CHAPTER I That which is good is

described as moral;
The Study of Ethics
That which is bad is
immoral, and

ETHICS - is a system of principles that That which is indifferent is

helps us tell right from wrong, good amoral.
from bad.
HUMAN ACTS- are those actions which
- is a set of rules that define man performs knowingly, freely and
right from wrong. voluntarily. Ex. Murder and stealing.

- a social science which deals ACT OF MAN- are those actions that are
with concepts such as right or involuntary and unintentional. Ex.
wrong, moral or immoral, Breathing, beating of the heart.
good or bad behavior dealing
with one another. REQUISITES OF HUMAN ACT

- the art of correct living. • Knowingly- it must be

performed by a conscious
Importance of Ethics person who is aware of what he
is doing and of its
• Ethics is an indispensable consequences.
knowledge. Without moral • Freely- it must be performed by
perception man is an animal. a person who is acting freely,
Without morality, man as a that is, by his own volition and
rational being is a failure. powers.
• Voluntarily- it must be
ETHOS “customs” or “character” in performed by a person who
Greek. decides willfully to perform the
act. Intentionally/deliberately
Today ETHOS refer to the done.
practices and values that
distinguish one person, or
society from others.
TWO ETHICAL THEORIES
MORAL- a principle that govern right
or wrong. 1. Atheistic approach- that there is no
GOD.
Ex. Ten Commandments, Thou 2. Theistic approach- that there is
shall not kill. GOD.

MORALITY- the quality of human acts THREE IMPERATIVE OF ETHICS

by which they are constituted as good,
bad, or indifferent. 1. The existence of GOD.
 2. The ability to determine what is done against one’s free will is not a
right and wrong. voluntary action.
3. That there is life after death, the 3. An act is done willfully when the doer
immortality of the soul. consents to the act, accepting it as his
own, and assumes accountability for its
REQUISITES OF THE PRINCIPLE OF consequences.
DOUBLE EFFECT
KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS
1. The action which produces double
Human acts are either elicited or commanded
effects must be good in itself, or at
least morally indifferent. acts
2. The good effect must not come ELICITED ACTS- are those performed by the
from the evil effect. To do evil in
Will but are not externalized such as the
order to achieve something good is
following:
not justified.
3. The motive of the doer/actor must
be towards the attainment of the 1. Intention- the tendency of the Will
good. The evil effect is permitted towards an object which is attainable,
only as an incidental. without necessarily committing oneself
4. The good effect must outweigh to get it.
the evil result in its importance. 2. Fruition- the enjoyment of the Will due
to the attainment of the intention.
3. Wish- the tendency of the will towards
CHAPTER II an object without considering whether
it is attainable or not.
The Human Acts 4. Election- the selection of the Will of
those means necessary to carry out the
intention.
HUMAN ACTS- are those performed by a 5. Consent- the acceptance of the Will to
person who is acting knowingly, freely, and carry out the intention.
willfully. 6. Use- the command of the Will to make
use of the means elected to carry out
These actions are deliberate, the intention.
intentional or voluntary.
COMMANDED ACTS- are the mental and bodily
1. An act is done knowingly when the actions performed under the command of the
doer/actor is conscious and aware of Will. These are internal or external actions.
the reason and the consequences of his INTERNAL ACTIONS- are those performed
actions. Every normal person of age are mentaly.
presumed to act knowingly. Children
below the age of reason, the insane- EXTERNAL ACTIONS- are those performed
are considered incapable of moral bodily.
judgment.
On the basis of their conformity or non-
2. An act is done freely when the doer
conformity with the norms of morality,
acts without being force to do so by
HUMAN ACTS are either moral, immoral,
another person or situation. An action
amoral.
MORAL ACTIONS- those in conformity with the POSITIVE- when the act requires the
norm of morality. performance of an activity.

IMMORAL ACTIONS- those which are not in NEGATIVE- when it requires the
conformity with the norms of morality. omission of an activity.

AMORAL ACTIONS- those which stands neutral • DIRECTLY voluntary- the result of an act
or indifferent to the norm of morality. These which is primarily intended.
are acts either good or evil, but may become • INDIRECTLY voluntary- the result of an
evil because of circumstances. act which follows or goes along with
primarily intended
IMMORAL ACTS are either intrinsically or
extrinsically evil. The Significance of Human Act

INTRISICALLY EVIL- when its wrongfulness is - Because human acts comes from the
part of the nature. intellect and the will, they express the
thought and desire, revealing his moral
EXTRINSICALLY- when its wrongfulness comes character. Hence, people are judge by
from an outside factor. their actions.

VOLUNTARINESS- act done under the control of LESSON THREE

the will
MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY
VOLUNTARINESS is either perfect or imperfect,
either simple or conditional

The Subject of Human Acts

1. PERFECT voluntariness- is possessed by Q. Who are subject of human acts?

a person who is acting full knowledge
and complete freedom. EX. Eating your A. Any person
favorite food.
2. IMPERFECT voluntariness- is possessed Business organizations, institutions,
by a person who acts without full associations, or unions which are
understanding what he is doing or constituted by law as juridical person
without complete freedom. EX. When are also subject of human acts.
we perform an act we dislike.
3. SIMPLE voluntariness- is the disposition
of a person performing any activity
regardless of his liking or not liking. MOFIFIERS of HUMAN ACT- are factors
4. CONDITIONAL voluntariness- is a that influence man’s disposition
disposition of a person who is forced by towards certain actions.
circumstances.
The following are the modifiers of the human
• SIMPLE VOLUNTARINESS is either act:
positive or negative
1. Ignorance
2. Passion- a strong feeling, affection suspects that the food he is serving has
and sentiment been poison has MORAL OBLIGATION to
ascertain the fact or, at least, forewarn
3. Fear the guest about it.

4. Violence Affected ignorance- a vincible

ignorance which is intentionally kept in
5. Habits- is something that person an effort to escape responsibility. Ex. An
does often or regularly. Ex. The habit of employee acts with affected ignorance
going for a walk before bed. when he refuses to heed the instruction
of his supervisor.

2.FEAR- the disturbance of the mind of

1.Ignorance- is the absence of a person who is confronted by
knowledge which a person ought to impending danger or harm to himself or
have/possess. loved ones.

A lawyer is expected to know the law, a Distinction however should be made

doctor to cure the illness. between an act done with fear and an
act done out or because of fear.
In the realm of morals, everyone
normal person is expected to know the 3.VIOLENCE- refers to physical force
general norms of proper conduct and exerted on a person by another force
behavior. agent for the

1. IGNORANCE is either purpose of compelling said person to

act against his will.
a)Vincible ignorance- is one which can
be easily corrected through ordinary 4.HABITS- is something that person
diligence. does often in a regularly way. When a
person decides to fight his habit, and as
A person cannot be held morally liable long as the effort towards the purpose
if he is not aware of his state of continues, actions from such habit may
ignorance. A waiter who is not aware be regarded as ACT OF MAN and not
that the food he is serving has been accountable.
poisoned cannot be held for murder.
5.PASSION or CONCUPISCENE- a strong
b)Invincible ignorance- is one which is feeling, affection and sentiment
not easily remedied, because the
person is either not aware of his state
of ignorance, or, being aware of it, does
not have the means to correct such
ignorance. A person who becomes
aware of the state of ignorance he is in
is has the moral obligation to correct it
by exercising reasonable diligence
(persistent effort). A waiter who
Lesson IV something else. The attainment of an
ultimate end completes an act and
THE ENDS of the HUMAN ACT stops all further acts. The attainment of
an immediate end leads either to
another intermediate end or to an
ultimate end
END- is the purpose or goal of an act
4.Intermediate end- is the purpose
END OF THE ACT- is the natural which is desired as a means of obtaining
termination of an activity another thing

The end of eating is nourishment A student may assign his graduation as

an ultimate end. The intemediate end,
Reading is comprehension in this case, would consist in all
activities leading towards graduation,
such as attending his/her classes, taking
exams, participating in recitation, and
END of the DOER- is the personal so on.
purpose intended by the person
performing the act.

The end of the doer is called the KINDS OF GOOD

motive. The reason why a person
performs an act. 1.Essential good- Those that fits the
natural needs of mam as man. Such as
He who eats aims to satisfy his hunger food, shelter, and health.

A basketball player to win the game 2.Accidental good- Those that fit the
wants of an individual. Such as power,
academic degree, money and luxury

KINDS OF ENDS Essential good is also called perfective

good because they contribute to
1.Proximate end- is the purpose which integral perfection of man.
the doer wishes to accomplish
immediately by his action Accidental good are called non-
perfective because they merely
2.Remote end- is the purpose which the contribute to the external worth or
doer wishes to accomplish in a series of appearance of a person.
acts.
3.Real good- is something which has
The proximate end of eating is the intrinsic value. It possesses qualities
satisfaction of hunger. The remote end rendering it fitting or desirable. Such as
is the promotion of health good acts and habits

3.Ultimate end- is the purpose which is 4.Apparent good- Evil viewed as good.
desired for its own sake and not of An evil thing but is viewed as good
under certain circumstances. Such as DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY- are
diseases, death, and crime. the basis for judging whether an act

5.Perfect good- is that which contribute is good or evil, moral or immoral.

to the integral perfection of a person.
Such as education, food, exercise, and
medicine
They are the following:
6.Non-perfective- that which merely
contribute to the external appearance
or convenience of a person. Such as
clothes, political power, and wealth The end of the act itself

7.Perfect good- has the fullness of The end of the doer

qualities enabling it to fully satisfy
human desire. Also called as absolute The circumstances of the act
and relatives goods. Only God, in the
absolute sense, is perfect good. #1. The END OF THE ACT is the natural
termination or completion of an act.
8.Imperfect good- it does fully satisfy
human desire. All earthly goods are The end of the act of drinking is
imperfect. appeasing your thirst, the end of
medication is curing illness.
In the language of philosophers, the
greatest good is the Summun Bonum The end of the act determines whether
an act is intrinsically or extrinsically
For Aristotle, the greatest good is good or evil.
happiness
Any act which is consistent to reason is
intrinsically good. But those that
contrary to reason are intrinsically evil,
such as murder, rape, and kidnapping.

DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY Actions which are neutral or indifferent

to the norm of morality are extrinsically
LESSON V good or bad. These actions are either
good or bad, not on account of their
nature, but because of factors or
circumstances surrounding it.
A human act, in order to be morally
acceptable, must be perfect in all EX. The act of eating is an amoral act
aspect and is either morally good or bad. But
either over-eating or excessive dieting
could be unhealthy and therefore,
morally objectionable.
THE DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY
Actions which are intrinsically evil are make for a dangerous combination. Ex.
prohibited at all times. Actions which Stealing in order to buy “shabu” means
are extrinsically evil may be permitted double trouble.
when the factors which renders them
evil are removed or corrected. 2.A good action done on account of an
evil motive becomes evil itself. This
means that something nice and sweet
may turn ugly and sour because of a
It is fact that some actions entails pain bad motive. Ex. Don’t be hypocrite!
or suffering, while some do bring
pleasure to their doers. Pain or pleasure 3.A good action done on account of
do not define whether an act is moral good purpose acquires an additional
or immoral. For example, SEXUAL ACT, merit. This means you go ahead and do
could either be moral or immoral the right thing. You can never go wrong
regardless whether painful or on this one.
pleasurable
4.An indifferent act may either become
#2. The END OF THE DOER is the good or bad depending on the motive.
purpose or motive which the doer You be careful of what you eat or what
wishes to accomplish by his action. you say.
Without motive, an act is accidental or
involuntary. A good motive is truthful,
prudent, and just.
#3. CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE ACT are
“ The End does not justify the Means” it the historical elements surrounding the
affirms that one should not do wrong commission of an act. Such as, WHO,
means in order to attain a good WHAT, WHERE, WITH WHOM, WHY,
purpose (end). The motive of a person, HOW, and WHERE.
no matter how noble, does not excuse
an act which is intrinsically evil. For
example, the desire to pass a subject
does not justify a student who cheats in WHO- refers to the doer of the act. It
the examination. Likewise, the need to has to do with the age, status, relation,
feed the family does not justify stealing. social standing and economic situation.

THE RULE IS….. do not do wrong even if a) The insane, children below the age of
this will result in something good. reason are incapable of voluntary acts
and are not morally accountable.

b) Educated persons have greater

MOTIVE and ACTION accountability than those with less or
without education.

c) Person constituted with authority

1.An act which is done on account of have accountability for actions of those
evil motive is grievously wrong. In other under him. This is the meaning of
words, a bad action and wrong motive command responsibility.
WHAT refers to the act itself, or to the RELEVANCE OF LAWS
quality and quantity of the result of
such act. Ex. In robbery, what is stolen Laws mandates some actions
and how much is stolen are aggravating are prohibited and others are permitted
factors. and acquired.

WHERE refers to the place where the May therefore consider laws are
act is committed. A crime committed determinants of human behavior.
inside a church is more scandalous than
that in secluded place.

WITH WHOM refers to the companion DEFINITION OF LAW

or accomplices. The more people are
involved in the commission of an act,
the more serious is the crime.
LAW is an ordinance of reason,
WHY refers to the motive of the doer. promulgated for the common good by
Act of vengeance one who has charge of society

HOW refers to the manner the act is ELEMENTS

perpetuated. Murder committed with
much cruelty is a heinous crime. 1.Ordinance of reason- because they
are the result of serious study and
deliberation.

WHEN refers to the time of the act. A 2.Promulgated- they are made known
murder committed when the victim is to the people
more offensive than the one done
when the victim is awake. 3.For the common good- for the
general welfare of the people

4.Enacted who has charge of the

THE MORALLY GOOD ACT society- only those who have legitimate
authority to govern may pass a law
A morally good act is that which is
sound in all aspects… in its nature,
motive, and circumstances.
KINDS OF LAW
A morally good action, therefore, is a
just act. “makatarungan” 1.Divine positive law- are those made
known to men by God. EX. Ten
Commandments
2.Human positive law- those made by
legitimate authorities such as, the laws
enacted by the state

3.Affirmative law- are those that

requires performance of an act. Ex.
Paying taxes

4.Negative law- those that prohibit the

performance of act. EX. No smoking in
public places.

CHARACTERISTIC OF A HUMAN LAW

1.It must conform with the divine laws.

No human authority can contradict
God’s will.

2.Promote common good- for the good

of the many

3.Must not discriminate against certain

individuals or group- The law applies to
all whether you rich or poor.

4.Must be practicable- it must impose

hardship and sacrifices in its compliance

5.Must be flexible- it must provide

limits. They are made for the benefit of
the people and not for his destruction.

6.Must be amendable- it must be

changeable