Rechargeable Batteries For Ene - 2024 - e Prime - Advances in Electrical Enginee

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100510
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical

Engineering, Electronics and Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/prime
Rechargeable batteries for energy storage: A review

Chou-Yi Hsu a, Yathrib Ajaj b, Ghadir Kamil Ghadir c, Hayder Musaad Al-Tmimi d,
Zaid Khalid Alani e, Ausama A. Almulla f, Mustafa Asaad Hussein g, Ahmed Read Al-Tameemi h,
Zaid H. Mahmoud i, Mohammed Ahmed mustafa j, Farshid Kianfar k, Sajjad Habibzadeh l,
Ehsan Kianfar m, *
a
Department of pharmacy, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, Taiwan
b
German University of Technology in Oman, Oman
c
Al-Farahidi University College of Pharmacy, Iraq
d
College of Health and Medical, Al-Bayan University, Iraq
e
Al-Bayan University College of Health and Medical Technical, Iraq
f
Ausama A. Almulla Al-Hadi University College, Baghdad, 10011, Iraq
g
National University of Science and Technology, Dhi Qar, Iraq
h
Department of biomedical engineering, AL-Nisour University College, Baghdad, Iraq
i
University of Diyala, College of Sciences, Chemistry Department, Iraq
j
Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, University of Imam Jaafar AL-Sadiq, Iraq
k
Department of Chemical Engineering, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
l
Surface Reaction and Advanced Energy Materials Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), 15875-
4413, Tehran, Iran
m
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Gachsaran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Gachsaran, Iran
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Sustainability and lack of resources both outline need for energy storage tactics, materials, and devices. In fact,
Energy storage energy storage is nowadays is the most important, at the same time challenging feature in under development
Batteries and developing countries. Renewable energies are focused as minimizing energy consumption, whereas maxi
Electronic
mizing storage of energies. Geopolitical features of energy storage together with wars in the middle-east and
Nanotechnology
Electrochemical
Europe borderline criticize such important topic more and more. Rechargeable batteries have widely been served
Rechargeable battery and developed continuously in electronic devices as a means of storing electrical energy. Therefore, increasing
the capacity and life of batteries has become a target for researchers working in this field. Enlargement of
application and performance windows of batteries have become possible by the era of nanotechnology, such that
new generations of rechargeable batteries enjoy from much higher efficiency and performance with respect to
first-generation ones. In this article, after examining the electrochemical preparations, batteries and their types
are discussed. Alkaline and lead-acid batteries and their application are also discussed on the basis of
nanotechnology.
1. Introduction center of research due to their relatively high charge storage capacity,
long cycle life [6–10]. Since 1992, the Li ion battery research has seen
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical tremendous achievement, thanks to manipulation of matter at a scale of
energy. The chemical reaction takes place between the anode and 1–100 nm, without which many advances in battery technology may not
cathode via electrolyte, and electrical energy is stored during charging be possible [11–15]. The advancement in the field of battery materials
which is subsequently released during discharging [1–5]. Availability of (anode, cathode and electrolyte) relies heavily on dimensionally altered
battery with higher charge storage capacity, high life cycle, low cost is nanomaterials and nanotechnology, to improve conductivity and to
talk of the day now. After the ground-breaking work of Sony Inc. in 1991 suppress irreversible side reactions [16–19]. with the expansion of in
and Kasei and Toshiba in 1992, Li ion battery is continued to be the dustry and modern life, the growing human need for energy supply is
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Kianfar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prime.2024.100510
Received 21 November 2023; Received in revised form 20 January 2024; Accepted 12 March 2024
Available online 13 March 2024
2772-6711/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
C.-Y. Hsu et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100510
undeniable [20,21]. It is also necessary to store the energy produced for wood-templated aligned garnet nanostructure, resulting in a flexible
reuse and use in portable electronics [22–24]. A battery is an electro composite electrolyte solid state. PEO improves the mechanical strength
chemical device that stores electrical energy as chemical energy at its mesoporous garnet membrane and improves the motion of ion through
anode and cathode during the charging process and releases energy as the amorphous conductive and garnet polymer interfaces. This syner
an electrical output during discharge when discharged [25–28]. The gistic integration results in high ionic conductivity (at room temperature
ideal battery should have a high capacity, high energy density, long life, 1.8 × 10–4 S/cm and 1.1 × 10–4 S/cm at 95◦ C) and strong mechanical
and a low cost [29,30]. A battery is a source of electrochemical energy stability. The scalable compressed wood model provides the special low
production that converts energy released from a chemical reaction tortuosity and mesostructured of the high surface area, which is crucial
directly into an electric current [31–35]. Batteries play two main roles for improved electrochemical and mechanical stability.
for us. First, they act as a source of electrical power [36–38]. The second
role, which will have a growing trend in the coming years, is the use of 2. Nanotechnology and nanomaterials
batteries as a source of energy storage from an external source [39,40].
For example, these batteries will serve as a source of energy for electric Nanotechnology (nanotech) is defined by the United States National
vehicles, an emergency power supply, and a suitable source for peak Nanotechnology Initiative as the manipulation of matter having at least
power consumption intervals, and a source connected to new methods of one dimension scale ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers [141]. The major
generating electricity. The market for batteries (especially rechargeable benefit of nanotechnology is based on the ability to customize the
batteries) is expanding [41–44]. These batteries are intended for a va structures of materials at extremely tiny sizes to obtain specified prop
riety of uses such as cell phones and remote controls. These batteries are erties, significantly increasing the materials science application range.
small, lightweight and comply with environmental standards [45–50]. Current research in nanotechnology mainly focuses on areas of
They provide high voltages and can be recharged up to 1000 times. bottom-up approaches (assemble individual components into larger
Initially, these batteries had a lead-acid structure that was gradually complexes), top-down approaches (create smaller devices by directing
pulled toward the nickel-cadmium structure [51–55]. The major their assembly with larger ones) and nanomaterials [99–102]. Nano
short-term impact of nanotechnology on battery technology will be the materials describe materials in which a single unit is between 1 and 100
use of nanoparticles. They improve charging and discharging speeds nm in at least one dimension. At the nanoscale, matter can exhibit un
without affecting the overall capacity [56–60]. However, research on usual properties that differ significantly from the properties of bulk
the use of nanotubes instead of graphite in electrodes has shown their materials. As shown in Fig. 1, from the perspective of shape, nano
ability to double (and even more) battery capacity [61–65]. In general, materials can be divided into nanoparticles (nanoscale includes all three
there are two types of rechargeable batteries that nanotechnology has dimensions), nanofibers (nanoscale of two dimensions) and nanoplates
been used in their construction and most research has been done on (nanoscale of one dimension). Moreover, nanostructured materials are
these two groups. The first type are lithium-based batteries [64,66–69]. commonly categorized by their contained phases of matter. Nano porous
For example, lithium-ion batteries. The second type of batteries are materials are materials with pores in size less than 50 nm. A nano
based on metal hydrides. Researchers have proven that the use of composite is a solid that contains at least one distinct region or collection
nanotubes in these two types of batteries has significantly increased of regions with at least one nanoscale dimension [103–108].
their lifespan, current knowledge and charging speed [70–74]. Nano
tubes have been considered as a suitable alternative to conventional 2.1. Nanotechnology in electrolyte
graphite in the structure of graphite-lithium electrodes. Due to the small
structure of the nanotubes, the useful surface of their contact with In ideal context during battery operation, the electrolyte does not
lithium is more than ordinary granite, so that the capacity of one layer of undergo chemical changes, thus is a sort of inert battery component that
nanotubes in the laboratory has reached 640 amperes per kilogram [63, needs stability against both positive and negative surfaces. The elec
65,73,75–77]. By using nanotechnology in the manufacture of batteries, trochemical stability (ES) of the electrolyte is achieved in the actual
initially their recharge rate was 10 times, but now with the development system by passivation rather than thermodynamics [109–113]. Besides
of this technology, current batteries can be recharged up to 100 times having ES, the electrolyte should also have: High ionic conductivity for
the previous batteries (without using nanotechnology) [78–81]. Of enhanced motion of charges between the electrodes; low electronic
course, rechargeable batteries have a stable market. Like the growing conductivity to avoid self-discharge and short circuiting, wide electro
market for portable power supplies. Over the past decade, although chemical stability window to prevent its decomposition in the range of
battery technology in the three groups of nickel-metal hydride, working potentials of cells [114–119]. Electrolyte also plays an impor
ion-lithium and lithium-polymer has experienced significant growth, it tant role so as to avoid the unwanted dendrite formation during cycling.
has not yet fully met the needs of the industry [82–88]. Battery materials Most electrolyte solutions are organic, aprotic and solvent-based [38].
are the key to its development and now with the entry of nanotech While the hot electrolyte vapor can pour out of a cell and lead to an
nology into this field, we are witnessing a new generation of these explosion hazard. Low charge retention and problems at elevated tem
batteries [89–92]. Due to the high energy and flexible structure of peratures are the other key challenges associated with liquid electrolytes
lithium-based batteries, these batteries accounted for 63% of market [38]. To improve safety in liquid electrolytes, the researchers are look
sales. Applications of nanotechnology in solar batteries can be made ing into solid-state electrolytes (SSEs). Additionally, SSEs can provide
using nanomaterial in the electrode structure and stated rechargeable other advantageous properties, such as higher stable operating voltages
battery [93–98]. (>4.5 V), which are too high for typical organic solvents. Thus, SSEs can
Bae et al. [233] developed a 3D nanostructured hydrogel-derived have improved battery operation protection [38] and also offered
Li0.35La0.55TiO3 (LLTO) as a nanofiller for Li-ion electrolyte compos improved chemistry of intercalation [120–126]. Keeping the above in
ite polymer. The systematic percolation analysis showed that at room view, we will confine ourselves to the discussion of SSEs in the upcoming
temperature, the pre-percolating structure of the LLTO framework section.
improved Li-ion conductivity to 8.8 × 10–5 S/cm. An increase in con
ductivity is mainly due to interconnected 3D nanostructured LLTO 3. Batteries
structure, which possibly forms a continuous interphase. This new 3D
nanostructured hydrogel-derived percolating structure manufacturing Intelligently engineered batteries contain electrochemical semi
technique leads to efficient composite polymer electrolytes. conductors and semiconductors; but they operate according to the same
Dai et al. [238] use a top-down approach to synthesize electrochemical principles. In fact, a battery consists of a series of
ion-conductive poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) in the mesoporous, galvanic cells arranged in series and uses the sum of the potential
2
Fig. 1. Classification of nanomaterials and nanostructured materials [141].
differences produced by the half-cells. This article examines the first the oldest rechargeable batteries in the world. Today, acid batteries are
type of battery. In the following articles, the second type of batteries and widely used in the automotive, heavy machinery, and backup systems.
fuel cells will be examined [127–130]. In the mid-1970s, researchers were researching and developing a type of
acid battery that could be used in any situation [143–147]. The re
3.1. The first type of battery (non-rechargeable) and the second type searchers’ findings were based on two types of batteries, one called
(rechargeable) "porous acid battery", abbreviated as SLA or gel, and the other called
VRLA-equipped acid battery. Both types of batteries are technically very
The first type of battery cannot be recharged, so the battery will work similar to each other. Unlike volatile acid batteries, both VRLA and SLA
until the ingredients reach equilibrium, and the battery dies when it batteries have a special design that reduces the likelihood of overvoltage
reaches equilibrium. In contrast to type 1 batteries, in type II or and, consequently, the formation of gas inside the battery [148–152].
rechargeable batteries, after their electrical energy is exhausted, the Excessively charged batteries will cause gas and liquids to leak from the
battery reaction is reversed and the raw materials are re-formed. In other battery, so these batteries will never charge to their full capacity.
words, in this type of batteries, the galvanic cell is alternately converted Another feature of acid batteries is that placing them under charge for a
to an electrolytic cell to return the concentration of the cell components long time does not cause a problem for the battery and will not have a
to its original unbalanced state [131–133]. Electrolytic cells have the detrimental effect on it, and it has the most suitable charge storage status
same function as galvanic cells but vice versa; That is, by applying among other types of rechargeable batteries. Although nickel-cadmium
electrical energy, they activate a non-spontaneous chemical reaction. In batteries lose about 40% of their charge storage spontaneously and
the following, we will examine alkaline and lead-acid batteries [18–65, without consumption within the first quarter after the last charge date,
64,66–75,63,76,65,77,73,78–138]. this amount of energy is automatically depleted for SLA acid batteries.
Loss of 40% of the stored energy occurs within one year after the last
3.2. Application of nanotechnology in alkaline batteries charging date. On the other hand, although the initial cost of purchasing
an acidic battery is relatively low and lower than that of
Electrical charges flow more easily if the available area of the elec nickel-cadmium, over time and over a useful life, the operating costs of
trodes increases; the battery capacity is also increased and the charge- the SLA battery will increase [153–156]. One of the limitations of acid
discharge cycle is faster. Nanoparticles have a large specific surface batteries is the limit on fast charging. For example, the time required to
area due to their very small size and can increase the available surface complete the charging of this type of battery is between 8 to 16 hours,
area of electrodes. The cathode can be made of carbon nanostructures which is a very long time. Another limitation of this type of battery is
such as carbon nanotubes or graphene that have a high surface area. that it can be stored only when charged. In other words, keeping and
Zinc nanoparticles can also be used in the anode to increase battery releasing the battery without charging and in the discharged state will
efficiency [42–46,139–142]. quickly cause the battery to sulfate. Unlike nickel-cadmium batteries,
acid batteries have low and limited energy efficiency capacity (high
3.3. Lead-acid battery charge discharge speed) and to increase this capability, the only possible
option is to use larger acid batteries [157–161]. Also, depending on the
This battery is a type of rechargeable battery that was invented in consumption and temperature of the battery, the useful life of acidic
1895 by a French scientist named Planet. Lead acid batteries are one of batteries varies between 200 to 300 times of charge and consumption,
3
and the most important factor in reducing the useful life of this type of 5.1. Advantages of nickel-cadmium battery
battery, corrosion in the positive electrode network inside Battery,
positive material discharge as well as expansion of its positive pole
plates. These changes intensify as the battery temperature rises. The • Fast and easy charging capability even after long storage [68].
average temperature for using VRLA and SLA acid batteries is around • High rate and cycle of charging and consumption times: The
25◦ C (77◦ F) on average, as a general rule of increasing every 8◦ C number of rechargeable batteries will increase up to 1000 times,
(equivalent to 15◦ F) to that temperature. It will reduce battery life by provided that the points related to proper maintenance are
about half. In other words, VRLA type battery, which has an average observed.
useful life of 10 years at an average temperature of 25◦ C, if used at an • High efficiency: Ability to charge the battery at low temperatures.
average temperature of 33◦ C (95◦ C) in the best life. Its usefulness is • Proper ability to hold the charge in standby mode.
estimated at about 5 years, and the same battery will have a useful life of • Easy maintenance and handling: Many airlines accept nickel-
just over a year if used at an average temperature of 42 ◦ C (equivalent to cadmium batteries without any restrictions or special conditions.
107 ◦ F) [162–165]. Among modern rechargeable batteries today, the • Optimal performance and performance at low temperatures.
family of acid batteries has a lower energy storage capacity, which is
enough to make them unsuitable for use in mobile and portable equip Economical Nickel Cadmium: The least expensive rechargeable
ment, in addition to the fact that as before it was also mentioned that the battery in terms of useful life.
performance of this type of battery at very high temperatures is very
poor. In addition to the above, the maximum consumption time
(discharge) of 5 acid batteries is about 5 hours on average, while some • Existence of variety and wide range of this type of battery in terms
other types of rechargeable batteries have a consumption time of about of different dimensions and uses in the market.
20 hours [166–169].
5.2. Disadvantages of nickel-cadmium battery
4. Advantages of lead acid battery
• Easy and cheap production [61,62,170,171].

• Comparatively low energy storage rate (compared to newer types)
• Reliable and durable if used and maintained properly.
[185–189].
• Low spontaneous (no consumption) amount of stored energy.
• Requirement in continuous and continuous charging and con
• The lowest spontaneous discharge rate among all types of
sumption for proper battery maintenance
rechargeable batteries.
• Harmful to the environment: Contains toxic metals, as some
• Requires simple maintenance requirements and conditions.
countries have restricted the use of these types of batteries to
• High energy discharge rate.
certain regulations.
• High rate of spontaneous discharge of rechargeable energy in such
a way that the battery needs to be recharged after a long period of
4.1. Disadvantages of lead acid batteries
unused storage.
6. Nickel -hydride metal battery

• Impossibility of storage in discharge mode (without charge)
[63–65,64,172–175].
This cell was first invented in 1989 and is a type of rechargeable
• Low amount of energy storage.
battery that is very similar to nickel-cadmium batteries. In these batte
• Limit on the number of times the full charge is discharged.
ries, a positive electrode made of nickel hydroxide and a negative
• Incompatibility with the environment (electrolyte and acid com
electrode made of hydrogen-absorbing alloy are used. This type of bat
pounds will cause environmental damage.).
tery has 2 to 3 times more capacity than nickel-cadmium. Battery de
• Transport restrictions due to environmental concerns due to
signers and manufacturers have spent a great deal of research using and
increased risk of acid and other internal contamination during
replacing cadmium with new materials in order to provide a high level
vehicle accidents.
of energy and recharge ability and reuse at a much lower cost. NI-MH
• Overheating in case of improper charging.
batteries are one of these alternative batteries. The anode or negative
pole of NI-MH batteries is made of hydrogen adsorbent metal alloys and
5. Nickel-cadmium battery
the cathode or positive pole is made of nickel oxide. Also, the electrolyte
used in this type of battery is potassium hydroxide. According to the
This type of battery was first invented in 1899. The main consump
information provided by the manufacturers of NI-MH type batteries, the
tion of this type of battery is in electronics. Nickel-cadmium cells are the
energy storage capacity and service life of these batteries is about 40%
most common rechargeable batteries in the home. They have many uses
higher than similar types and the same size as nickel-cadmium type, and
for powering small, portable home appliances, such as cordless phones.
on the other hand, the useful life cycle of batteries NI-MH is also
In general, each main cell of a battery consists of a cadmium anode
mentioned about 600 charge-consumption times [190–193]. These
(negative pole), a nickel hydroxide cathode (positive pole), and an
features make NI-MH batteries suitable for applications that require a
alkaline substance as the electrolyte. Equation below shows the chem
high level of power (such as use in laptops, cell phones, or camcorders);
ical reaction inside the nickel-cadmium cell [176–179]. Batteries con
But at the same time, the price of this type of battery is relatively
sisting of nickel-cadmium cells usually provide medium to high current
expensive and the rate of spontaneous discharge (without consumption)
with a relatively stable and constant voltage for consumption. Unfor
is high [70–72].
tunately, nickel-cadmium battery technology is still relatively expensive
[180–184]. In addition, metallic cadmium is known to be toxic and
harmful to the environment; but despite all the disadvantages, recycling 6.1. Advantages of nickel-metal hydride battery
many components of nickel-cadmium batteries is cost-effective, with
several large battery companies currently operating in the field [66,67].
• About 30 to 40 percent more energy storage capacity than similar
nickel-cadmium types [73].
4
• Easier storage conditions in terms of intervals between charging 7. Air-metal battery

and use (discharge).
• Easy to transport and maintain. One of the most practical ways to achieve high energy storage den
• More environmental compatibility: Contains less toxic substances sity capacity is to use oxygen in the air as the cathode (positive pole) and
and better recyclability. use a metal such as zinc or aluminum as the anode electrode (negative
pole) in the cell. In such a cell, the share of oxygen cathode in front of the
6.2. Disadvantages of nickel-metal hydride battery existing anode will inevitably decrease, but by using a gas cathode, a
larger share of the space of each cell and electrolyte material will be
provided [194–197]. It will remain at a high level. Some air-metal cells
• Shorter service life: When used in harsh conditions (high current or are used for applications such as hearing aids, watches, and covert
high-temperature application), the charge drop period and order eavesdropping equipment. Air-metal cells also have some technical
of charge will dramatically decrease 300 to 200 times after battery disadvantages. It is difficult to sample the fabrication of cells in which
performance [74,75]. the cathode electrode is completely encapsulated by a negative (anode)
• Provide less power consumption (discharge): Although metal electrode in an impermeable medium [198–202]. Also, as long as the
nickel hydride batteries have the capacity to provide high electric electrolyte is in direct contact with the air, after about one to three
current, they provide more leakage due to the need to maintain months after the start of battery activity (production), the electrolyte
and maintain a longer life. will continue to dry and will not dry out. To prevent this problem and
• Requires a more sophisticated charging algorithm: Nickel-metal premature drying of the electrolyte material inside the cell, the manu
hydride batteries generate more heat when charging than nickel- facturer, when making, inserts a special plate or toggle into the battery,
cadmium and require a longer time to complete the charge. which must be connected to the battery before starting the first step.
• Spontaneous discharge rate of energy: Spontaneous discharge Detach and exit (Fig. 2) [63,76].
(without consumption and in standby mode) for nickel-metal hy
dride batteries is 50% higher than for nickel-cadmium batteries. 8. Li-Ion battery
• Decreased efficiency at low temperatures: Storage and use of
nickel-metal hydride batteries at low temperatures can reduce its They are a family of rechargeable batteries whose lithium ions move
useful life by up to 40%. from the positive electrode to the negative electrode when discharged.
• Needs careful maintenance and care: Nickel-metal hydride batte Lithium-ion batteries provide the highest energy density. Lithium bat
ries in particular need to be carefully maintained and processed teries have many advantages over other batteries [203–207]. This has
and charged and consumed (discharged) in order to prevent crystal led to the expansion of the use of this battery and its replacement with
formation (sulfation). other previous batteries in various industries. Lithium is one of the most
• About 20% higher price than similar types of nickel-cadmium. suitable metals used in electrochemical cells as the lightest and one of
Fig. 2. Air-metal battery [8].
5
the most active metals with high electro positivity [208–213]. A • High internal resistance: The internal resistance of lithium batte
lithium-polymer battery is actually an advanced lithium-ion battery. ries is higher than nickel batteries, in addition to limiting the
This battery is very similar in structure to a lithium-ion battery, but with output current in case of short circuit will cause the battery to heat
some differences in structural features that increase battery perfor up and explode.
mance. For example, when a lithium-polymer battery is fully charged, • Low service life for electric vehicle applications.
there is no risk of explosion [214–219]. This feature is very important in • Creating high temperatures to melt metals in case of ignition and
terms of safety. In this type of batteries, basically a plastic material of explosion (lithium-ion).
anode and electrolyte based on solid electrolyte is used [220–226]. The • High price compared to other batteries.
technology of producing lithium-polymer batteries is constantly
evolving and improving, so that now researchers are using electrolytes 9. Compare rechargeable batteries
in the form of gels and separators in this type of batteries, the charac
teristics of which are being disseminated(Fig. 3) [65]. As shown in Figs. 4, 5, the specific energy comparison chart of the
rechargeable battery and the nominal voltage diagram of the
8.1. Advantages of lithium-ion battery rechargeable battery in the lithium battery is higher than other batteries.
As shown in Figs. 6, 7, the average capacity of a rechargeable battery for
a solar lights chart and a comparison chart of the average monthly
• High energy density [76]. discharge rate of a rechargeable battery for a nickel-metal hydride
• Having the highest electrochemical potential. battery is higher than for other batteries. As shown in Figs. 8, 9, the
• Spontaneous lower discharge. diagram compares the approximate lifespan of a rechargeable battery
• Easy maintenance and protection. and the theoretical lifespan of a rechargeable battery in a solar diagram
• No memory effect. in the lithium battery is higher than other batteries. As shown in Fig. 10,
• No need for full discharge. the comparative battery amplitude comparison chart for a nickel-metal
• Low weight. hydride battery is higher than for other batteries. As shown in Fig. 11,
• No strong dependence of lifespan on the number of charges the average price of solar lights using a particular type of battery for a
• Good temperature range. lead add battery is higher than for other batteries [61].
• Tolerate high temperatures up to 60 ◦ and do not damage the
battery capacity at this temperature. 10. Challenges of using a rechargeable battery
• Possibility to be made in a delicate and thin physical shape.
• Suitable voltage range for new generation processors. Batteries are produced and supplied in various dimensions and
shapes, and none of them are generally suitable for all applications, on
8.2. Disadvantages of lithium-ion batteries the other hand, energy can be provided directly through the relationship
with the size of the battery (combined with the battery) [227–230]. It is
used, even batteries of the same type and with the same dimensions and
• Severely affected and reduced battery capacity and damage if the the same composite materials that are produced by different factories
voltage increases or decreases from the normal range. If the battery are somewhat different from each other. Accordingly, in the following,
voltage drops below 2.4 volts, it can cause the electrodes to oxidize some of the challenges in using a rechargeable battery are specifically
and lose all or more of its capacity due to an internal chemical mentioned [231–234].
reaction [65,77].
• Increasing the battery voltage (to more than 3.4 volts) or current to 10.1. Rechargeable battery life
a fully charged battery can cause the overload to cause the elec
trodes to corrode and destroy all battery capacity. For type II (rechargeable) batteries, a useful life is considered, which
Fig. 3. Li-Ion battery [9].
6
Fig. 4. Rechargeable battery specific energy comparison [61].
Fig. 5. Rechargeable battery nominal voltage [61].
after the expiration of this period, the battery loses its properties and rechargeable batteries flake off after a while and then the battery stops
gradually becomes unusable. Usually (on average) the lifespan of working completely. Redesigning and making Nan technological
rechargeable batteries is considered to be about 3 years or less, provided changes in their structure increases battery life [246–251].
that the requirements and storage conditions are met [235–237,234]. As
the end of the life of rechargeable batteries approaches, signs and 10.2. Rechargeable battery usage temperature range
symptoms such as the need to recharge multiple times in a row, reducing
the time between charging times, reducing the length of the charging If you intend to use batteries in unbalanced temperature conditions
process (charging the battery is accelerated faster than necessary) [233, (very high or very low temperatures), it is better to pay attention to the
238–241]. Extreme discharge occurs suddenly and in a very short time desired temperature of the desired battery before using it [252–255].
during the consumption process, which indicates the end of the useful The maximum operating temperature range of the battery is between
life of the rechargeable battery and the need to replace it. With the help -20 and +60 ◦ Celsius. Very low or high operating temperatures are a
of nanotechnology, the number of working cycles (charging and dis challenge for the battery and have a direct impact on battery perfor
charging) of the battery can be increased and the life of the battery can mance and life. For example, storing and using nickel-metal hydride
be improved [242–245]. One of the main disadvantages of rechargeable batteries at low temperatures can reduce its efficiency by 40 % or in
batteries is the drop in performance. The graphite carbons used in crease it by 8 ◦ C (equivalent to 15 ◦ F) to 25 ◦ C (equivalent to 77 ◦ F). It
7
Fig. 6. Rechargeable battery average capacities for solar lights [61].
Fig. 7. Rechargeable battery average self-discharge rate per month comparison [61].
will reduce lead acid battery life by about half. Therefore, if it is 10.3. Rechargeable battery charge
necessary to use the battery at low temperatures, Nano insulation can be
used as a lateral protector of the battery to prevent the battery tem The cost of the battery includes an initial cost and an annual cost. The
perature from decreasing in cold environments [256–261]. Phased initial cost is fixed, which is required for the initial purchase of batteries
change nanomaterials can also be used as a side cover for the battery, [266–269]. Another cost is related to the total maintenance costs of the
which absorbs heat as the battery temperature rises and prevents the battery, which are considered annually. Battery performance and life is
battery from overheating. Also, making nano changes in the structure of an important parameter that affects annual costs, and if the battery life is
batteries increases the temperature range of battery operation and im less than 3 years, this cost will increase and make the system more
proves its performance [262–265]. expensive. Rechargeable batteries consist of two electrodes called anode
and cathode, which transfer ions through the electrolyte [270–274].
These electrodes are thin sheets coated with powdered material that
store and release ions during charging and energy delivery. The anode is
8
Fig. 8. Rechargeable battery approximate cycle life comparison [61].
Fig. 9. Rechargeable battery theoretical lifetime expectancy in solar lighting [61].
often made of graphite and other metals at the cathode (such as cobalt, 11. Application of nanotechnology in lead-acid batteries
manganese, nickel, aluminum or iron, which can be in the form of ox
ides, phosphates, silicates) [275–277]. The production of batteries using One of the limitations of these batteries is their low c-rate due to their
cost-effective cathode nanostructures can reduce the cost of recharge high lead weight. The charge and discharge rate of a battery is indicated
able batteries. With the help of nanotechnology, the number of charge by C-rate. The capacity of a battery is usually rated at 1C, which means
cycles and rechargeable batteries can be increased, and the service life of that a fully charged 1Ah battery must supply one amp of power for one
the battery can be improved, and the annual cost, and consequently the hour [286–288]. The same battery with a rate of 0.5C should be able to
cost of the entire battery set, can be reduced [278–281]. Also, the use of supply 500 mA for two hours and with 2C, it should be able to supply 2
inexpensive nanomaterial in the main components of a battery, which amps of electricity for half an hour. Most batteries lose their capacity in
include anode, cathode and electrolyte, increases the efficiency and currents with higher charge rates. In one study, lead and lead oxide
longevity of the battery [282–285]. nanorods produced by electrochemical electroplating [289,290,211,
213,291,279,292] were used as electrodes to increase this rate. The
9
Fig. 10. Rechargeable battery temperature range comparison [61].
Fig. 11. Average price for solar lights using certain battery type [61].
result of using these nanostructures is increasing the C-rate to 10C and 12. Nanostructured anode for battery application
increasing the discharge capacity to 1000 cycles [293]. In another study,
carbon black was used as an anode additive and increased the number of Anode (besides cathode and electrolyte) is one of the very important
cycles as well as the battery capacity [294]. The addition of activated constituents for the battery and contributes largely to its efficiency. The
carbon [295] and carbon nanotubes [296] also improves the activity of negative electrode of a rechargeable battery cell is commonly known as
lead-acid batteries [297]. an anode [292]. Recent advances in the use of batteries for electric cars
require much higher energy capacity, greater density of power and
long-life cycles (compared with 0.240 Wh/kg usable commercial cells)
[293]. Practically, viable anode should, therefore, have a high potential
10
and a low voltage. However, it is necessary to remember that an anode’s on nanosheets showed better rates than nanoparticles and nanotubes. In
electrical potential should be less than the electrolyte. The absence of addition, 2D structures can also provide volume-changing strain relax
this chemistry in potential will corrode the anode by the formation of ation and versatility for anodes. The long-cycle life [301,302] of the
passivating solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film on anode and, thus, anode, as discussed for 1D structures, is due to these characteristics. In
will affect batteries’ performance [294,295]. A large number of studies addition, 2D structures offer the possibility of exploring certain crys
over the last decades have concentrated on finding efficient anode ma tallographic facets to increase an anode’s storage capacity owing to the
terial, which have most/all of the properties discussed above [296]. The abundance of the exposed area.
most investigated and sorted anode in commercial battery cell is carbon
[297]. In addition to carbon-based material, IA (Li), IIA (Mg), IVA (Si, 12.2. High dimensional nanostructured anode
Ge, Sn, Pb), V A (P, As, Sb, Bi), IB (Ag, Au) and IIB (Zn, Cd) components
were used in different rechargeable battery based on the required anode High-dimensional nanostructures are typically three-dimensional
properties [298]. These elements have been investigated based on one or structures consisting of the 1D/2D connections together with the
more relevant properties. Unhappily, they do not meet all specifications interrelationship and vacuum spaces. This theory is the basis for most of
in bulk form. Graphite (carbon), for instance, has good electronic con the recent nanostructures. These structures offer all the benefits of small-
ductivities and can be easily synthesized but it offers a low capacity 372 scale 1D/2D structures. Furthermore, the resultant anodes show
mAh/g, which can be attributed to storage of only 1 Li atom with 6 C improved performance as they were designed to correct the limits of
atom (LiC6). In comparison, silicone-based material may have more their small-size structure and material properties. Examples are porous,
than 4200 mAh/g of specific capacity and sufficient Li/Li+ potential hollow, heart, hybrid and heterogeneous nanostructures [143].
(alternatively 0.5 V) [299]. However, the volume expansion/con After the ground breaking work of Oumellal et al., hydride (MgH2)
traction problem as discussed limits their application as battery anode. emerged as an anode material for battery application but their practical
The design of material properties on nanoscale has received consider use beset largely due to its certain volume expansion/shrinkage [144]
able attention in order to achieve a high anode efficiency. Li+ is, for during repeated charging/discharging processes, which badly effects
instance, anisotropic ally diffused and has sluggish kinetics in rutile TiO2 their performance as battery material. After only 10 cycles, the
at low temperature, which leads to lower capacity when TiO2 is used as discharge capacity of MgH2 electrode decreases from 1480 mAh g− 1 to
anode in battery [300]. Nanocrystalline TiO2 rutile of 15 nm particles, less than 200 mAhg− 1. In addition, the absorption of the lithium and
on the other hand, increases cell reversibility to 263 mAh/g [300]. In the electrolyte for reformation of solid electrolyte interface layer on active
section below, we addressed the improvement in battery capacity by materials leads to shortage of lithium, which eventually results in bat
altering dimension of anodes, i.e. shifting it toward the nano regime. tery failure.
To solve these problems, MgH2 nanoparticles (NPs) attached to
12.1. Low-dimensional nanostructured anode graphene (GR) were investigated as Li ion battery anode with PMMA
binder was also added to MgH2-Gr to improve its conductivity. The
Low-dimensional structures have several unique favorable features, MgH2 NPs are synthesized on ultrathin and adjustable GR, forming a
primarily related to the kinetics and mechanical stability of the trans functional composite structure. Such formulations and strong graphene
port, [e.g. 0D nanoparticles] (Fig. 12A), 1D nanoparticles, 2D nano interactions obtained at nanoscale lead to improved lithium storage
sheets thus have higher length to diameter ratio, which is beneficial for capacity of MgH2/GR/PMMA [301,302]. The prepared electrodes
ion diffusion. Nanorods and nanowires are solid within whereas nano deliver a maximum lithium storage capacity of 946 mAhg− 1 per 100
tubes are hollow inside. In contrast with the nanowire, the nanotubes mAg− 1 (100 full cycles), and capacity of 589 mAhg− 1 or with a
are less in length and bigger in diameter and offer later more flexibility. maximum current capacity of 2000 mAg− 1. Therefore, the MgH2/GR
Nanobelts are just rectangular elongated structures [143]. We will now combination promoted by the PMMA binder ensures that it is efficient
proceed to discuss the geometrical aspects of dimensionally altered nanostructures high-performance anode material.
anode.
Tang et al. [299] synthesized long (30 m μm) TiO2(B) by mechani 12.3. Hybrid nanostructured anode
cally driven hydrothermal techniques and reported a capacity of 114
mAh/g at 8.4 A/g, for an impressive 10,000 cycles. The authors The mixture of 1D/2D/3D structures is hybrid structure. Hybrid
concluded that the pseudocapacitive load storage, short diffusion and structures can offer excellent electrochemical and mechanical properties
wide area resulted from condenser-like performance and battery-like by bringing in all the desirable features of the 1D/2D/3D structures.
high cycling capacity. In addition to kinetics of preferable trans Active nanostructures assisted by 2D-reduced graph oxide (RGO) (e.g.,
mission and diffusion, 1D products provide eases stress relaxation and nanoparticles, nanospheres, core–shell-tures) are excellent examples of
maintain structural integrity during the repeated loading/unloading hybrid nanostructured anode. Such 2D sheets may contain multiple
process. structures and by stacking face to face, form layers and may also be
In addition, Chan et al. [300] investigated as synthesized Si nanowire referred to as alternating layered or sandwich structures. In one of his
remains intact even after cycling (10 cycles) and high capacity of 3500 pioneering works, Zhong et al. [145] reported a layered composite
mAh/g has been observed. The 1D structure of nanowire accommodates structure, i.e. long continuous graphene sheets consisting of uniformly
the strain and provides good contact with the current collector. With distributed MnCO3 nanoparticles. This layered composite structure of
little change, the achieved capacity was maintained until 10 cycles. The metal oxide/carbon is superior as compared with either metal oxide or
stable capacity was as high as 2100 mAh/g. Usually, 2D nanostructures graphene in terms of electrochemical performance [18]. Keeping the
are very fine structures similar to sheets. These sheets vary from a few to above in view self-sacrificial property of MOFs has been reported to
ten nanometers in thickness. Various studies have shown that nano synthesize transition metal oxide (TMOs) as anode for LIBs [19–21], and
sheets can be considered as practical anode with improved 2D direc so on. Microcubes, microboxes and hierarchically arranged Fe2O3
tional kinetics. Figure 20C displays the geometric and kinetic features of microboxes were synthesized by Zhang et al. [146] at 350, 550 and
the nanosheet. 2D nanosheets are capable of achieving exceptional ca 650◦ C, respectively. These molecular structures demonstrated excep
pacity, which improved the rate of charging and discharging because of tional lithium storage abilities and improved cycling ability when tested
facile electron transport through its 2D surface. A single-step sol as anode material for Li-ion batteries.
vothermal method was used by Kim et al. [143] to prepare crystalline On the other hand, TMOs synthesized using traditional inorganic
nanosheets based on SnS2. The retention of these nanosheets was 95% at methods have poor cycling stability and rate capability, which limits
current rate of 323 mA/g after 50 cycles. In TiO2 (B), the structure based their application in rechargeable battery even after having utmost
11
Fig. 12. [A] (a) Cyclic performance of as-synthesized different electrodes at a current density of 100 mA/g between 0.01 and 3.0 V. (b) Rate performances of as-
synthesized different electrodes. (c) Long cycling performance of SnO2/o2 SnO4 @rGOA-10 electrode @ a current density of 1.0 A/g. [B] Schematic diagram of the
cycling process of SnO2/Co2 SnO4 @rGOA [301].
12
potential. MOFs owing to its self-sacrificial models can be used for solvothermal technique in order to synthesize nanoplate of LFP-carbon
producing nanostructures that satisfy the criteria listed above. Pyrolysis (LFP/C). The morphology of LFP/C has been altered by varying the
of MOFs in air can be utilized to have different types of TMOs with precursor. For example, LFP/C nanoplates, spindle, diamond and thick
improved lithium-ion storage efficiency. The MOF network formed plate morphology have been achieved by using iron oxalate, iron acetate
thermochemically decomposed and subsequently nucleated to obtain and iron gluconate. Out of all the above morphologies, LFP/C nano
porous Co3V2O8 metal oxide in the presence of atmospheric oxygen plates show improved electrochemical performances owing to their
[143,301,302]. This electrode had outstanding cyclability and rate ef lowest plate thickness.
ficiency (940 mAh/g after 100 cycles and 650 mAh/g at 1 and 5 A/g Xiao et al. [149] synthesized nanostructured LiCOO2 by combining
after 400 cycles, respectively). In addition, the same electrode content, i. co-precipitation and solid-state method. LiCOO2 synthesized with
e. Co3V2O8, was recorded by this research group through a simple exposed (0001) plane show enhanced Li+ diffusion owing to its per
solvothermal synthesis method, exhibiting performance nearly identical petual dicular plane. LiCOO2(001) shows 140 mAh/g charging capacity
to that thermochemically produced Co3V2O8 [24]. Novel CoFe2O4/GNS at 100 mA/g and discharging capacity of 113 mAh/g.
nanocomposite from the bi-metal organic system has also been designed
and published, showing improved discharge ability and reversible ca 13.2. High and hybrid dimensional nanostructures
pacity. This improvement can be attributed to the synergistic effect
between CO and Fe [302]. Vu and Stein [150] synthesized 3D hierarchical porous composite,
The above facts and discussions point toward the general under LiFePO4-carbon (LFP/C) with interconnected macrospores and meso
standing of MOF derived nanocomposites should offer better charge (Li/ porous. This hybrid geometry of pores facilitates electrolyte movement,
Na) storage characteristics. Miao et al. [301] proposed the novel concept offers wide surface area for Li+ exchange between the anode and
of regulating the size of active materials by using graphene oxide and cathode via electrolyte. The other advantage of this hybrid nano
synthesize 3D reduced graphene oxide aerogel (rGOA). The particle size structure geometry is that Li+ has to diffuse through shorter (180 nm)
of oxide has been regulated by the active functional group of GO in-situ path.
due to Ostwald ripening. The modulation of active functional group has The combination of the above properties resulted in 3D composite
been done by regulating the gelation degree of GA (Fig. 12 A, B). cathode with high capacity (150 mA h/g) at C/5 and 99% columbic
Interestingly Miao et al [311] hypothesized that a large number of open efficiency with no capacity fading over 100 cycles. The composite sup
pores in 3D rGOA facilitate electrolyte transport transfer channel. On the ported current density was recorded to be 2720 mA/g (at 16 C rate)
other hand, size regulated nano oxide shorten the ionic diffusion path [28].
ways and also buffer the volume expansion and enhance the kinetics od Abou-Rjeily et al. [151] reported the formation of spinel LiMn2O4 by
transfer process of Li+/e and enhance the kinetics of the transfer process solid-state reaction using β-MnO2 precursors followed by thermal
of Li+/e. In order to synthesize other tunable “guest/substrate” func treatment under atmospheric air impregnation. A variety of morpho
tional nanohybrids, the logical strategy of modulating the gelation de logical and structural changes in flake size, bond vibration and mass loss
gree of GO substrates can be expanded. The reversible capacity of were studied (Fig. 13A). The electrochemical studies of these materials
1038.5 mAhg− 1 at a current density of 1000 mAhg− 1 has been observed show the initial specific discharge capacities to be in the 95 mAhg –1
even after 1500 cycles in case of SnO2/Co2SnO4@rGO) (Fig. 12A). It is range. The material was able to cycle at high current rates, while
important to have structural aspects of nanostructured anode. As time maintaining 50% of its initial discharge capacity, with just a 7%
progresses, new systems with specific advantages are reported. How decrease in capacity (Fig. 13B). For 500 cycles at a combined rate of
ever, the efficiency of an anode does not rely on the structural aspects charge/discharge, a stable battery was observed with an irreversible
alone. One structure may be suitable for a specific material or group of capacity loss and a drop in capacity of 3%.
materials but may not be suitable for other materials. Many material and Cheng et al. [152] reported two nanostructured cathode
structural combinations are possible, with a wide range of new possi FeF3O⋅3H2O (named OFeF3⋅0⋅33H2O and S-FeF3⋅0⋅33H2O here O im
bilities available. Hybrid structures can simultaneously fulfill several plies octahedral and S-spindle) with hierarchical porosity and Skelton of
requirements. More and more works based on the hybrid structure are, graphite. These materials were prepared by in-situ co-pyrolysis of
therefore, being done. However, it is generally difficult to synthesize morphologically regulated different types of Fe-based metalorganic
hybrid structures with accurate control, and hence, it is difficult to framework. Among the above two materials, owing to its octahedral
achieve a balance of the high-performance anode and synthesis process architecture, O-FeF3⋅0⋅33H2O show low-capacity attenuation (0.039 %
complexity and eventually to update the entire device. Nonetheless, it is per cycle) even after 1000 cycles at 2C (1C = 273 mA h/g) (Fig. 14A, B).
safe to say that nanostructured anodes will be directed in the future to Sui et al. [153] synthesized cathode material using impregnation of
hybrid structures. We will now focus and discuss the effect of nano 4,8- dihydrobenzo [1,2-b:4,5-b] dithiophene-4,8-dione (BDT) in 3D
structured materials and their dimension in improving the performance graphene structures (Fig. 15a). The BDT/3DGraphene composite 80%
of cathode. capacity retention for BDT (~100 mAhg) at 0.5 C and capacity of 210
mAh g− 1 at 4.0 C for 200 cycles) (Fig. 15b). The introduction of a 3D
13. Nanostructured cathode for battery application graphene as an electrode substrate reduces the dissolution of the BDT in
electrolyte to a greater extent and also improved the electrical
Nanotechnology can basically deliver new avenues of designing and conductivity.
manufacturing cathode materials for battery application [27]. We will Ghiyasiyan-Arani and Salavati-Niasari [154] fabricated 3D nano
now proceed forward to discuss the nanotechnological dimensional ef composite architecture of aluminum vanadate (AlV3O9) and carbon
fect on cathode material performance. nanostructures in diverse dimensions. Graphene (GR), CNTs and gra
phene quantum dots (GQDs) are taken as 2D, 1D and 0D carbon nano
13.1. Low-dimensional nanostructured cathode structures, respectively. Through a simple surfactant-assisted
hydrothermal technique, morphology-controlled AlV3O9 was synthe
For synthesizing LiFePO4 (LFP) nanoparticles, solvothermal method sized. Various nanocomposites that have been synthesized were abbre
has been used by Zhu et al. [147]. According to Zhu et al., LFP nano viated as AlV3O9 MWCNTs (AV-CNT), AlV3O9Graphene (AV-G) and
particles offer improved electrochemical properties (100 mAh/g) at AlV3O9/GQDs (AV-Q) (Fig. 16A, B). The specific capacity of pristine
C/10. It has been further demonstrated that diamond-like poly AlV3O9 spheres at 200 mA/g is 140 mAh/g. In contrast to pristine AV,
crystalline LFP nanoparticles show enhanced capacity as compared with the basic capability of AV-CNT increased to 235.63 mAh/g (at 200
polygonal-shaped single crystal. Sarvanan et al. [148] used mA/g). Other nanocomposites, AV-G and AV-Q, showed no major
13
Fig. 13. [A] (a–c) SEM micrographs of MnO2 and LiMn2O4 (d–f) EDS mapping for (g–i). [B] Plot of specific capacity versus cycle number of LiMn2O4-based
cathodes at different current rates [302].
Fig. 14. [A] (a) Cyclic performances. (b) Charge/discharge profiles. (c) CV curves. (d) Plot of specific capacity versus cycle number. (e) Cycling stability curve of O-
FeF3⋅0⋅33H2O and SFeF3⋅0⋅33H2O and [B] (a, b) SEM micrograph. (c–e) TEM and SEM micrographs. (f) EDS of FeF3⋅0⋅33H2O. (g, h) SEM micrograph. (i–k) TEM
and SEM micrographs. (l) EDS of S-FeF3⋅0⋅33H2O [152].
impact on the performance of the battery. The AV-CNT composite (1% 14. Prospective and further works
MWCNTs), yielded optimal electrochemical properties among all com
posites tested, by delivering initial capacity of 228.15 mAh/g at 200 As we transition to a renewable energy economy, managing energy
mA/g, and maintaining 198 mAh/g after 50 cycles (Fig. 17). The tech vectors by storing excess renewable energy becomes an imperative
niques of nanostructure formation and nanoscale surface coating have rather than an option. As a consequence, the demand for energy storage
continuously evolved over time and have been thoroughly researched to devices, batteries, in particular, will increase significantly. This
acquire control over thickness, and uniformity to significantly improve increased demand will put a lot of pressure on battery commodities,
the results of battery cathode materials. In the next section, we will which means that we can largely exclude exotic and rare materials as
discuss and highlight the important work done in the field of electrolyte options for future low-cost battery technologies. Although alloys can
for improving battery performance, keeping in view the contribution of provide significant capacity for the corresponding anodes, the associ
nanotechnology. ated volume changes require elaborate and often expensive solutions.
14
Fig. 15. (a) Schematic of synthesis. (b) Plot of specific capacity versus cycle number. (c) Cyclic stability curve of BDT/3D graphene and BDT at 0.5 C rate [157].
Pure metal anodes offer still the highest potential performance. In order 15. Conclusion
to use these anodes, problems, such as dendrite and/or solid electrolyte,
interphase formation must be addressed. The simplest, and thus,
potentially the most cost-effective method to tackle these issues is by 1. Batteries are a means of providing electrical energy. This energy is
exploring different electrolytes, either with entirely different types of obtained through electrochemical reactions. Electrons are pro
electrolytes, such as solid electrolytes or with the addition of additives in duced in the anode of electrochemical cells and consumed at the
order to suppress unwanted behavior. Lithium-ion batteries represent cathode. Electron transfer in such reactions is the basis for
the vast majority of the current market and research space; however, this generating potential differences in batteries. There are generally
boom cannot continue indefinitely due to the rarity of lithium (and two categories of batteries. The first type of batteries that are not
cobalt). A trend in the research space toward lithium-free battery al rechargeable and the second type of batteries that are recharge
ternatives can already be observed. Future research should focus able. Alkaline batteries are a group of batteries of the first type,
increasingly more on these alternatives as a renewable economy will whose anode is made of zinc and its cathode is made of graphite.
require a battery market, which is much more diverse. For example, Nanostructures such as graphene can be used to increase the ca
high-performing lithium-ion batteries will be used in areas where high pacity of these batteries. Lead-acid batteries are of the second
energy density is required, whereas cheaper and more sustainable al type, the anode is made of lead and the cathode is made up of lead
ternatives, such as sodium or aluminum-ion batteries, will be used in dioxide. Battery capacity can be increased by using lead and lead
areas where cost and scale are more important. Nanotechnology is ex dioxide Nano rods.
pected to continue to drive advancements in lithium-ion batteries and 2. While Li-ion batteries have seen drastic changes over the years, a
beyond. It is also envisaged that rational designs for nanomaterials are lot of work has yet to be done to make batteries an alternative
going to continuously contribute to developing high-energy-density, comparable to the existing fuels. Nanotechnology does not
great cycling ability and good rate performance lithium-ion batteries, constitute a panacea. Even with its use, energy density and other
which will eventually enable electric vehicles to achieve long-range, qualities, lag well behind other fuels. Nanotechnology actually
long-lifespan and flexible charging time. The immediate challenge is offers new ways of designing, synthesizing and manipulating
to investigate the best composition of surface/bulk doping and self- cathode materials to solve power limitations and dramatically
assembling of already commercialized safe cathode materials, such as increase the efficiency of the battery. Undeniably, nanostructured
LMO, NMC and NCA, to suppress lattice distortion to a further extent. In materials have opened a new performance paradigm in the pro
the case of LTO anode, with its excellent safety and improved conduc duction of rechargeable battery cells. Principally, nanostructured
tivity, it is expected to be commercialized and used in HEVs in the near materials offer various advantages as compared with their bulk
future. Same as LTO, silicon will significantly improve the EV perfor counterpart: (1) facilitate Li+/Na+ and electron transport by
mance after the expansion problem is completely solved in the future. providing shorter diffusion paths, (2) provide greater area, (3)
provide spaces to allow expansion and thus preserve structural
integrity and (4) enable different materials to be effectively hy
bridized/composited. The geometrical component and the
15
Fig. 16. [A] FE-SEM images of AV microspheres at various synthesis conditions. (a) 160–6 h, (b) 180–6 h, (c) 200–6 h, (d) 160–10 h and [B] (a)–(d) TEM images of
AV-CNT nanocomposites, (e) and (f) HR-TEM images of AV-CNT [153].
material element are two major interdependent aspects of nano interfaces with the electrodes when incorporated into a complete
structure materials. In terms of ion transport, stability and so on, electrochemical system (e.g. solid-state battery with Li metal
0D (such as nanoparticles), 1D (such as nanotubes, nanorods) and anode), as well as avoiding the growth of Li dendrites and
2D (such as nanosheets) each have unique properties. Each of improving rate capability. Huge research efforts are being
them alone cannot effectively fulfill all the requirements of robust currently dedicated to face these challenges. Although there is
battery materials for overall high efficiency. Nano structuring still a long way to go until it is possible to incorporate nano
offers new ways of designing and synthesizing materials to structured materials into a complete system, the basic knowledge
address power constraints and dramatically boost battery effi produced is of great impact and will undoubtedly accelerate the
ciency. Designing 3D hybrid structures can fulfill most of the re realization of new battery technology with the help of nano
quirements by combining low-dimensional structures. Among the technology. It is expected that nanomaterial-based materials will
solid-state battery technologies, hybrid dimensional nano be commercialized in the very near future and meet the high re
structured electrolytes also need to address key challenges in quirements of modern applications by solving the existing
terms of improving interface stability and resistance at solid–solid problems.
16
Fig. 17. [A] (a) Cycling performance of as-synthesized electrodes at different rates. (b) Initial charge/discharge curves of as-synthesized different electrodes at 20
mA/g and [B] Schematic representation of (a) as-synthesized slurry of AV-CNT. (b) The picture of evenly coated Al foil. (c) Shows the flexibility of fabricated
electrode. (d) The photo of the assembled coin cell in a working condition. (e) The representation of a LIB half-cell arrangement [154].
3. Electric vehicles are considered the best alternative to conven Ethical approval
tional vehicles to reduce environmental hazards, which signifi
cantly promotes the development of electric vehicle battery Not applicable
performance. Nanotechnologies provide solutions to existing
problems of Li-ion batteries to a large extent. An overview of CRediT authorship contribution statement
nanotechnologies and their application to lithium-ion electric
vehicle batteries is provided in this article, including the three Chou-Yi Hsu: Writing – review & editing. Yathrib Ajaj: Writing –
most common commercialized cathode materials (LMO, NMC and review & editing. Ghadir Kamil Ghadir: Writing – review & editing.
NCA) and two promising competitive anode materials (LTO and Hayder Musaad Al-Tmimi: Writing – review & editing. Zaid Khalid
silicon). Nano-coating technology can suppress the lattice Alani: Writing – review & editing. Ausama A. Almulla: Writing – re
distortion and prevent electrolyte decomposition of LMO and view & editing. Mustafa Asaad Hussein: Writing – review & editing.
NMC. Well-formed layered 3-D nanostructured composites could Ahmed Read Al-Tameemi: Writing – review & editing. Zaid H. Mah
promote conductivity and hold ion diffusion channels of NCA and moud: Writing – review & editing. Mohammed Ahmed mustafa:
LTO. And the strong mechanical property of nanomaterials miti Writing – review & editing. Farshid Kianfar: Investigation, Writing –
gates the phase swelling of silicon anode. However, further review & editing. Sajjad Habibzadeh: Investigation, Writing – review &
research still needs to investigate the quantitive effects of nano editing. Ehsan Kianfar: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
coating thickness and composite composition to achieve the best draft.
performance. Moreover, although silicon can offer excellent
charge capacity, the cycling ability still needs to be improved to
Declaration of competing interest
reach ideal performance. Nanotechnology and electric vehicles
are combined in this article, and it is proposed to provide inno
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest
vative ideas for their development.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
17
Funding statement [27] Ehsan Kianfar, Mehdi Baghernejad, Yasaman Rahimdashti, Study synthesis of
vanadium oxide nanotubes with two template hexadecylamin and hexylamine,
Biol. Forum 7 (2015) 1671–1685.
This study did not receive any funding in any form. [28] Ehsan kianfar, Synthesizing of Vanadium Oxide Nanotubes Using Hydrothermal
and Ultrasonic Method, Publisher: Lambert Academic Publishing, 2020, pp. 1–80.
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black additives, Applied Sciences 9 (1) (2019) 186. Review On the Production of Light Olefins, Publisher: Lambert Academic
[8] M. Salimi, V. Pirouzfar, E. Kianfar, Enhanced gas transport properties in silica Publishing, 2020, pp. 1–116. ISBN:978-620-3-04259-7.
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[9] E. Kianfar, Synthesis and characterization of AlPO4/ZSM-5 catalyst for methanol [36] E Kianfar, Application of nanotechnology in enhanced recovery oil and gas
conversion to dimethyl ether, Russ. J. Appl. Chem. 91 (2018) 1711–1720, importance & applications of nanotechnology, 5, MedDocs Publishers, 2020,
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[10] E. Kianfar, Ethylene to propylene conversion over Ni-W/ZSM-5 Catalyst, Russ. J. [37] E Kianfar, Catalytic properties of nanomaterials and factors affecting it
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S1070427219080068. pp. 22–25. Chapter.
[11] E. Kianfar, M. Salimi, F. Kianfar, et al., CO2/N2 Separation Using Polyvinyl [38] E Kianfar, Introducing the application of nanotechnology in lithium-ion battery
Chloride Iso-Phthalic Acid/Aluminium Nitrate Nanocomposite Membrane, importance & applications of nanotechnology, 4, MedDocs Publishers, 2020,
Macromol. Res. 27 (2019) 83–89, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13233-019-7009-4. pp. 1–7. Chapter.
[12] E. Kianfar, Ethylene to Propylene over Zeolite ZSM-5: Improved Catalyst [39] Ehsan Kianfar, H. Mazaheri, Synthesis of Nanocomposite (CAU-10-H) Thin-Film
Performance by Treatment with CuO, Russ. J. Appl. Chem. 92 (2019) 933–939, Nanocomposite (TFN) Membrane for Removal of Color from the Water, Fine
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[13] E. Kianfar, M. Shirshahi, F. Kianfar, et al., Simultaneous prediction of the density, [40] Ehsan Kianfar, Simultaneous prediction of the density and viscosity of the ternary
viscosity and electrical conductivity of pyridinium-based hydrophobic ionic system water-ethanol-ethylene glycol using support vector machine, Fine Chem.
liquids using artificial neural network, Silicon 10 (2018) 2617–2625, https://doi. Eng. 1 (2020) 69–74.
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with PVC/ABS and silica nanoparticles for C2H6/CH4 separation, Polym. Sci. Ser. Conversion, Fine Chem. Eng. 1 (2020) 75–82.
A 59 (2017) 566–574, https://doi.org/10.1134/S0965545X17040071. [42] Ehsan Kianfar, An experimental study PVDF and PSF hollow fiber membranes for
[15] F. Kianfar, E. Kianfar, Synthesis of Isophthalic Acid/aluminum nitrate thin film chemical absorption carbon dioxide, Fine Chem. Eng. 1 (2020) 92–103.
nanocomposite membrane for hard water softening, J. Inorg. Organomet. Polym. [43] Ehsan Kianfar, Sajjad Mafi, Ionic Liquids: properties, application, and synthesis,
29 (2019) 2176–2185, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10904-019-01177-1. Fine Chem. Eng. 2 (2020) 22–31.
[16] E. Kianfar, R. Azimikia, S.M. Faghih, Simple and strong dative attachment of [44] S.M. Faghih, E. Kianfar, Modeling of fluid bed reactor of ethylene dichloride
α-Diimine Nickel (II) catalysts on supports for ethylene polymerization with production in Abadan Petrochemical based on three-phase hydrodynamic model,
controlled morphology, Catal. Lett. 150 (2020) 2322–2330, https://doi.org/ Int. J. Chem. React. Eng. 16 (2018) 1–14.
10.1007/s10562-020-03116-z. [45] Ehsan Kianfar, H. Mazaheri, Methanol to gasoline: A Sustainable Transport Fuel,
[17] E. Kianfar, Nanozeolites: synthesized, properties, applications, J. Sol-Gel Sci. in: C James (Ed.), In book: Advances in Chemistry Research. Volume 66, Edition,
Technol. 91 (2019) 415–429, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10971-019-05012-4. Publisher: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., NY, USA, 2020. Taylor Chapter: 4.
[18] H. Liu, E. Kianfar, Investigation the synthesis of Nano-SAPO-34 catalyst prepared [46] Kianfar, A comparison and assessment on performance of zeolite catalyst based
by different templates for MTO Process, Catal. Lett. 151 (2020) 787–802, https:// selective for the process methanol to gasoline: a review. Advances in Chemistry
doi.org/10.1007/s10562-020-03333-6. Research, Vol. 63, Nova Science Publishers, Inc, NewYork, 2020. Chapter 2.
[19] E Kianfar, M Salimi, S Hajimirzaee, B. Koohestani, Methanol to gasoline [47] Ehsan Kianfar, Saeed Hajimirzaee, Seyed Mohammad Faghih, et al. Polyvinyl
conversion over CuO/ZSM-5 catalyst synthesized using sonochemistry method, chloride + nanoparticles titanium oxide Membrane for Separation of O2 /N2.
Int. J. Chem. React. Eng. (2018) 17. Advances in Nanotechnology. NY, USA: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.2020.
[20] E. Kianfar, M. Salimi, V. Pirouzfar, B. Koohestani, Synthesis of modified catalyst [48] Ehsan Kianfar. Synthesis of characterization Nanoparticles isophthalic acid
and stabilization of CuO/NH 4-ZSM-5 for conversion of methanol to gasoline, Int. /aluminum nitrate (CAU-10-H) using method hydrothermal. Advances in
J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 15 (3) (2018) 734–741. Chemistry Research. NY, USA: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.2020.
[21] E. Kianfar, M. Salimi, V. Pirouzfar, B. Koohestani, Synthesis and modification of [49] Ehsan Kianfar, CO2 Capture with Ionic Liquids: A Review. Advances in Chemistry
zeolite ZSM-5 catalyst with solutions of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and sodium Research. Volume 67, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., NY, USA, 2020. Publisher.
carbonate (Na2CO3) for methanol to gasoline conversion, Int. J. Chem. React. [50] Ehsan Kianfar, Enhanced Light Olefins Production via Methanol Dehydration over
Eng. 16 (7) (2018) 20170229. Promoted SAPO-34. Advances in Chemistry Research. Volume 63, Nova Science
[22] Ehsan kianfar, Comparison and assessment of Zeolite Catalysts performance Publishers, Inc., NY, USA, 2020. Chapter.
Dimethyl ether and light olefins production through methanol: A review, Rev. [51] Ehsan Kianfar. Gas hydrate: applications, structure, formation, separation
Inorg. Chem. 39 (2019) 157–177. processes, Thermodynamics. Advances in Chemistry Research. Volume 62,
[23] Ehsan Kianfar, Mahmoud Salimi, A Review on the Production of Light Olefins Edition: James C. Taylor. Chapter: 8. Publisher: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.,
from Hydrocarbons Cracking and Methanol Conversion: In book, in: C James NY, USA.2020.
(Ed.), Advances in Chemistry Research, Volume 59, Edition, Publisher: Nova [52] Mehran Kianfar, Farshid Kianfar, Ehsan Kianfar, The Effect of Nano-composites
Science Publishers, Inc., NY, USA, 2020. Taylor Chapter: 1. on the mechanic and morphological characteristics of NBR/PA6 Blends, Am. J.
[24] Ehsan Kianfar, Ali Razavi, Zeolite catalyst based selective for the process MTG: A Oil Chem. Technol. 4 (1) (2016) 29–44.
review: In book: Zeolites: Advances in Research and Applications. Annett Mahler [53] Ehsan Kianfar, The Effect of Nano-Composites on the Mechanic and
Chapter: 8, Edition, Publisher: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., NY, USA, 2020. Morphological Characteristics of NBR/PA6 Blends, Am. J. Oil Chem. Technol. 4
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[26] E Kianfar, S Hajimirzaee, SS Musavian, AS. Mehr, Zeolite-based Catalysts for (2015), Indian J. Sci. Technol. 8 (S9) (2015) 431–436.
Methanol to Gasoline process: A review, Microchem. J. (2020) 104822. [55] Ehsan Kianfar, Production and identification of vanadium oxide nanotubes,
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[56] Farshad Kianfar, Seyed Reza Mahdavi Moghadam1 and Ehsan Kianfar, Synthesis with nano-enhanced phase change material with Koch snowflake fractal cross-
of Spiro Pyran by using Silica-Bonded N-Propyldiethylenetriamine as Recyclable section, J. Energy Storage 56 (2022) 106016.
Basic Catalyst, Indian J. Sci. Technol. 8 (11) (2015) 68669. [88] Y. Wang, J. Zheng, G.F. Smaisim, D. Toghraie, Molecular dynamics simulation of
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for Conversion of LPG to Aromatics, Polycycl. Aromat. Compd. (2020), https:// of multi-energy microgrid containing energy storages and carbon recycling
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Synthesis of SAPO-34 Catalyst for the Production of Light Olefins, Pet. Chem. 61 A. Alizadeh, The numerical analysis of the melting process in a modified shell-
(2021) 527–537, https://doi.org/10.1134/S0965544121050030. and-tube phase change material heat storage system, J. Energy Storage 55 (2022)
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[61] E. Kianfar, Protein nanoparticles in drug delivery: animal protein, plant proteins oil-based refrigerant inside an atomic nanochannel using molecular dynamics
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23
Ehsan Kianfar currently works at the Islamic Azad University,

Islamic Azad University. Ehsan does research in Green Chem
istry, Nanotechnology and Materials Chemistry. I am humbled
to share that my name has been recognized for the 4th year in a
row in the Global Highly Cited Researchers, the World’s Top
2% highly cited scientists list, a prestigious accolade estab
lished by Stanford University in partnership with Scopus,
Elsevier publications. This recognition is not just a personal
achievement, it’s a testament to the dedication and support I
have received from Dr. Koohestani I had the privilege to work
with along my journey, to whom I want to express my grati
tude. I extend my heartfelt thanks to many brilliant students,
doctoral fellows, and colleagues from all over the world with
whom I had the chance to collaborate. Your guidance, encouragement, and collaboration
have been instrumental in achieving this milestone. I also want to express my deepest
gratitude to my family and friends. Your unwavering belief in me and your unwavering
support have been the driving force behind my humble success.
Sincerely,
Ehsan Kianfar, Phone No. +90–5526600869 &+989177441049, E. Mail Add:
[email protected], My site: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ehsan_
Kianfar5. And https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UFP_4q4AAAAJ&hl=en.
24

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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100510

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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical

Rechargeable batteries for energy storage: A review

Fig. 1. Classification of nanomaterials and nanostructured materials [141].

• Easy and cheap production [61,62,170,171].

6. Nickel -hydride metal battery

• Easier storage conditions in terms of intervals between charging 7. Air-metal battery

Fig. 2. Air-metal battery [8].

Fig. 3. Li-Ion battery [9].

Fig. 4. Rechargeable battery specific energy comparison [61].

Fig. 5. Rechargeable battery nominal voltage [61].

Fig. 6. Rechargeable battery average capacities for solar lights [61].

Fig. 8. Rechargeable battery approximate cycle life comparison [61].

Fig. 9. Rechargeable battery theoretical lifetime expectancy in solar lighting [61].

Fig. 10. Rechargeable battery temperature range comparison [61].

The data that has been used is confidential.

Ehsan Kianfar currently works at the Islamic Azad University,

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