helped me develop this idea in this paragraph." When
student papers reduplicate one another, the reader naturally suspects some form of
dishonesty. (This is one of the troubles with papers partly or wholly reproduced from
disks in fraternity files. In a recent term two students turned in Shakespeare papers that
were 80% identical: it was eventually demonstrated that neither student had written the
paper, though neither had known that the other was using the same source. Both left
Dartmouth for a very lengthy time.)

9) Number your own pages, either on the processor or by hand. You have no idea how
frequently papers come in with pages out of order.

10) When mentioning the title of a play, underline it, put it in bold, or put it in italics.
Don't put it in quotation marks.
Text 2: ‘An Echo in the Bone’ by Dennis Scott

GROUP PRESENTATIONS
(3 -4 persons per group unless otherwise stated)

The following activities have been selected based on the fact that people have different
intelligences. The objectives are: to encourage an appreciation of and a personal response to
literature, and to develop the ability to discern and grasp attitudes, values, feelings, and ideas
illustrated in dramatic works.

1. ROLE PLAY a selected scene/ scenes in the play, ‘An Echo in the Bone’ .
2. PANEL DISCUSSION: create a setting in which you will discuss the different contexts
in which the play can be analyzed (social, political, ethnical, religious, etc.)
3. ARTISTIC PRESENTATION: create models of masks that could be used to symbolize
the characters Rachel, Crew, Jacko, Son Son, Dreamboat, Madam and so on .Explain the
choice of these masks to the class with a valid explanation for its features, etc.
4. MIMING GAME: Each member in the group will become a character in the play. He or
she will use only gestures, body language, facial expression, costume, etc. but no words
to emulate that character. The class will guess which character you are depicting. A
discussion will follow on the background preparation for the game.
5. Create a ‘DEAR PASTOR’ PROGRAMME: The pastor will listen to Rachel, Madam,
Lally and Brigit. This will be a dramatic presentation.
6. Create a song or jingle to summarize the play or an act in the play. The lyrics and an
audio version must be presented to the class. A discussion will follow. A live
performance of the song or jingle is optional.
7. Create a literature scrabble board game: build a board game or use a regular scrabble
board. Design a word list that is peculiar to elements of drama, features of drama,
synonyms and /or antonyms used in the play, puns, characters, settings and themes in ‘An
Echo in the Bone’.
8. Create a crossword puzzle based on clues from the prescribed text.
9. Create mathematical questions to solve problems in the text. You are going to use
numbers to represent people and /or situations in the play. A key will have to be made.
10. MAKING PREDICTIONS OR THINKING AHEAD: These are a group of ‘what if’
questions that will be answered by the group.
 What if Crew succumbed to the whiteman? What would be the outcome of the
plot?
  What if Rachel had not met Mass Charlie before her deceased husband? Would
their relationship be any different?
 What if Scott did not include Crew’s sons in the play? How different would the
play be?
 What if some of the blacks had decided to fight from the beginning? Can Crew’s
death be counted as being successful in the end?

THE STUDY OF DRAMA

The analytical process:

DRAMATIC DEVICES/ TECHNIQUES

1. stage directions – outline characterization and setting
2. Use of contrast (in terms of characters, setting, scenes, etc.)
3. the use of space
4. parallelism of scenes
5. use of props
6. language – prose vs. verse (shifting focus and perspective by slipping from verse to prose
and back again)
7. use of varied sentence structures: simple/short, complex, compound
8. flashback (past to present)
9. verbal wit
10. immediate juxtaposition
11. dramatic irony
12. soliloquies and asides
13. mixing laughter and passion
14. use of the popular clown
15. exploiting the double value implicit in boy actors playing the parts of girls
16. masks
17. music
18. dance
19. interior monologue

DRAMATIC SIGNIFICANCE
When asked: what is the dramatic significance of a play or an extract of a play, comment on the
following: \
 plot (sequence of the events)
 Images (appeal to the senses; figurative devices)
 thematic issues and concerns (what is the message the writer is sending to his audience)
 structure and symbols (organization and representation)
 atmosphere and setting (place, time- physical, social, historical, atmosphere – mood,
feelings, emotions)
 character, characterisation, conflict, contrast
  parallels and foils
 visual spectacle and auditory impact

How does sound/music, lighting, and symbols point out the larger issues in the play for the
audience and reader?
 Projected images(visual images and words) Does the image juxtapose the fictional and
real in order to heighten the audience’s understanding of the enormity of the issues the
writer wishes to present?
 Music: link to the actions of the play. It links the actions of the present, the memories of
the past, the reality of the past and the officially sanctioned versions of the past. Pay
special attention to the dramatic action occurring on stage and any slides that are
projected onto the screen during the music. The playwright’s concerns and issues are
communicated through the music. In Death of a Salesman, Arthur Miller uses not only
music, but also lighting arrangements and scenic changes to highlight Willy’s
reminiscing. The central issue is that Willy’s downfall in life comes because he resists
facing the truth about his past and his current situation. Hence, he refuses to change and
so the sad/solemn melody continues to be heard and the flute plays on. Sound can be
categorized into two actions: hearing (aural) and silence.
 Lighting: spotlights and darkness – what is the playwright’s meaning?
 Humour: note what the historical and social context of the play is. Then note how the
power of the human spirit to laugh at adversity or serious situations/circumstances. The
playwright often juxtaposes moments of comic vents with the horrors of the memories of
the reality. In ‘The Tempest’, the comic relief comes in Act II Scene 2 when Trinculo, the
court jester enters the scene, followed by Stephano, the clownish character described as a
“drunken butler”.
 Symbols: what do certain objects/things represent in the play? How do they tell the story
of the issues in the play? Symbols are known as the objects, characters, figures, or
colours used to represent ideas, issues, or concepts. In Death of a Salesman, the suitcases,
the car, seeds, diamonds, the stockings, the fountain pen, and the rubber hose all
represent various concepts/issues. Willy Loman symbolises a version of the American
Dream in which it promises a land of freedom with opportunity and equality for all.
Willy’s death is symbolic of the breakdown of the whole concept of salesmanship
inherent in the American society. While in ‘The Tempest’, Prospero, his robe, wand, and
his books represent power and the supernatural. Also, the tempest/storm, the wooden
bottle/barrel of wine, etc. represent something.