Kwantlen Psychology Student Journal

Issue 4, July 2022

Kwantlen Polytechnic University

An Exploration into the Experiences of Student-Athletes

Ekjot Bhullar1

Abstract
This paper investigated the experiences of student-athletes in British Columbia and aimed to
address the limitations highlighted by the developers of the College Student-Athlete Life Stress
Scale (CSALSS). By using the College Student-Athletes Life Stress Scale, factors which were
the leading contributors of stress among student-athletes in British Columbia (BC) were
identified. Furthermore, researchers discovered coaching relationships and injuries
are significantly associated with the largest fluctuation in overall stress levels experienced at the
population level.
Keywords: student-athletes, stress, university, College Student-Athletes Life Stress Scale

1
[email protected]; Written for Psychology Honours Thesis (PSYC 4990 & 4995). Sincere gratitude to Dr.
Susan Thompson for the submission recommendation. This research was funded by the Student Research Innovation
Grant (SRIG) through Kwantlen Polytechnic University.
2 BHULLAR, E.

An Exploration into the Experiences of Student-Athletes

Student athletes may face more stressors than other students throughout their time in
university (Pritchard & Wilson, 2005). This population faces similar psychological stressors and
difficulties compared to regular students when attempting to adjust to both social and academic
aspects of campus life, however, student athletes have additional demands placed on them
because of their participation in athletics. Taking part in sports requires a significant time
commitment for practices, rigorous travelling schedules, team meetings, and games. For some
athletes, this intense sports regime may result in mental and physical exhaustion; and the physical
load may also lead to injuries, which could be a further source of mental stress (Vetter &
Symonds, 2010). Participating in sports serves as a boost to self-esteem, source of enjoyment,
and contributes to one’s self-identity (Wankel & Berger, 1990). Therefore, being injured and
away from the activities that form self-identity can take a toll on the psychological well-being of
student athletes. Student athletes also have less time for their educational responsibilities, which
could result in anxiety as they struggle to allocate the appropriate amount of time and mental
resources to complete their academic requirements. In addition, how well one can perform
determines a player’s worth on a team; as a result, the demand to perform well becomes even
more important to players if they want to contribute to team goals. The College Student Athletes’
Life Stress Scale (CSALSS; Lu et al., 2012) is a measure that can determine which factor(s) are
responsible for the highest levels of stress among certain student athletes. The present research
examined which factor(s) contributed the most stress among B.C. student athletes.
Performance Demand
Coaches expect their players to perform well to attain collective group goals. Most
athletes want to be seen positively by coaches and teammates; however, on a sports team the
primary way to be seen in a positive light individually is through productive performance (Brown
& Rogers, 1991; Greenberg et al., 1982; Naylor, 2007). The common practice of keeping track
of individual player statistics and team standings further emphasizes the importance of
performance at both an individual (micro) and team (macro) level. Consistent high-performance
demands that focus on winning negatively affect the ability of student athletes to improve and
perform because they begin to conceptualize that the success and failures are outside their control
(Mallett, 2005; Naylor, 2007). Within student athletes, there is a possibility of deterioration in
effort, confidence, motivation, and the overall enjoyment in the sports they play (Pelletier et al.,
AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 3

1995; Salguero et al., 2004). The risk for such instances increases when mental health is not
addressed, and inadequate mental health resources are provided to student athletes. A metanalysis
of 20 studies, that was conducted about the pre-existing availability of mental health resources
for collegiate student athletes, indicated that further resources are required for student athletes.
Investing in resources that gear towards the awareness of mental health and services, such as an
increased number of mental health professionals with sport backgrounds, could be beneficial for
student athletes (Moreland et al., 2018). Participating in high-level sports requires athletes to
develop cognitive coping mechanisms to manage the demands of playing sports. However, not
all cognitive coping mechanisms have a positive outcome. Research conducted by Crocker and
Graham (1995) has shown high usage of self-blaming when experiencing performance pressure.
Self-blame occurs when individuals accept personal responsibility for their problems in
performance. As Janoff-Bulman (1979) delineated, individuals engage in two forms of self-
blame with one being “characteristic self-blame”, where individuals blame one’s character, and
the other being, “behaviour self-blame” where individuals blame one’s behaviour. Further
research into both characteristic and behaviour self-blame reveals that characteristic blame is
strongly associated with depression because individuals who take responsibility for negative
events often experience guilt and shame (Lazarus, 1991; Peterson et al., 1981; Weiner, 1985).
Sports Injuries
Injuries sustained while playing sports can be devastating not only to one’s physical
health, but also to an individual’s mental health. Emotional responses to sports injuries have been
well researched. According to Suinn (1967), three factors determine the psychological response
of an athlete to their injury: the psychological level of functioning prior to injury, the nature of
injury (including location, severity, duration of rehabilitation and associated lifestyle changes),
and the meaning and interpretation of injury to the athlete. Athletes who have excessive negative
interpretations of an injury will most likely have negative thoughts such as fear of re-injury, loss
of self-identity, anger, frustration, depression, disbelief, and irrational thinking (Beck, 1970;
Thatcher et al., 2007). Other responses to sports injuries found in athletes include decreased
motivation and altered sleeping patterns (Forsdyke et al., 2016; Putukian, 2016). For example,
an athlete’s fear of being re-injured can impede their subsequent rehabilitation process because
they may be reluctant to fully engage in rehabilitation activities, and the lack of participation will
reduce their progress in rehabilitation while lowering chances of a full recovery from the injury
4 BHULLAR, E.

(Forsdyke et al., 2016; Hsu et al., 2017). These negative interpretations of injuries or being
injured usually occur because physical condition and athletic ability contribute to self-worth in
athletes, and when they become injured, much of what athletes have worked hard for is taken
away. This can have lasting impacts for athletes (Faris, 1985). Research has also emphasized that
several emotions are simultaneously experienced during the rehabilitation process. Athletes
encounter feelings of separation, loneliness, and a loss of independence because they are reliant
on others when rehabilitating, and injured athletes are unable to contribute to their team in the
same ways prior to being injured (Lewis-Griffith, 1982). Emotions such as anger, depression,
and anxiety further worsen injuries because of the physiological reactions (e.g., muscle tension,
reduced blood circulation to injured area) such emotions can illicit (Lynch, 1988).
Academic Demands
While the emphasis is on athletic commitment and achievements, student athletes also
need to be mindful of their academic requirements. A study conducted by Paule and Gibson
(2011) found that student athletes generally are able to only dedicate 10-15 hours per week to
their studies because the intense sports participation impedes their ability to study. Given that
academic semesters are only four months, if students do not keep up with course material,
catching up can be a challenge. With a busy schedule participating in training, games, and
travelling, student athletes may face fatigue. Given this rigorous schedule, student athletes might
value recovery over schoolwork, which results in falling behind in academic work (Paule &
Gibson, 2011). For most student athletes, the time for studying is late at night because of the
rigorous athletic schedule athletes have during the day. However, night is not the ideal time of
day to devote to studying, as there is a relationship between sleeping habits and academic
performance. Students that have a later bedtime during the weekdays and weekends have lower
academic performances (BaHammam et al., 2012; Trockel et al., 2000). Research has found that
having an inadequate night’s sleep can impact schoolwork the next day (Paule & Gibson, 2011).
Students who delay their bedtimes diminish their ability to recall school material learned in class
because sleep deprivation affects memory by reducing the brain’s ability to encode and
consolidate information gained through learning (Dotto, 1996; Killgore & Weber, 2014). Student
athletes who are unable to attain enough sleep increase their likelihood of experiencing anxiety
and irritability (Babson et al., 2010; Oginska & Pokorski, 2006). Furthermore, symptoms of
depression, such as depressive thinking, and loss of interest in pleasurable activities, are also
AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 5

likely to emerge when one is sleep deprived (Kahn-Greene et al., 2007). More specific to athletes,
sleep deprivation is also related to slower reaction times, slower processing speed, and difficulties
with attention and visual perception skills (Brauer et al., 2019).
Mental Health of Student Athletes
Considering these factors, student athletes can find themselves under an increasing
amount of stress and anxiety, causing significant psychological distress (Hwang & Choi, 2016).
As a result, along with severe impacts in both academic and athletic performance, clinically
diagnosed problems may arise including heightened depression, suicide, anxiety, and an increase
in substance abuse (Hwang & Choi, 2016). In some cases, individuals are unaware of the effects
of certain stressors, and will begin to display behaviours which suggest psychological distress
(Neal et al., 2013). As highlighted further by Neal et al. (2013), behaviours such as drug or
alcohol abuse, social contract withdrawal, increased irritability, and frequent complaints about
physical injuries, illnesses, and fatigue, along with a decreased interest in previously enjoyable
activities, all are indications that one might require psychological assistance.
Counselling services of academic institutions should be cognizant about the series of
factors that are related to stress and anxiety in student athletes; and therefore, try to establish a
strong relationship with their athletic departments. However, many student athletes, express
concerns about disclosing their mental health problems, and specifically, are worried that their
relationships, status, and playing time within the team could be altered if the coaching staff
becomes aware of their struggles with mental health (Kissinger et al., 2011). Maniar and
colleagues (2001) point out that therapists who are compassionate and understanding of the entire
student-athlete experience are seen as supportive by student athletes.
Theoretical Models
To further investigate the psychological stress resulting from academic obstacles and to
improve support services given to student athletes, a Conceptual Model of Academic Success for
Student-Athletes was created by Comeaux and Harrison (2011). This model aims to help the
development of academic and personal skills of student athletes by providing supportive school
environments for student athletes and identifying factors that impede learning and personal
development. The model emphasizes that success in academics for student athletes is dependent
on the educational systems and social settings they belong to within their respective institutions
(Comeaux & Harrison, 2011). Within this model, multiple variables are explored to develop a
6 BHULLAR, E.

greater insight into student athlete academic success. Variables include essential pre-college
characteristics of student athletes (e.g., family background, past high school experiences, race,
and gender), and commitments (e.g., sports, and academic) that individuals place to either sports
or school during the time at their post-secondary institutions. For example, individuals who are
committed to academics are more likely to achieve higher educational success in comparison to
their counterparts that place more commitment to sports.
Furthermore, Comeaux and Harrison (2011) also acknowledge that how student athletes
integrate the values and norms of their schools is another vital component that shapes the
experiences of student athletes and determines academic success. Previous research done by
Comeaux and Harrison (2007) investigating individual differences in the environmental
predictors of academic achievements in student athletes was essential to the creation of the
Conceptual Model of Academic Success for Student Athletes. While there has been no further
refinement or any real-world application, the model does serve as a framework for guiding
additional research on collegiate student athletes. In particular, the Student Athletes Climate
Study (SACS; Rankin et al., 2016) uses Comeaux and Harrison’s conceptual model as a
foundational perspective to examine how climate (attitudes, behaviours, and perceptions of
faculty and students towards needs, abilities, and potential of students) can affect student athletes’
academic and athletic success, and athletic identity. The conceptual model helps explain the
number of variables that exist in university education, and their impact on academic success for
student athletes.
Measuring Stress Among Student Athletes
Reliable instruments have been used by researchers to assess levels of stress and anxiety
in student athletes during their time in university. One scale is the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire
(ABQ). Created by Raedeke and Smith (2001), the ABQ has three subscales: reduced sense of
athletic accomplishment, perceived mental and physical exhaustion, and devaluation of sports
participation. This questionnaire is self-reported, where subjects indicate their own burnout
experiences through a Likert scale between 1, never, and 6, always. After further investigating
the psychometrics of the questionnaire, Raedeke and Smith concluded that the questionnaire in
its entirety meets the standards of being a reliable mode of identifying burnout among student
athletes.
AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 7

Like the ABQ, the College Student Athletes’ Life Stress Scale (CSALSS) which was
developed and validated by Lu et al. in 2012, is another scale that has been used to research the
experiences of student athletes (see Appendix A). Using the Delphi method, the researchers made
sure that the items on the scale were not redundant. The Delphi method uses a process in which
a definitive decision is made by surveying a series of experts within the appropriate field. During
the creation of the CSALSS, opinions of multiple sports psychologists, coaches, educational
administrators, and psychological consultants were considered. After such consideration, the
once 40-item CSALSS during the early stages of scale creation, is now a 24-item scale which
includes an investigation of eight factors specifically identifying sources of stress. These eight
factors are: (a) sports injuries, (b) performance demand, (c) coaching relationships, (d) training
adaptation, (e) interpersonal relationships, (f) romantic relationships (g) family relationships, and
(h) academic requirements (Lu et al., 2012). After thorough examinations, results indicated that
not only is the CSALSS a reliable instrument, but it also displays sufficient levels of concurrent
and discriminant validity (Lu et al., 2012).
Current Study
The purpose of the current study was to: (a) use the scale to assess which factor(s) are most
responsible for stress among student athletes in a different sample (b) determine which changes
in stress levels from specific factors are significantly associated with the largest fluctuation in
overall stress levels experienced at the population level. Lu et al. (2012) have acknowledged the
lack of diversity in research samples such as differences in age, sports, and gender; however, the
current study addressed this limitation by including subjects who participate in a variety of
different sports (basketball, soccer, football, track and field, swimming, etc.), are different in
ages, are of different genders, and are in different years of studies. Furthermore, given that the
CSALSS was first established and examined in Taiwan, this was identified by the researchers as
another limitation. There are differences between Asian and Western cultures that might
influence the stress that is experienced by student athletes and may also influence the way student
athletes respond to the scale as well. Therefore, the current study examined the scale in a
completely different culture than the one in which it was developed. We hypothesized that for
the current sample, both performance demands, and academic requirements will be the biggest
sources of stress that student athletes encounter in university. Given that Lu et al. (2012) had just
developed the CSALSS, the researchers had not yet been able to specifically investigate the
8 BHULLAR, E.

stressors that cause stress among student athletes; however, like the hypothesis of this study,
Chabrecek and DeBeliso (2021) found in their research that sports injuries and academic
requirements are most stressful for student athletes.
Methods
Participants
The inclusion criteria for this study were that participants must be recognized as active
student athletes within British Columbia universities including University of British Columbia
(UBC), Simon Fraser University (SFU), University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC),
Thompson Rivers University (TRU), University of Fraser Valley (UFV), Langara College, and
Douglas College. Furthermore, subjects were also individuals who were active participants in
community-organized sports while in post-secondary education. Those who did not fit the
participant criteria were excluded from this study. The process of recruiting participants began
after gaining ethics approval from the desired institutions through RISe, which is a harmonized
system that allows researchers to obtain ethics approval from multiple universities in British
Columbia using one application. Upon ethics approval, the coaching staff of each sport were
personally contacted through the school’s athletic website to gain access to participants. Coaches
were not involved in any way during the study but were only asked to forward the information
provided by researchers about the study along to student athletes via email. Attached in the email
was an invitation letter specifically for student athletes. The invitation letter for student athletes
was sent to them by their coaches providing them with more information on the survey, and the
link to the survey, which assisted in their individual decision to participate. In the email that was
sent out to coaches to forward survey information to student athletes, coaches were reminded that
they are only relaying information from the researchers to the student athletes. Coaches were told
not to pressure student athletes to participate in any way, as this decision should only be made
autonomously by the student athletes. Participants were also reminded by their coaches that their
decision whether to participate would have no effect on their position(s) within school sports
teams, or academic standings. In addition to representing a university, potential participants could
also have been individuals who were both involved in athletic teams within their communities
and pursuing post-secondary education.
For the current study, 78 participants were recruited for our sample, the determination of
the ideal number of participants was based on a number of factors: (a) significance test being
AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 9

conducted at α = .05; (b) t test for a multiple linear regression, (c) expectation by researchers of
a medium effect size that is f2 = .15 based on significance testing at the .05 level, and (d) within
the CSALSS, there are eight predictor (independent) variables being assessed which will help
reveal which factor(s) are most responsible for the experience of stress among student athletes in
post-secondary education. Of the 78 individuals who participated, the data of 23 individuals were
removed due to insufficient data. From the remaining 55 participants, there were 34 female
participants and 20 male participants, with one participant preferring not to specify their gender
Materials and Measures
Participants completed the CSALSS in which the effect of factors (sports injuries,
performance demand, coaching relationships, training adaptation, interpersonal relationships,
romantic relationships, family relationships, and academic requirements) on the dependent
variable (stress) were investigated. The study used statements on a six-point Likert scale with 1
being never, and 6 being always. Statements from the original College Student Athletes’ Life
Student Stress Scale (Lu et al., 2012) such as “I am annoyed by my coach’s preference for some
teammates” were used in this study. Students’ levels of stress was indicated by their responses
given on the College Student Athletes Life Stress Scale, and further analyzed after data
collection. Student athletes who scored higher on the scale, suggested that they were experiencing
higher levels of stress.
Procedure
The study was conducted online through a program called Qualtrics. The participants in
this study were recruited by contacting sports teams at different universities directly. Coaching
personnel were personally contacted via email, obtained through the school’s athletic website.
Participants involved in community-organized sports were recruited by promoting the research
study on social media (ex: Facebook, Instagram). In Qualtrics, the participants were required to
provide consent to participate in the study (see Appendix B). If participants did not consent to
participating, they were asked to close their browser, and could not complete the study. Those
who did provide consent answered five demographic questions related to their gender, age, year
of study, sport type, and years of athletic experience in their sport prior to beginning the study.
Since this study did not comprise of an experimental design, participants were only provided
with a survey that contained questions from the CSALSS to help get a clear understanding of the
stress that is experienced among student athletes. The study addressed the shortcomings
10 BHULLAR, E.

highlighted by Lu et al. (2012), while examining the factors contributing to stress among student
athletes. Once participants completed the survey, a short debriefing followed explaining their
participation in the specific study, and how the results from the study would further scientific
knowledge. The survey took participants between 15 to 20 minutes to complete.
Participants who wished to enter themselves into the prize draw followed a link provided
at the end of the surveys. Only the email addresses of participants were required so the researchers
could contact the potential winners. By giving a separate link, the data from the research was not
attached to their email addresses, allowing to maintain the anonymity of data. Participants who
won the prize draw were contacted through their email.
Analysis
Since the study was a correlational design, the obtained data was analyzed
by running Multiple Regression analysis to determine which factor(s) contribute to the most
stress experienced among student athletes. Numerical values for each option were given to each
survey question in the study. For instance, in Item 8: “I am annoyed by my coach’s preference
for some teammates”, participants were asked to indicate overall stress and anxiety levels by
clicking, never, very rarely, rarely, occasionally, very frequently, and always. In SPSS, these
responses were coded as never = 1, rarely =2, sometimes = 3, quite often = 4, very often = 5, and
always = 6. Thus, when conducting data analyses, numbers replaced and indicated the responses
of participants to the survey items. A one-sample t-test was conducted to determine which
variables are the leading factors in the experience of stress among this specific sample. Multiple
independent t-tests were used to determine whether there are group differences in the data
obtained between any given two groups. An independent sample one-way ANOVA compared
the means between the different course loads taken by student athletes. Moreover, investigating
the internal consistency of the items in the CSALSS ensured that the items in the scale are
reliable. Given that the study followed a correlational design and was conducted online, the
assumption of independent observations was met because there was only one group of
participants in our data. Normality was assessed through the creation of histograms in the
statistical software SPSS, and the data is normally distributed. Linearity and Homoscedasticity
was assessed by analyzing scatter plots. This study used stress as one of the measured variables,
which was also a continuous variable because stress cannot be characterized by gaps in values.
AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 11

Results
In the study, 78 individuals participated; however, the data of 23 individuals were
removed due to insufficient data. Therefore, of the remaining 55 participants, there were 20 male
participants and 34 female participants, with one participant who preferred not to specify their
gender (see Table 1). To ensure the consistent performance of the items in the CSALSS, a
reliability analysis was conducted which showed that the scale was reliable to use in this specific
context, α = .91. Multiple independent t-tests were used to investigate differences among overall
stress levels. There was no significant effect of stress for gender, t(52) = .504, p = 0.21, with no
significant effect for age, t(53) = -2.209, p = 0.31 as well. An independent sample one-way
ANOVA was performed to compare the effect of year of academic study on overall stress levels.
Results revealed that there were no statistically significant differences in overall stress levels
between the differing groups of academic study, F(3,52) = 1.185, p = 0.33. Further post hoc test
using Tukey’s HSD supported the finding of no statistically significant differences in stress levels
among the years of study, p = .044. A one sample t-test examined the hypothesis of the study and
found that participants indicated coaching relationships (M = 12.80, SD = 4.13) and interpersonal
relationships (M = 12.51, SD = 4.36) as the leading factors in their experiences of stress (see
Table 2). Furthermore, a hierarchical regression analysis was used to determine which changes
in the factors are associated with the largest shifts in overall stress levels at the population level.
Findings revealed that changes in stress resulting from coaching relationships, t(54) = 14.28, p <
.001, and sports injuries, t(54) = 13.27, p < .001, resulted in the largest changes in overall stress
levels experienced by student athletes. The positive standardized beta values of both coaching
relationships (.290) and injuries (.244) indicated a positive relationship between each factor
(coaching relationships and injuries) and overall experiences of stress (see Figure 1 and 2). As
stress from coaching relationships and injuries increase, there is also an increase in overall stress
among student athletes (see Table 3). More specifically, we can expect an increase of 1.41 points
in overall stress levels for every one-point increase in stress resulting from coach-player
relationships. In addition, we can observe an increase of 1.26 points in overall stress levels for
every one-point increase in stress resulting from injuries, assuming all other factors are held
constant. Considering the results, the initial hypotheses articulated by the researchers were not
supported as both coaching relationships and interpersonal relationships emerged as the largest
contributors of stress for student athletes in this specific sample, rather than academic
12 BHULLAR, E.

requirements and performance demands. Overall, the results of the data from one sample of
student athletes suggested that when investigating all the factors highlighted in the CSALSS
independently, both coaching relationships and interpersonal relationships are the leading
contributors of stress among this specific sample of student athletes. However, when examining
stress using the same factors as one integrative model, it is evident that as student athletes
experience more stress from coaching relationships and injuries, there will be a heightened
experience of overall stress levels among student athletes.
Discussion
Using the College Student Athletes’ Life Stress Scale, the research study aimed to uncover
the experiences of stress among student athletes by addressing limitations that were outlined by
Lu et al. (2012). The scale also assessed which of the eight factors were most responsible for the
stress among student-athletes. In contrast to previous research, the study included individuals
who participate in a variety of sports (basketball, soccer, football, track and field, swimming,
volleyball, etc.), are of different ages, and are in different years of studies with differing years of
sport experiences. Additionally, the study examined the scale in a completely different culture
than which it was originally developed in. Finally, the study used the factors from the CSALSS
to also determine which specific factors are responsible for the largest changes in overall stress
levels. Researchers hypothesized that for the current sample, both performance demands, and
academic requirements would be the biggest sources of stress that student-athletes encounter in
university.
The researchers inaccurately predicted the impact of academic requirements and
performance demands on student athletes and their experiences of stress among student athletes.
Contrary to the hypotheses, among the eight factors outlined in the CSALSS, data from this
sample of student athletes suggest that coaching relationships and interpersonal relationships
serve as the leading contributors to their experiences of stress over the remaining factors.
Participants on average ranked these items as stressful throughout their experiences as student
athletes: “annoyed by their disappointing relationship with their coach”, their “coach’s preference
towards specific teammates”, and “annoyance with the coach’s bias against them”. In addition,
student athletes were also “bothered by having poor social skills when handling interpersonal
relationships” and are “annoyed with being friendless”. While both coaching relationships and
interpersonal relationships are the leading contributors of stress, we can observe changes in
AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 13

overall stress resulting from increases in stress due to coaching relationships and injuries because
student athletes may feel the pressure to push themselves through their athletic participation to
improve their relationship with their coaches. For example, student athletes might overtrain
during practice in the pursuit of being seen favorably by their coaches. As a result, student
athletes become more susceptible to injuries by overtraining. Keeping these findings in mind,
those who provide professional support for student athletes, such as sports counselors, coaches,
and faculty, can use the CSALSS to become aware of the unique life stress of student athletes,
and use the scale to develop and improve existing programs offered for support.
While these results suggest significant findings, they should be taken with caution. The
study failed to reach to the required number of participants as determined in the G Power analysis;
hence the study lacked power which influenced the results. Low-powered studies reduce the
researcher’s ability to draw accurate conclusions. In addition, the low power in this study reduced
the likelihood of a statistically significant result reflecting a true effect. Consequently, when
conducting future studies, researchers should allot more time for data collection when
investigating specific populations such as student athletes. More specifically, researchers should
dedicate most of their time and efforts towards recruiting such participants because the process
is much more difficult in comparison to other common populations. This ensures that an adequate
number of participants are obtained, and enough statistical power is achieved for when
conducting data analysis. Having sufficient power then assists in the ability of researchers to
draw accurate conclusions and be confident in their results. Moreover, future research should
examine subtle differences among student athletes such as socioeconomic status, sexual
orientation, or ethnicity which all can affect the experiences of student athletes.
14 BHULLAR, E.

Tables

Table 1

Participant Description

Gender
Prefer not to
Age Male Female say Total
24 and below Sport Type Soccer 4 5 0 9
Basketball 5 5 1 11
Baseball/Softball 1 2 0 3
Volleyball 5 2 0 7
Track and Field 2 1 0 3
Swimming and Diving 0 2 0 2
Golf 0 1 0 1
Other 2 11 0 13
Total 19 29 1 49
25 and above Sport Type Soccer 0 1 0 1
Basketball 1 0 0 1
Baseball/Softball 0 1 0 1
Volleyball 0 1 0 1
Track and Field 0 1 0 1
Total 1 4 0 5
Total Sport Type Soccer 4 6 0 10
Basketball 6 5 1 12
Baseball/Softball 1 3 0 4
Volleyball 5 3 0 8
Track and Field 2 2 0 4
Swimming and Diving 0 2 0 2
Golf 0 1 0 1
Other 2 11 0 13
Total 20 33 1 54

Note. Table 1 provide further information on the participants including their age, gender, and type of sport
played.
 AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 15

Table 2

One-Sample Statistics

N M SD SEM
Overall Stress 55 90.55 20.068 2.706
Academic Stress 55 9.22** 2.955 .398
Injury Stress 55 10.35** 3.874 .522
Coaching Relationship Stress 55 12.80** 4.125 .556

Family Relationship Stress 55 10.67** 4.212 .568

Romantic Relationship Stress 55 11.36** 3.535 .477

Interpersonal Relationship 55 12.51** 4.358 .588

Stress
Performance Stress 55 11.25** 3.632 .490
Training Stress 55 12.38** 3.418 .461

Note. Table 2 describes the results obtained from the one-sample t-test, analyzing which predictor variables
are leading contributors to stress in this sample of student-athletes. M, SD, and SEM representation mean,
standard deviation, and standard error of the mean, respectively.
* p < .05 ** p < .001
16 BHULLAR, E.

Table 3

Coefficients on the Dependent Variable of Overall Stress

Model B SE Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 35.731 7.053 5.066 .000
Academic Stress 2.087 .680 .307 3.068 .003**

Performance 3.161 .553 .572 5.713 .000

Stress
2 (Constant) 4.279 1.421 3.011 .004
Academic Stress .789 .151 .116 5.229 .000*

Performance 1.148 .106 .208 10.844 .000*

Stress
Injury Stress 1.263 .095 .244 13.266 .000*
Coaching 1.411 .099 .290 14.283 .000*
Relationship
Stress
Family 1.038 .095 .218 10.964 .000*
Relationship
Stress
Romantic .801 .138 .141 5.793 .000*
Relationship
Stress
Interpersonal 1.181 .094 .256 12.531 .000*
Relationship
Stress

Note. Table 3 describes which changes in the factors are associated with the largest changes in the outcome
variable (experienced stress).
* p < .05 ** p < .001
 AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 17

Figures

Figure 1

Scatterplot Describing Relationship Between Coaching Relationships and Experienced Stress

Note. The scatterplot diagram shows associations between coaching relationships and overall experienced
stress among student-athletes. As individuals experience further strains in the relationship with their
coaches, there will be an increase in their overall stress levels as well.
18 BHULLAR, E.

Figure 2

Scatterplot Describing Relationship Between Sport Injuries and Experienced Stress

Note. The scatterplot diagram shows associations between sports injuries and overall experienced stress
among student-athletes. As individuals encounter stress resulting from sports injuries an, increase in overall
stress levels will follow.
AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 19

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24 BHULLAR, E.

Appendix A

Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Very Always

Often Often
I am bothered by a lack of motivation for 1 2 3 4 5 6
academic learning.

I am annoyed when preparing for exams. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I worry about my academic skills 1 2 3 4 5 6

because I do not know how to learn
efficiently.
I am annoyed by my injury because it 1 2 3 4 5 6
has still not yet fully recovered.

I worry about being frequently injured. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I am bothered by the slow recovery of 1 2 3 4 5 6

my injury.

I am annoyed by my disappointing 1 2 3 4 5 6
relationship with my coach.

I am annoyed by my coach’s preference 1 2 3 4 5 6

for some teammates.

I am annoyed by my coach’s bias against 1 2 3 4 5 6

me.

I am annoyed by my parents’ high 1 2 3 4 5 6

expectations.

I am bothered by difficult situations in 1 2 3 4 5 6

my family.

I am annoyed with communicating with 1 2 3 4 5 6

my family.

I am annoyed with not finding time to 1 2 3 4 5 6

encounter romantic partners.

I am annoyed with being too shy to 1 2 3 4 5 6

express myself when I encounter
someone I love.
I am annoyed with not getting along with 1 2 3 4 5 6
my romantic partner.
 AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 25

I am bothered by poor social skills in 1 2 3 4 5 6

handling interpersonal relationships.

I am annoyed with being friendless. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I am annoyed by my social skills 1 2 3 4 5 6

because it seems like nobody likes me

I worry about my unstable competitive 1 2 3 4 5 6

performance.

I worry about dragging my team down. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I am afraid of being eliminated from 1 2 3 4 5 6

competition because of poor
performance.
I am annoyed with the training program 1 2 3 4 5 6
now.

I worry that my training is not beneficial 1 2 3 4 5 6

to my performance.

I am annoyed by my training load 1 2 3 4 5 6

because it is too much for me.

Note. The original 24-item College Student-Athlete Stress Life Scale (CSALSS).
26 BHULLAR, E.

Appendix B
STUDY TEAM
Principal Investigator: Dr. Susan Thompson, KPU Faculty, Psychology Department,
[email protected]
Co-Investigator: Ekjot Bhullar, KPU student, Psychology Department,
[email protected]

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
There are no real, potential, or perceived conflicts of interests on the part of the researchers, their
institutions, or the research sponsors.

INVITATION & PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Participants are being invited to participate in the study because this study looks to examine and
highlight the unique experiences of student-athletes that are in university. The purpose and
objectives of the study is to investigate sources of stress among student-athletes. The present
research is a part of the student researchers’ (Ekjot Bhullar) Honours degree in Psychology at
Kwantlen Polytechnic University.

VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
Participation in this research project is completely voluntary. The decision to participate in the
study or not will have no effect to your position(s) within school sports teams, or academic
standings. Participants will be given any information that is relevant to their decision to continue
participating in the study.

PROCEDURES
Participants will be asked to state whether they agree or disagree with statements based on their
experiences of being student-athletes. A website link specific to this study will be provided to
participants in order complete the study. Data from participants in the study will be collected
online and stored through an online software called Qualtrics. The time requirement for this
study is between 15-20 minutes, and the study will be conducted online.

WITHDRAWING FROM THE STUDY

Participants may withdraw at any time during the study without explanation or consequence to
your position(s) within school sports teams, or academic standings. During the study, if
participants wish to withdraw their data, they can do so by simply closing their web browser
which will end participation in the study. Data of participants who choose to withdraw will be
deleted, not used, nor analyzed in the results of the study. However, once the survey is
completed, participants are no longer able to withdraw from the study because the data is
anonymous. Therefore, if the questionnaire is fully completed and submitted, it will be assumed
that participants of the study have no concerns with withdrawing their data from the study.
 AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 27

ANONYMITY & CONFIDENTIALITY

Throughout this study, anonymity will be protected by ensuring that participants will not be
asked information that would allow researchers, publishers, or readers to identify specific
participants based on their data. In the study, participants will only be required to indicate their
age, gender, year of study, the sport they play, and the years of experience in their sports. Data
will be collected through an Qualtrics which is an online software that can collect data from
online studies that has servers to store data in Canada. Data will be analyzed through Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), which is a statistical software that is used to run data
analyses. Only the researchers in the study team will have access to the data and personal
information that is obtained from this study. In the study, participants will only be required to
indicate their age, gender, year of study, the sport they play, and the years of experience in their
sports. However, participants will not be asked information such as name, or date of birth, that
would allow researchers, publishers, or readers to identify specific participants based on their
data. All data collected through Qualtrics will be stored on a Canadian server. All data will be
stored in Qualtrics for a minimum of one year and then it may be deleted. The data will be
analyzed using SPSS, which is a statistical software that is used to run data analyses.

Because the Qualtrics account is a shared account between the current research team, we cannot
guarantee confidentiality. However, all researchers with access to the account are aware of the
importance of confidentiality and have been instructed to only access their own research data. If
researchers decide to publish the results of this study, the data will be in a numerical format only
and no individual data will be presented.

OPEN ACCESS & FUTURE USE OF DATA

There is a potential for this research and its data to be included in future research done with
student-athletes that would include participant information about age, gender, year of study, the
sport they play, and the years of experience in their sports. Data made publicly available will be
deidentified, in numerical format so that no data is specifically connected to participants. After
data have been submitted to be made public, participants cannot have their data withdrawn as the
data is anonymous. Participants must acknowledge that making data public has the potential for
increasing risks to participants of the study.

BENEFITS
The primary benefits associated with this study are for participants and society as individuals
associated with running university sports become aware of the experiences of student-athletes.
Another benefit of this research is towards the advancement of knowledge, as researchers in the
field of Psychology will gain the understanding of what factor(s) are responsible for the
experience of stress among student-athletes in post-secondary schools.
28 BHULLAR, E.

RISKS
This study is minimal risk; however, there are no anticipated risks to you both at the individual-
level and community-level resulting from your participation in this study. You can withdraw
from the survey at any point by closing your browser. Keep in mind, after results have been
submitted, they cannot be withdrawn as the data is anonymous.

COMPENSATION
All participants will be able to enter their names into a draw for a chance to win one of sixty $25
Sportchek, Footlocker, or Champs Sports gift cards. At the end of the study, a link to another
Qualtrics page will be provided where participants who wish to join the draw will be asked to
provide their email address in the other Qualtrics page. Individuals will not have their email
addresses associated to their research data and is the reason for redirection to a separate page.
Even if you decide to withdraw from this study at any point, you are still eligible to enter in the
draw for a chance to win prizes.

STUDY RESULTS
The research results will be published in a journal upon the completion of the study, and the
results from the study might be used to conduct further research with student-athletes to increase
scientific knowledge. When publishing study results, participants will be identified indirectly
through their sports, age, and year of study; but participants will not be individually identified in
any manner through the process of sharing research results.

DISPOSAL OF DATA
The data from the study, along with the email addresses obtained for compensation will be
destroyed after five years by deleting the study from Qualtrics which will also delete the
associated data with the study.

CONTACT FOR INFORMATION ABOUT THE STUDY

If you want to talk to anyone about this research study because you think you have not been
treated fairly or think you have been hurt by joining the study, or you have any other questions
about the study, you should email either Susan Thompson at [email protected], or Ekjot
Bhullar at [email protected].

CONTACT FOR COMPLAINTS/ETHICS CONCERNS

If you have any concerns or complaints about your rights as a research participant and/or your
experiences while participating in this study, contact the KPU Research Ethics Board at
[email protected] or 604-599-3163.

PARTICIPANT CONSENT
 AN EXPLORATION INTO THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENT-ATHLETES 29

Remember, your participation is voluntary, and you can withdraw without any repercussions to
your schooling, sports affiliations. As participants, you do not waive any legal rights by
participating in the study.

Once you have read this document, indicate below if you give your consent to participate in the
study.

• “I consent to participating in this study”

• “I do not consent to participating in this study
30 BHULLAR, E.

Appendix C

Note. Hypothetical data results based on researcher-created hypothesis. Bold and italicized factors in the
diagram are hypothesized to be the leading sources of stress experienced by the sample of student-athletes.