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MPPT Tecnicas.
MPPT Tecnicas.
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The photovoltaic (PV) system is one of the renewable energies that attract the attention of researchers in the
Received 23 February 2013 recent decades. The PV generators exhibit nonlinear I–V and P–V characteristics. The maximum power
Accepted 7 May 2013 produced varies with both irradiance and temperature. Since the conversion efficiency of PV arrays is very low,
Available online 26 June 2013
it requires maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control techniques. The maximum power point tracking
Keywords: (MPPT) is the automatic control algorithm to adjust the power interfaces and achieve the greatest possible
MPPT power harvest, during moment to moment variations of light level, shading, temperature, and photovoltaic
PV module characteristics. The purpose of the MPPT is to adjust the solar operating voltage close to the MPP under
Tracking factor for MPP changing atmospheric conditions. It has become an essential component to evaluate the design performance of
Fuzzy logic controller
PV power systems. This investigation aims to assess different MPPT techniques, provide background knowl-
Incremental conductance
edge, implementation topology, grid interconnection of PV and solar microinverter requirements presented in
Perturb and observe
Neural network the literature, doing depth comparisons between them with a brief discussion. The MPPT merits, demerits and
classification, which can be used as a reference for future research related to optimizing the solar power
generation, are also discussed. Conventional methods are easy to implement but they suffer from oscillations at
MPP and tracking speed is less due to fixed perturb step. Intelligent methods are efficient; oscillations are lesser
at MPP in steady state and tracked quickly in comparison to conventional methods.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
2. Maximum power point tracker (MPPT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
2.1. Problem overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
2.2. MPPT techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
3. Grid connection in urban areas/microinverter requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.022
794 M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813
that it was directed to the middle of the sun trajectory during the
next time interval. For south facing fixed tilted array, it has been
found that, the two step tracking configuration produced about
95% of energy to that of continuously tracking system around solar
noon. It was also observed that, the tilt of a south facing array be
optimized to provide more energy during certain months of the
year. A solar PV system could be designed for its optimum output
using the contour plots constructed on the basis of monthly
energy outputs for different panel tilt angles.
Chander et al. [3] observed that about 36% higher annual
energy output could be obtained with a dual axis tracking as
compared to fixed latitude tilted PV system. They developed a
theoretical model to estimate the annual PV energy output from
the array at a given location for any arbitrary orientation, and its
results was comparable with experimental results. Ramamurthy
et al. [4] observed that, a single tracking of PV panel yielded 25%
more energy per day and two axis tracking 35% more energy per
day compared to panels at fixed tilt throughout the day. Fig. 1. PV current versus voltage characteristic.
Snyman and Enslin [5] studied a novel technique for the
improvement of power conversion efficiencies in PV systems with
battery backup. This technique embraces a maximum power point
tracker (MPPT) in series with the PV array and the battery in such
a way that the array current flows through the MPPT and the
battery. The current rating of the MPPT must be at least equal to
the short circuit of the array and the voltage rating must be at
least equal to the open circuit voltage minus the battery voltage.
This technique enables PV system designers to use the highest
possible array voltage and the smallest possible battery (reduction
battery cost).
Fig. 3. (a) PV array voltage–current at 40 1C at different irradiance levels and (b) PV array voltage–current at 50 1C at different irradiance levels.
d(t)
BetaRef
Sub PI
IPV(t)
Divider In
Sub
VPV(t)
Gain
useful if temperature is approximately constant. Most techniques cycle of perturbation in order to force the operating point
would automatically respond to changes in the array due to aging, moving towards the MPP. When PV power increases and PV
though some are open-loop and would require periodic fine- voltage decreases and vice versa, the perturbation step will
tuning. In our context, the array will typically be connected to a be subtracted for the next cycle of perturbation [42].
power converter that can vary the current coming from the This process will be carried on continuously until MPP is
PV array. reached.
It should be noted that, the system will oscillate around the
2.2. MPPT techniques MPP throughout this process, and this will result in loss of
energy. Therefore, reducing the perturbation step size will
The different techniques of MPPT are described briefly as minimize these oscillations but it slows down the MPP
follows: tracking system [40,41].
Fig. 9 shows the configurations of MPPT algorithms in
(i) Fixed duty cycle Simulink according to the flow chart of P&O method
The fixed duty cycle represents the simplest of the methods explained in Fig. 8.
and it does not require any feedback, where the load The most basic form of the P&O algorithm operates as
impedance is adjusted only once for the maximum power follows. Consider Fig. 10, which shows a family of PV array
point and it is not adjusted again. power curves as a function of voltage (P–V curves), at
(ii) Beta method different irradiance (G) levels, for uniform irradiance and
The Beta method is the approximation of the point of constant temperature. As previously described, these curves
maximum power through the equation of an intermediate have global maxima at the MPP. Assume the PV array to be
variable β. operating at point A in Fig. 10, which is far from the MPP.
In the P&O algorithm, the operating voltage of the PV array is
I PV
β ¼ ln −cV PV ð1Þ perturbed by a small increment, and the resulting change in
V PV
power, ΔP, is measured. If ΔP is positive, then the perturbation
where c¼ q/(s K.T.Ns) is a constant that depends on the of the operating voltage moved the PV array's operating point
electron charge, the quality factor of the junction panel, the closer to the MPP. Thus, further voltage perturbations in the
Boltzmann constant, temperature and amount of photovol- same direction (that is, with the same algebraic sign) should
taic cells in series [19]. As the operating conditions change, move the operating point toward the MPP. If ΔP is negative, the
the value of β at the optimum point remains almost system operating point has moved away from the MPP, and the
constant. Thus, β can be continuously calculated using the algebraic sign of the perturbation should be reversed to move
voltage and current of the panel and inserted on a conven- back toward the MPP.
tional closed loop with constant reference, as shown in The advantages of this algorithm, as stated before, are simplicity
Fig. 7. and ease of implementation. However, P&O has limitations that
(iii) Hill climbing/perturb and observe reduce its MPPT efficiency. One such limitation is that as the
There are several authors focus their work on hill climbing amount of sunlight decreases, the P–V curve flattens out, as
[20–25], while others focus on perturb and observe (P&O) seen in Fig. 10. This makes it difficult for the MPPT to discern
[26–36] methods. Hill climbing involves a perturbation in the location of the MPP, owing to the small change in power
the duty ratio of the power converter, and P&O a perturba- with respect to the perturbation of the voltage. Another
tion in the operating voltage of the PV array. In the case of a fundamental drawback of P&O is that it cannot determine
PV array connected to a power converter, perturbing the when it has actually reached the MPP. Instead, it oscillates
duty ratio of power converter perturbs the PV array current around the MPP, changing the sign of the perturbation after
and consequently perturbs the PV array voltage. Hill climb- each ΔP measurement. Also, it has been shown that P&O can
ing and P&O methods are different ways to envision the exhibit erratic behavior under rapidly changing irradiance levels
same fundamental method. [38]. Fig. 11 shows a close-up view of the solar array P–V
The perturb and observe (P&O) algorithm is the most characteristic near the MPP. Consider the case in which the
commonly used in practice because of its ease of imple- irradiance is such that it generates P–V curve 1 in Fig. 11. The
mentation [37]. Fig. 8 shows the flow chart of P&O method. MPPT is oscillating around the MPP from point B to A to C to A
It perturbs the PV array's terminal voltage periodically, and and so on. Then, assume the irradiance increases and the P–V
then it compares the PV output power with that of the curve of the array moves to curve 2. If, during the rapid increase
previous cycle of perturbation [38–41]. in solar irradiance and output power, the MPPT was perturbing
As shown in Fig. 8, when PV power and PV voltage increase the operating point from point A to point B, the MPPT would
at the same time and vice versa, a perturbation step size, ΔD actually move from A to D. As seen in Fig. 11, this result in a
will be added to the duty cycle, D to generate the next positive ΔP, and the MPPT will continue perturbing in the same
M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813 797
Fig. 9. Configurations of MPPT algorithms in Simulink for perturb and observe (P&O) MPPT algorithm [21].
Fig. 11. Illustration of erratic behavior of P&O under rapidly increasing irradiance
direction, toward point F. If the irradiance is still rapidly [18].
increasing, the PV power curve will move to G on curve
3 instead of to F on curve 2. Again the MPPT will see a positive
ΔP and will assume it is moving toward the MPP, continuing to
perturb to point I. From points A to D to G to I the MPPT is Table 2
Summary of hill climbing and P&O algorithm [44].
continually moving away from the MPP, decreasing the effi-
ciency of the P&O algorithm. This situation can occur on partly Perturbation Charge in power Next perturbation
cloudy days, when MPP tracking is most difficult, owing to the
frequent movement of the MPP. Positive Positive Positive
There are several improvements of the P&O algorithm have Positive Negative Negative
Negative Positive Negative
been proposed, and one of the simplest entails the addition of a Negative Negative Positive
‘waiting’ function that causes a momentary cessation of
798 M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813
perturbations if the algebraic sign of the perturbation is constant, a perturbation ΔV in the PV voltage V will bring the
reversed several times in a row, indicating that the MPP has operating point to B and the perturbation will be reversed due
been reached. This reduces the oscillation about the MPP in the to a decrease in power. However, if the irradiance increases and
steady state and improves the algorithm’s efficiency under shifts the power curve from P1 to P2 within one sampling
constant irradiance conditions. However, it also makes the period, the operating point will move from A to C.
MPPT slower to respond to changing atmospheric conditions, This represents an increase in power and the perturbation is
worsening the erratic behavior on partly cloudy days. Another kept the same. Consequently, the operating point diverges from
modification involves measuring the array’s power P1 at array the MPP and will keep diverging if the irradiance steadily
voltage V1, perturbing the voltage and again measuring the increases. To ensure that the MPP is tracked even under sudden
array’s power, P2, at the new array voltage V2, and then changes in irradiance, Hsiao and Chen [46], use a three-point
changing the voltage back to its previous value and re- weight comparison P&O method that compares the actual
measuring the array’s power, P1′, at V1. From the two measure- power point to two preceding ones before a decision is made
ments at V1, the algorithm can determine whether the irra- about the perturbation sign. Femia et al [33], have been
diance is changing. Again, as with the previous modifications, optimized the sampling, while in [35], simply a high sampling
increasing the number of samples of the array's power slows rate is used. Xiao and Dunford [25], have introduced a toggling
the algorithm down. Also, it is possible to use the two between the traditional hill climbing algorithm and a modified
measurements at V1 to make an estimate of how much the adaptive hill climbing mechanism to prevent deviation from
irradiance has changed between sampling periods, and to use the MPP.
this estimate in deciding how to perturb the operating point. Kasa et al. [36] estimated the PV array current from the PV array
This, however increases the complexity of the algorithm, and voltage, eliminating the need for a current sensor. Digital signal
also slows the operation of the MPPT [18]. processor (DSP) or microcomputer control is more suitable for
From Fig. 6, it can be seen that incrementing (decrementing) hill climbing and P&O even though discrete analog and digital
the voltage increases (decreases) the power when operating on circuitry can be used as in [21].
the left of the MPP and decreases (increases) the power when (iv) Incremental conductance
on the right of the MPP. Therefore, if there is an increase in The incremental conductance (IncCond) algorithm is deri-
power, the subsequent perturbation should be kept the same to ved by differentiating the PV array power with respect to
reach the MPP and if there is a decrease in power, the voltage and setting the result equal to zero [49]. This is
perturbation should be reversed. This algorithm is summarized shown in the following equation:
in Table 2. dP dðV IÞ dI
D’Souza et al. [35], pointed out that the algorithm also works ¼ ¼IþV ¼ 0 at the MPP ð2Þ
dV dV dV
when instantaneous (instead of average) PV array voltage and
current are used, as long as sampling occurs only once in each Rearranging Eq. (2) gives
switching cycle. The process is repeated periodically until the I dI
− ¼ ð3Þ
MPP is reached. The system then oscillates about the MPP. The V dV
oscillation can be minimized by reducing the perturbation step Note that the left-hand side of Eq. (3) represents the
size. However, a smaller perturbation size slows down the opposite of the PV array’s instantaneous conductance, while
MPPT. A solution to this conflicting situation is to have a the right-hand side represents its incremental conductance.
variable perturbation size that gets smaller towards the MPP
as shown in [25,29,32,33]. In [35], fuzzy logic control is used to
optimize the magnitude of the next perturbation. In [13], a two-
stage algorithm is proposed that offers faster tracking in the
first stage and finer tracking in the second stage. On the other
hand, Tafticht and Agbossou [45], bypasses the first stage by
using a nonlinear equation to estimate an initial operating point
close to the MPP.
Hill climbing and P&O methods can fail under rapidly changing
atmospheric conditions as illustrated in Fig. 12. Starting from an
operating point A, if atmospheric conditions stay approximately
Fig. 12. Divergence of hill climbing/P&O from MPP [26,43]. Fig. 13. Incremental conductance algorithm flowchart [26,48].
M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813 799
Thus, at the MPP, these two quantities must be equal in oscillate about it instead; so there is a tradeoff.
magnitude, but opposite in sign. If the operating point is off Kobayashi et al. [49] proposed a method that brings the
of the MPP, a set of inequalities can be derived from Eq. (3) operating point of the PV array close to the MPP in a first
that indicates whether the operating voltage is above or stage and then uses IncCond to exactly track the MPP in a
below the MPP voltage. second stage. Through proper control of the power con-
These relationships [47] are summarized in the following verter, the initial operating point is set to match a load
equations: resistance proportional to the ratio of the open-circuit
voltage (VOC) to the short-circuit current (ISC) of the PV
dI I dP
¼− ; ¼ 0 ; at MPP ð4aÞ array. This two-stage alternative also ensures that the real
dV V dV
MPP is tracked in case of multiple local maxima.
dI I dP Measurements of the instantaneous PV array voltage and
4 ; 40 ; left of MPP ð4bÞ current require two sensors. The IncCond method lends
dV V dV
itself well to DSP and microcontroller control, which can
dI I dP easily keep track of previous values of voltage and current
o ; o0 ; right of MPP ð4cÞ
dV V dV and make all the decisions as per Fig. 13.
(v) Constant voltage and current
Eq. (4a) is a repeat of Eq. (3) for convenience. Eqs. (4b) and The basis for the constant voltage (CV) algorithm is the
(4c) are used to determine the direction in which a pertur- observation from I–V curves like those in Fig. 1 that the ratio
bation must occur to move the operating point toward the of the array’s maximum power voltage, VMPP, to its open-
MPP, and the perturbation is repeated until Eq. (4a) is circuit voltage, VOC, is approximately constant; in other
satisfied. Once the MPP is reached, the MPPT continues to words:
operate at this point until a change in current is measured.
V MPP
This change in current will correlate to a change in irra- ≅K o 1 ð5Þ
V OC
diance on the array.
As the irradiance on the array increases, the MPP moves to
the right with respect to the array voltage, as shown in The constant voltage algorithm can be implemented using
Fig. 10. To compensate for this movement of the MPP, the the flowchart shown in Fig. 14. The solar array is temporarily
MPPT must increase the array’s operating voltage. isolated from the MPPT, and a VOC measurement is taken.
The opposite is true when a decrease in irradiance is Next, the MPPT calculates the correct operating point using
detected (via a decrease in the measured current). Eq. (5) and the preset value of K, and adjusts the array’s
From the above mentioned it is clear that, the IncCond voltage until the calculated VMPP is reached. This operation is
[26,48] method is based on the fact that the slope of the PV repeated periodically to track the position of the MPP.
array power curve (Fig. 10) is zero at the MPP, positive on Although this method is extremely simple, it is difficult to
the left of the MPP, and negative on the right. choose the optimal value of the constant K. The literature
Fig. 13 shows a flowchart for the incremental conductance reports success with K values ranging from 73% to 80%
algorithm [49]. The present value and the previous value of [10–12]. Fig. 15 shows the actual K values required for a
the solar array voltage and current are used to calculate the given PV array over a temperature range of 0–60 1C and
values of dI and dV. If dV¼0 and dI¼ 0, then the atmospheric irradiance levels from 200 to 1000 W/m2.
conditions have not changed and the MPPT is still operating These curves were calculated using the I–V relationship for a
at the MPP. If dV¼0 and dI40, then the amount of sunlight PV cell given in the following equations:
has increased, raising the MPP voltage.
q
This requires the MPPT to increase the PV array operating I ¼ I L −I OS exp ðV þ IRÞ−1 ð6Þ
AkB T
voltage to track the MPP. Conversely, if dIo0, the amount of
sunlight has decreased, lowering the MPP voltage and
requiring the MPPT to decrease the PV array operating
voltage. If the changes in voltage and current are not zero,
the relationships in Eqs. (4b) and (4c) can be used to Isolate array Record open circuit Calculate VMPP from
determine the direction in which the voltage must be from MPPT array voltage percentage of VOC
changed in order to reach the MPP. If dI/dV4I ¼V, then
dP/dV40, and the PV array operating point is to the left of
Vary array operating voltage
the MPP on the P–V curve. Thus, the PV array voltage must Wait X seconds
until VMPP is reached
be increased to reach the MPP. Similarly, if dI/dVoI ¼V, then
dP/dVo0 and the PV array operating point lies to the right Fig. 14. Constant voltage algorithm flowchart [18].
of the MPP on the P–V curve, meaning that the voltage must
be reduced to reach the MPP. Herein lies a primary advan-
tage of incremental conductance over the perturb-and-
observe algorithm: incremental conductance can actually
calculate the direction in which to perturb the array’s
operating point to reach the MPP, and can determine when
it has actually reached the MPP. Thus, under rapidly chan-
ging conditions, it should not track in the wrong direction,
as P&O can, and it should not oscillate about the MPP once it
reaches it.
The increment size determines how fast the MPP is tracked.
Fast tracking can be achieved with bigger increments but
the system might not operate exactly at the MPP and Fig. 15. VMPP as a percentage of VOC as functions of temperature and irradiance [18].
800 M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813
T qEG 1 1
I OS ¼ I OR exp − ð7Þ (vi) Fractional open-circuit voltage
TR AkB T R T The near linear relationship between VMPP and VOC of the PV
array, under varying irradiance and temperature levels, has
G
IL ¼ I SC þ K T;I ðT−T R Þ ð8Þ given rise to the fractional VOC method [51–55].
1000
Eq. (6) is the Shockley equation for an illuminated pn V MPP ≈k1 V OC ð9Þ
junction. A is the diode ideality factor, q is the charge on
an electron, and R is the PV array’s series resistance. (The where k1 is a constant of proportionality. Since k1 is
shunt resistance has been assumed large enough to be dependent on the characteristics of the PV array being used,
accurately approximated as infinite.) Eq. (7) accounts for it usually has to be computed beforehand by empirically
the temperature dependency of the reverse saturation determining VMPP and VOC for the specific PV array at
current IOS. IOS is a function of the reference reverse satura- different irradiance and temperature levels. The factor k1
tion current IOR at the standard test condition reference has been reported to be between 0.71 and 0.78. Once k1 is
temperature TR (25 1C), EG, the bandgap of the semiconduc- known, VMPP can be computed using Eq. (9) taking into
tor used, the measured cell temperature T (1C), Boltzmann’s consideration measuring of VOC periodically by momentarily
constant kB, and the charge on an electron q. Eq. (8) gives shutting down the power converter. But, this incurs some
the light generated current IL as a function of irradiance G disadvantages, including temporary loss of power. Kobaya-
(W/m2), the array’s short-circuit current at standard test shi et al. [49] mentioned that the voltage generated by pn-
conditions ISC, the temperature coefficient for current of the junction diodes is approximately 75% of VOC. This eliminates
array KT,I (A/1C), (which is typically very small), and the the need for measuring VOC and computing VMPP. Once VMPP
array temperature T (1C). Fig. 15 indicates that the ratio K is has been approximated, a closed-loop control on the array
not constant, but in fact depends on temperature and power converter can be used to asymptotically reach this
irradiance and varies by as much as 8% (absolute) over the desired voltage.
entire range of conditions. Since Eq. (29) is only an approximation, the PV array
Constant voltage control can be easily implemented with technically never operates at the MPP. Depending on the
analog hardware. However, its MPPT tracking efficiency is application of the PV system, this can sometimes be ade-
low relative to those of other algorithms. Reasons for this quate. Even if fractional VOC is not a true MPPT technique, it
include the aforementioned error in the value of K, and the is very easy and cheap to implement as it does not
fact that measuring the open-circuit voltage requires a necessarily require DSP or microcontroller control.
momentary interruption of PV power. It is possible to (vii) Modified open-circuit voltage method
dynamically adjust the value of K, but that requires a In this method, the PV array is not temporarily isolated from
search algorithm and essentially ends up being the same MPPT, the open circuit voltage (VOC) is calculated for
as P&O [18]. different values of insolation and temperature [56] by
In [50], it is possible to use a constant current MPPT making use of the following equations:
algorithm that approximates the MPP current as a constant V OCT kv
percentage of the short-circuit current. To implement this C TV ¼ ¼1þ ðT x −T c Þ ð10Þ
V OC V OC
algorithm, a switch is placed across the input terminals of
the converter and switched on momentarily. The short- where kv is the temperature coefficient of VOC. The value of
circuit current is measured and the MPP current is calcu- kv taken is −0.16 V/1C
lated, and the PV array output current is then adjusted by C SV ¼ 1 þ βT αs ðSx −Sc Þ ð11Þ
the MPPT until the calculated MPP current is reached.
This operation is repeated periodically. However, constant where αs ¼ ðdT c =Sx −Sc Þ; dT C is temperature change due to
voltage control is normally favored because of the relative change in irradiation. The values of βT and αs taken are
ease of measuring voltages, and because open-circuiting the 0.0042 and 0.0061 respectively. So overall effect of tem-
array is simple to accomplish, but it is not practically perature and insolation on open circuit voltage is
possible to short-circuit the array and still make a current
measurement. V OCðTGÞ ¼ C TV C SV V OC ð12Þ
M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813 801
There is no shutdown of power converter periodically, hence be noted that the presence of the capacitor Cin across the PV
will not incur any temporary loss of power. panel will not affect the steady state value of the short-
(viii) Pilot cell circuit current measured by the circuit. The load current
In the pilot cell MPPT algorithm, the constant voltage or supplied by the PV panel is sensed by using a small series
current method is used, but the open-circuit voltage or resistor R1. A low-pass filter is used to remove the high-
short-circuit current measurements are made on a small frequency ripple from the sensed output. The duty cycle of
solar cell, called a pilot cell, that has the same characteristics the pulses applied to Mb is adjusted until the actual load
as the cells in the larger solar array [50]. The pilot cell current is equal to the desired fraction of ISC. This will be
measurements can be used by the MPPT to operate the main implemented using a simple current feedback loop. Since
solar array at its MPP, eliminating the loss of PV power the rate of variation of light intensity is low, it is possible to
during the VOC or ISC measurement [57]. achieve a satisfactory response by using a simple propor-
However, the problem of a lack of a constant K value is still tional controller.
present. Also, this method has a logistical drawback in that The output of the bridge inverter is supplied to the grid.
the solar cell parameters of the pilot cell must be carefully In order to keep the duty cycle of Mb within practical limits,
matched to those of the PV array it represents. Thus, each the modulation index of the inverter can be varied. If the
pilot cell/solar array pair must be calibrated, increasing the output voltage of the PV panels is low, a high frequency
energy cost of the system. These pilot cells must be carefully transformer can be inserted between the inverter bridge
chosen to closely represent the characteristics of the and the filter inductor Lo.
PV array. (x) Modified short-circuit current method
(ix) Fractional short-circuit current The short circuit current varies due to temperature and
Several authors [52,55,57] pointed out that the fractional ISC insolation both. The combined effect is taken into account to
results from the fact that, under varying atmospheric con- calculate short circuit current for different conditions of
ditions, IMPP is approximately linearly related to the ISC of the temperature and insolation [56] by using the following
PV array. equations.
I MPP ≈k2 I SC ð13Þ The variation of short circuit current with temperature is
[59],
where k2 is a proportionality constant. Just like in the
fractional VOC technique, k2 has to be determined according I SCT
C TI ¼ ¼ 1 þ kI ðT x −T c Þ ð14Þ
to the PV array in use. The constant k2 is generally found to I SC
be between 0.78 and 0.92.
Measuring ISC during operation is problematic. An additional where value of kI is 0.0006 A/1C.
switch usually has to be added to the power converter to The variation of short circuit current with insolation (S) is
periodically short the PV array so that ISC can be measured [59],
using a current sensor. This increases the number of I SCG SX
components and cost. Bekker and Beukes [55] mentioned C SI ¼ ¼ ð15Þ
I SC SC
that, proper MPPT can be guarantee in the presence of
multiple local maxima by periodically sweeps the PV array
where SX and SC are insolations at variable and reference
voltage from open-circuit to short-circuit to update k2. Most
conditions.
of the PV systems using fractional ISC in the literature use a
The variation of short circuit current with temperature and
DSP.
insolation is [59],
Yuvarajan and Xu [58] proposed a MPP tracking by measur-
ing the short circuit current ISC and adjusting the actual load I SCðTGÞ ¼ C TI C SI I SC ð16Þ
current to be equal to a desired fraction of ISC. The power
circuit of the PV converter is shown in Fig. 16. The scheme is
used to supply 60 Hz ac power to the ac mains and to some There is no shutdown of power converter periodically,
local loads. The dc voltage from the PV panel is stepped up hence will not incur any temporary loss of power.
by the boost converter made up of the inductor Lin switch (xi) Parasitic capacitance/dc-link capacitor droop control
Mb, and diode D1. The output from the boost converter will The parasitic capacitance algorithm is similar to incremental
charge the capacitor Cf. A separate feedback loop is used to conductance, except that the effect of the solar cells' para-
regulate the output voltage of the boost converter by sitic junction capacitance CP, which models charge storage
adjusting the duty cycle of the gate pulses. A reasonably in the p–n junctions of the solar cells, is included. By adding
regulated dc voltage is thus fed to the inverter. Switches M1 this capacitance to the lighted diode equation, Eq. (6), and
to M4 form the bridge inverter for converting the output representing the capacitance using i(t)¼CdV/dt, the follow-
voltage of the boost converter and feeding it into a 60 Hz ac ing equation is obtained [60].
bus. The inductor Lo is used to remove the high-frequency
V p þ RS I dvp dvp
ripple from the output voltage. I ¼ I L −I O exp −1 þ C P ¼ Fðυp Þ þ C P ð17Þ
a dt dt
The current ISC is measured by shorting the panel by turning
on Mb periodically. This is done by applying pulses with a On the far right of Eq. (17), the equation is rewritten to show
width relatively larger than those used for boost action. the two components of I, a function of voltage Fðvp Þ and the
A divide-by-N counter is used obtain these pulses from the current in the parasitic capacitance. Using this notation, the
boost pulses. The voltage across the sensing resistor RS incremental conductance of the array gP can be defined as
represents the short-circuit current. The current pulses dFðvp Þ=dvp and the instantaneous conductance of the array,
sensed during the extended intervals have transient peaks gL can be defined as −Fðvp Þ=vp . The MPP is located at the
in addition to steady state portion. They are further pro- point where dP=dvp ¼ 0. Multiplying Eq. (17) by the array
cessed using a sample- and hold (S/H) circuit. The output of voltage vp to obtain array power and differentiating the
the S/H circuit becomes the short circuit current ISC. It is to result, the equation for the array power at the MPP is
802 M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813
obtained [60]:
!
dFðvp Þ V_ V€ Fðvp Þ
þ CP þ þ ¼0 ð18Þ
dvp V V_ vp
question of complication, non-smoothing, and instability. response of the system. In [67,70], sampling and data
However, the relation between the dP/dV and output cur- conversion are used with subsequent digital division of
rent of the PV array is proved to be almost linear near the power and voltage to approximate dP/dV. In [70], dP/dI is
maximum power point (MPP) region [68]. The new standard then integrated together with an adaptive gain to improve
of IEEE 929-2000 limits the current THD of 5% with a power the transient response. In [67], the PV array voltage is
factor close enough to unity [69]. periodically incremented or decremented and ΔP/ΔV is
The way the slope is computed differs from paper to paper. compared to a marginal error until the MPP is reached.
In [66], dP/dV is computed and its sign is stored for the past In order to meet the requirements of the IEEE 929-2000
few cycles. Based on these signs, the duty ratio of the power standard, a new maximum power point tracking applying
converter is either incremented or decremented to reach the the relation between dP/dV and I of a photovoltaic array
MPP. A dynamic step size is used to improve the transient combined with space vector pulse width modulation
(SVPWM) current-controlled scheme has been proposed
and verified through an experimental 3-phase grid-con-
6
nected PV system [71]. To improve the dynamic response for
Temperature 25oC
over-current protection, a dual-timer scheme for PWM
Insolation 1000 W/m2 carrier and ADC sampling has been developed to greatly
4
decrease the control delay.
Since at MPP the derivative power to voltage is zero
2 Maximum
(dP/dV¼0), [71], the developed MPPT algorithm is based
power point
dP/dV (W/V)
400
-4
Simulated MPPT control process
300 W/m2
Initially
100
Vref given
Sense 0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Vn, In
Dc voltage (V)
Fig. 21. The simulated P–V curves by the MPPT algorithm [71].
P=Pn-Pp
V=Vn-Vp
5
Insolation level changed from 300 to 1000 W/m2 1000 W/m2
P/ V>0
4
No Yes
Dc current (A)
Yes P/ V<0 3
No
2
Sign = -1 Sign = 0 Sign = 1
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Vref(k+1) = Vref(k) + Step × Sign
Dc voltage (V)
Fig. 20. The flowchart of developed MPPT algorithm [71]. Fig. 22. The simulated I–V curves by the MPPT algorithm [71].
804 M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813
array, using the saved previous voltage and current (Vp and Ip)
to calculate the differential values of ΔP and ΔV. The
ΔP/ΔV is calculated by using Newton–Raphson algorithm
which is written in C language fixed-point algorithm for a
TMS320F2812 digital control process. Then judgment:
When the ΔP/ΔV is more than 0, the sign value is set to 1;
When the ΔP/ΔV is less than 0, the sign value is set to −1; Or
else the sign value is set to 0. The reference voltage of the
MPP of the PV array is given as follows:
V ref ðk þ 1Þ ¼ V ref ðkÞ þ Step Sign ð23Þ
where the variable Step is assigned to 0.1 mV and the
frequency of sampling voltage and current of PV array is
0.1 ms. The developed MPPT algorithm can provide the
reference voltage of MPP for PV array quickly and smoothly, Fig. 25. Membership function of V(n).
which reduces the losses of the PV array by using P&O
method and is not complicated comparing with the IncCond
method. The proposed MPPT control flow chart is shown in
Fig. 20.
The sampling rate for PV dc voltage and dc current is 100 μs
in order to adapt the MPPT algorithm. Figs. 21 and 22 show
the simulated PV power versus voltage and current versus
voltage curves, respectively, by the proposed MPPT algo-
rithm under the different levels of insolation. It can be
noticed that the performances of both the MPPT and the dc
controller PIdc(s) are very good. The dc link voltage is
controlled to track the maximum power point’s voltage-
Fig. 26. Membership function for inputs and output of fuzzy logic controller.
reference.
(xiii) Fuzzy logic controller (FLC)
Several microcontrollers have made using FLC for MPPT
[72–77]. Veerachary et al. [76] mentioned that, the FLC have
Table 3
the advantages of working with imprecise inputs, it does not Fuzzy rule base table.
need an accurate mathematical model and it can handle
nonlinearity as well. FLC constitutes four parts, which E ΔE
include fuzzification, inference, rule base and defuzzification
NB NS ZE PS PB
as shown in Fig. 23 [78,79].
The inputs to a MPPT fuzzy logic controller are usually an NB ZE ZE NB NB NB
error E and a change in error ΔE. The user has the flexibility NS ZE ZE NS NS NS
of choosing how to compute E and ΔE. Since dP/dV vanishes ZE NS ZE ZE ZE PS
PS PS PS PS ZE ZE
at the MPP, [77] uses the approximation: PB PB PB PB ZE ZE
PðnÞ−Pðn−1Þ
EðnÞ ¼ ð24Þ
VðnÞ−Vðn−1Þ
Rule base
Inputs Output
Fig. 24. Membership function of E(n) and CE(n). Fig. 27. A modified fuzzy-logic controller for maximum power point tracking [81].
M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813 805
and In this case, five fuzzy levels are used: NB, NS, ZE, PS, and PB.
ΔEðnÞ ¼ EðnÞ−Eðn−1Þ ð25Þ For more accuracy, seven fuzzy levels are used as in [74,75].
In Fig. 26, symbols a and b are based on the range of values
of the numerical variable. The membership function is
During fuzzification, the numerical input variables are con- sometimes made less symmetric to give more importance
verted into linguistic variables based on the membership to specific fuzzy levels as in [73,76,77].
functions as shown in Figs. 24–26 [78]. Five fuzzy levels are The effective way of performing the IncCond technique is to
used for all the inputs and outputs variables: negative big use the instantaneous conductance and the incremental
(NB), negative small (NS), zero (ZE), positive small (PS), and conductance to generate an error signal as suggested by
positive big (PB). Harada and Zhao [80]
I dI
e¼ þ ð26Þ
Table 4 V dV
Fuzzy logic rules [81].
ΔP ΔI
Once E and ΔE are calculated and converted to the linguistic
variables, the fuzzy logic controller output, which is typically a
NB NS PS PB ΔPM change in duty ratio ΔD of the power converter, can be looked
up in a rule base table such as Table 3 [72].
NB PM PM NM NM PS
Alajmi et al. [81] proposed a modification to the fuzzy logic
NS PS PS NS NS
PS NS NS PS PS based MPPT algorithm, using scanning and storing procedure to
NB NM NM PM PM quickly locate the global maximum power point. A mathema-
NB PB PB PB PB PB tical model has been proposed to represent the behavior of the
NS PB PB PB PB PV characteristic under partial shadowing conditions. Fig. 27
PS PB PB PB PB shows the flow chart of modified fuzzy-logic controller for
PB PB PB PB PB MPPT, where Vpv are Ipv are the PV output voltage and current
respectively, D is the duty cycle, Pm is the global maximum
power point, and ΔPm is a constant that identifies the allowable
difference between the global maximum and the operating
power point. The inputs to the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) are
ΔP ¼ PðkÞ−Pðk–1Þ ð27Þ
ΔI ¼ IðkÞ−Iðk–1Þ ð28Þ
ΔP M ¼ P m ðkÞ–PðkÞ ð29Þ
and the output equation is
ΔD ¼ DðkÞ–Dðk−1Þ ð30Þ
where ΔP and ΔI are the PV array output power and current
change respectively, ΔPM is the difference between the stored
global maximum power (Pm) and the current power, and ΔD is
the boost converter duty cycle change. To ensure that the PV
global maximum power is stored during the scanning proce-
Fig. 28. PV array system block diagram and the proposed MPPT controller [81]. dure, fast initial tracking speed was used. The variable inputs ΔP
Fig. 29. Membership functions: (a) input ΔP, (b) input ΔI, (c) input ΔPM and (d) output ΔD [81].
806 M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813
and ΔI were divided into four fuzzy subsets: PB, PS, NB and NS. all loads of interest, it is adequate to maximize either the load
The variable input ΔPM was divided into two fuzzy subset: PB current or the load voltage to maximize the load power. Hence,
and PS. The output variable ΔD is divided into six fuzzy subsets: only one sensor is needed.
PB, Positive Medium (PM), PS, NB, Negative Medium (NM), (xv) Neural network
and NS. Therefore the fuzzy algorithm requires 32 fuzzy control Along with fuzzy logic controllers there is another techni-
rules; these rules were based on the regulation of a hill climbing que of implementing MPPT-neural networks [84–87], which
algorithm along with the reference power. The fuzzy rules are are also well adapted for microcontrollers. Neural networks
shown in Table 4. commonly have three layers: input, hidden, and output
During initial conditions or varying weather conditions, the layers as shown in Fig. 31. The numbers of nodes in each
initial tracking speed should be fast enough to make a wide layer varies and are user-dependent. The input variables
range power scan and store the maximum available power. could be PV array parameters like VOC and ISC, atmospheric
Also, it should be mentioned that, when the operating point data like irradiance and temperature, or any combination of
reaches the global maximum, tracking speed decreases to these. The output is usually one or several reference signal
minimize any oscillation around the global maximum point. (s) like a duty cycle signal used to drive the power converter
Fig. 28 shows the PV system block diagram, along with the to operate at or close to the MPP.
proposed controller. How close the operating point gets to the MPP depends on
After simulating the PV system and studying the behavior of the the algorithms used by the hidden layer and how well the
controller inputs and output, the shapes and fuzzy subset neural network has been trained. The links between the
partitions of the membership function in both of inputs and nodes are all weighted. The link between nodes i and j is
output are shown in Fig. 29. The proposed MPPT proved to be labeled as having a weight of wij in Fig. 31 [44]. To accurately
able to reach the global maximum power point under any identify the MPP, the wij's have to be carefully determined
partial shading conditions. through a training process, whereby the PV array is tested
FLC exhibits a better behavior than P&O method, which over months or years and the patterns between the input
provides faster tracking of MPP and it presents smoother signal (s) and output(s) of the neural network are recorded.
with less fluctuation in steady-state. It achieves very fast Since most PV arrays have different characteristics, a neural
transient response and reduces the oscillations around MPP in network has to be specifically trained for the PV array with
steady state. which it will be used. The characteristics of a PV array also
(xiv) Load current or load voltage maximization change with time, implying that the neural network has to
As mentioned above the MPPT techniques are used to max- be periodically trained to guarantee accurate MPPT [44].
imize the PV array output power. When the PV array is (xvi) Implementation
connected to a power converter, maximizing the PV array A typical operation of MPPT is demonstrated in the block
power also maximizes the output power at the load of the diagram of Fig. 32, where the controller senses and assesses
converter. Conversely, maximizing the output power of the the output power of the photovoltaic array and adjusts the
converter should maximize the PV array power [82,83], assum- power interface to follow the optimal operating condition.
ing a lossless converter. The power conditioner can be either a dc/dc converter or a
Shmilovitz [83] pointed out that most loads can be of voltage dc/ac inverter. The load can be typical dc and/or ac electrical
source type, current-source type, resistive type, or a combina- load. In grid-tied (or utility-connected) systems, the load
tion of these, as shown in Fig. 30. From this figure, it is clear that includes the electrical utility grid [88].
for a voltage-source type load, the load current iout should be Chen et al. [89] and Wanzeller et al. [90] presented topol-
maximized to reach the maximum output power PM. For a ogies by regulating the PV current to follow the current of
current-source type load, the load voltage vout should be MPP. The control block diagram is illustrated in Fig. 33.
maximized.
For the other load types, either iout or vout can be used. This is
also true for nonlinear load types as long as they do not exhibit
negative impedance characteristics [83]. Therefore, for almost Input Hidden Output
layer layer layer
Inputs Output
i
wij j
Fig. 30. Different load types. (1) Voltage source, (2) resistive, (3) resistive and Fig. 32. Block diagram of the topology of maximum power point tracking in a
voltage source, (4) current source [83]. photovoltaic power system.
M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813 807
The three point weight comparison method: It is pre- Look-up table method: In this case, the measured
ferred to avoid having to move rapidly the operation values of the PV generator’s voltage and current are
point, when the solar radiation is varying quickly or compared with those stored in the controlling system,
when a disturbance or data reading error occur [56]. which correspond to the operation at the maximum
The algorithm of the three-point weight comparison point, under predetermined climatologically condi-
is run periodically by perturbing the PV array term- tions. In one of the methods IPV is defined as a
inal voltage and comparing its output power on function of PPV IMPP ¼f(Pmax) [101]. In this method,
current operation point (A), a point, B, perturbed from a PI type controller adjusts the duty cycle of the dc–dc
point A, and a point, C, with doubly perturbed in the converter. The zero error is reached when the current
opposite direction from point B of the P–V curve. and power of the photovoltaic generator are equal to
In these cases, for points A and B, if the power of point the pre-determined values of IMPP and Pmax. Any
B is greater than or equal to that of point A, the status change of the insolation or load, results in a distur-
is assigned a positive weighting. Otherwise, the status bance of the tuned system, and the PI controller again
is assigned a negative weighting. And, for the points A brings the system to its optimum operating point.
and C, when the power of point C is smaller than that These algorithms have the disadvantage that a large
of point A, the status is assigned a positive weighting. capacity of memory is required for storage of the data.
Otherwise, the status is assigned a negative weight- Variable inductor MPPT method: This method presents
ing. Of the three measured points, if two are posi- a new topology of MPPT controller for solar power
tively weighted, the perturb direction should be kept applications that incorporated a variable inductance
same. On the contrary, when two are negatively versus current characteristic. Power transfer in solar
weighted, the perturb direction should be reversed. photovoltaic applications is achieved by impedance
In the other cases with one positive and one negative matching with a dc–dc converter with MPPT by the
weighting, the MPP is reached and the voltage is not incremental conductance method. Regulation and
to be changed [96,97]. dynamic control is achieved by operating with con-
Array reconfiguration: In this system the PV arrays are tinuous conduction. It has been shown that under
arranged in different series and parallel combinations stable operation, the required output inductor has an
such that the resulting MPPs meet specific load require- inductance versus current characteristic whereby the
ments. This method is time consuming and tracking MPP inductance falls off with increasing current, corre-
in real time is not obvious [98]. sponding to increasing incident solar radiation [102].
Linear current control (LCC): It is used based on the fact Variable step-size incremental resistance (INR) method:
that a linear relationship exists between IMPP and the The step-size for the incremental conductance MPPT
level of irradiance [99]. The current IMPP is thus found by determines how fast the MPP is tracked. Fast tracking
sensing the irradiance level and a PI controller is used can be achieved with bigger increments, but the
such that the PV array current follows IMPP. system might not run exactly at the MPP, instead
State-based MPPT: The system is represented by a oscillates around it; thus, there is a comparatively low
state space model, and a nonlinear time varying efficiency. This situation is inverted when the MPPT is
dynamic feedback controller is used to track the operating with a smaller increment. So a satisfying
MPP [100]. Simulations confirm that this technique tradeoff between the dynamics and oscillations
is robust and insensitive to changes in system para- has to be made for the fixed step-size MPPT. The
meters and that MPPT is achieved even with changing variable step size iteration can solve the tough design
atmospheric conditions and in the presence of multi- problem [103].
ple local maxima caused by partially shaded PV array
or damaged cells. However, no experimental verifica- Aiming to compare and adjust appropriately each algorithm
tion is given. according to the application it becomes necessary to provide
performance measures that can be used for comparison criteria.
Beyond the typical measures of dynamic responses, there are also
additional metrics that may be used. Because the transmitted
energy is essential for the use of PV as an energy source, a very
1.00 important measure is the tracking factor, which is the percentage
0.98 of available energy that was converted. The ripple voltage in
Tracking Factor, %
Table 5
Major characteristics of different MPPT techniques [44,104].
MPPT technique PV array True Analog or Periodic Convergence Implementation Sensed parameters
dependent? MPPT? digital? tuning? speed complexity
However, the technical requirements from both the utility power However, it is difficult to directly apply the demonstration test
system grid side and the PV system side need to be satisfied to outcomes to other areas because of inherent factors in each
ensure the safety of the PV installer and the reliability of the utility area (line length, demand characteristics, grid configurations,
grid. Clarifying the technical requirements for grid interconnection distribution capacities, PV inverter characteristics, and distribution
and solving the problems such as islanding detection, harmonic of PV systems, among others) that greatly influence the impacts
distortion requirements and electromagnetic interference are on grids.
therefore very important issues for widespread application of PV The following characteristics should be referred to when
systems [105]. contemplating the construction of future grid systems free of
The electric grid has been designed for the traditional central constraints on PV grid interconnections [107].
generation, regional high voltage transmission and lower voltage
customer-sited distribution. This design is for one-way power flow Integrated system management using Information and Com-
and has proven to be safe, reliable, and least cost. However, the munication Technology (ICT).
paradigm is quickly changing due to price increases of traditional Extension of distribution capacities.
generation, price decreases of PV, policy drivers for PV and value Development and widespread use of storage technologies or
shifts with awareness of climate change. Grid-connected PV is still integration of either grid load control or building load control
a small portion of generation for most grids, but with 30% growth with PV generation output.
annually during the past decade and a potential doubling in 2008 Provision of power quality that fits the corresponding
[106], integration of PV into the traditional grid design will quickly application.
become an issue.
The potential impacts and expected benefits of distributed PV Microinverter solar systems require many inverters to handle a
grid interconnections are defined in [107]. The countermeasure specific power level—driving up production quantities, which
technologies that may be applied to minimize the impacts as well reduces cost [110].
as technologies that can enhance the benefits are summarized in
Table 6. Details of each countermeasure technology, including Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm is required
application diagrams are provided in [107]. to optimize the power harvest from solar panels.
Generally, the penetration of PV on the grid is still small System efficiency: greater than 94%.
enough that grid operators are not experiencing issues [108,109]. Wide dc input voltage range.
810 M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 793–813
Table 6
Summary of countermeasures [107].
Countermeasures
Overvoltage/undervoltage Line voltage drop compensator Shunt capacitor Voltage control by PCS
Shunt capacitor Shunt reactor Electric storage devices
Shunt reactor Electric storage devices
Step voltage regulator
Electric storage devices
Instantaneous voltage change (sags/swells) Thyristor voltage regulator Dynamic voltage restorer Electric storage devices
Static var compensator Electric storage devices
Static synchronous compensator
Electric storage devices
Unintended islanding protection Electric storage devices Electric storage devices Electric storage devices
Protective devices Protective devices Advanced PCS
Transfer trip equipment
Frequency fluctuation Electric storage devices Electric storage devices Electric storage devices
Supply security Electric storage devices Electric storage devices Electric storage devices
Peak cut electric storage devices Electric storage devices Electric storage devices Advanced PCS
Single PV DC/DC
DC Single phase
module Boost and EMI filter
Inverter AC grid
36 V@ 220 W MPPT
PWM 1
PWM2
PWM3
IPV VDC PV IAC IAC inv VAC grid
Auxiliary
power supply
PWM module ADC
Legend:
Digital control system
Power flow
Digital signal controller
Signal flow
Fig. 37. Grid-connected solar microinverter block diagram [110].
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