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Chapter 2
Research Methods
CONTENTS
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
Chapter-At-A-Glance 46
LECTURE GUIDE
The Beauty and Necessity of Good Research Design 48
Scientific Methodology: A Toolbox of Skills 49
Ethical Issues in Research Design
Statistics: The Language of Psychological Research

Evaluating Psychological Research
FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

Learning Objectives 57
Key Terms
Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics

Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises 67
Writing Assignments 77
Handout Masters 78
PowerPoint Slides 88
Accessing Resources 89
Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
45
Chapter 2: Research Methods
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
BRIEF OUTLINE INSTRUCTOR

RESOURCES
Learning Objectives: 2.1a
I. The Beauty and Necessity of Good
Research Design (Text p. 44) Lecture Launchers
A. Why We Need Research Designs The Tragedy of Dr. Semmelweis
B. How We Can Be Fooled: Two Modes of and Childbed Fever
Thinking
Classroom Activities,
Demonstrations, and
Exercises
Estimating the Frequencies of
Our Own and Others’ Behaviors
II. Scientific Methodology: A Toolbox of Learning Objectives: 2.2a,

Skills (Text p. 47) 2.2b, 2.2c
A. Naturalistic Observation: Studying Humans
“In the Wild” Lecture Launchers
B. Case Study Designs: Getting to Know You Case Studies of Vietnam War
C. Self-Report Measures and Surveys: Asking Experiences
People About Themselves and Others
D. Correlational Designs Correlations and Causal
Relationships
E. Experimental Designs
Independent and Dependent
Variables
The Placebo Effect
The Road from Hypothesis to

Conclusion
An Experimental Example
Classroom Activities,
Demonstrations, and
Exercises
Experimental Design
Equating Groups on Multiple

Variables Using Randomization
Identifying the Parts of an

Experiment
Can Science Answer This

Question?
Observational Research in the

Dining Hall
Naturalistic Observation
Understanding Correlations
Correlational and Experimental
46
Research
Testing Random Assignment
Small Samples
Which Method Would You Use?
Name That Research Method
Using Memory to Demonstrate

Methodology
Softens Hands While You Do

Dishes
Writing Assignments
Observation and Inference
Handouts
Identifying the Parts of an
Experiment
III. Ethical Issues in Research Design (Text Learning Objectives: 2.3a,

p. 67) 2.3b
A. Tuskegee: A Shameful Moral Tale
B. Ethical Guidelines for Human Research Lecture Launchers
C. Ethical Issues in Animal Research A Historical Perspective on
Research Ethics
Is There Privacy in a Public

Restroom?
IV. Statistics: The Language of Learning Objectives: 2.4a,

Psychological Research (Text p. 70) 2.4b, 2.4c
A. Descriptive Statistics: What’s What?
B. Inferential Statistics: Testing Hypotheses Lecture Launchers
C. How People Lie With Statistics Oscar the Deathcat: A Case of
Illusory Correlation?
Handouts
Small Samples
V. Evaluating Psychological Research (Text Learning Objectives: 2.5a,

p. 75) 2.5b
A. Becoming a Peer Reviewer
B. Most Reporters Aren’t Scientists: Classroom Activities,
Evaluating Psychology in the Media Demonstrations, and
Exercises
Give the Doctor Some Advice
What Do Journals Look Like?
Wonder Horse Dials 911 to

Save Boy’s Life
Handouts
Give the Doctor Some Advice
▲ Ret u rn t o Ch apt er 2: T abl e of Contents
47
LECTURE GUIDE
I. THE BEAUTY AND NECESSITY OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN (Text p. 44)
▲ Ret u rn t o Ch apt er 2: T abl e of Contents
> Lecture Launchers

The Tragedy of Dr. Semmelweis and Childbed Fever
> Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises

Estimating the Frequencies of Our Own and Others’ Behaviors
A. Why We Need Research Designs (Figure 2.1, text p. 43)

1. “I can see that it works”—often our impressions are wrong.
a. Without research designs, even intelligent, well-educated people
can be fooled.
b. Prefrontal lobotomy—example of what happens when we rely
on our subjective impressions (Figure 2.2, text p. 44).
i. Egaz Moniz won the Nobel prize for this procedure.
ii. Clinical observations led to the rejection of the prefrontal
lobotomy procedure.
B. How We Can Be Fooled: Two Modes of Thinking
1. The same psychological processes that serve us well in most situations
also predispose us to errors in thinking.
a. Heuristics—mental shortcuts or rules of thumb.
b. Reduce the cognitive energy required to solve problems.
c. But we oversimplify reality!
i. Shortcuts help simplify reality and work most of the time, but
can oversimplify complex information.
ii. Research designs help avoid the oversimplifying reality.
iii. Imagine yourself driving from Reno, Nevada, to San
Diego, California—what compass direction would you
take? (Hint: you might think to say southwest—but you
should actually drive southeast!) (Figure 2.3, text p. 46)
48
II. SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY: A TOOLBOX OF SKILLS (Text, p. 45)
▲ Ret u rn t o Ch apt er 2: T able of Co n t ent s
> Lecture Launchers

Case Studies of Vietnam War Experiences
Correlations and Causal Relationships
Independent and Dependent Variables
The Placebo Effect
The Road from Hypothesis to
Conclusion An Experimental Example
> Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and

Exercises Experimental Design
Equating Groups on Multiple Variables Using
Randomization Identifying the Parts of an Experiment
Can Science Answer This Question?
Observational Research in the Dining
Hall Naturalistic Observation
Understanding Correlations
Correlational and Experimental
Research Testing Random Assignment
Small Samples
Which Method Would You Use?
Name That Research Method
Using Memory to Demonstrate Methodology
Softens Hands While You Do Dishes
> Writing Assignment

Observation and Inference
A. There is no single scientific method; all methods enable us to test

hypotheses derived from broader theories
1. Confirmed hypotheses only strengthen our confidence in a theory, they do not
“prove” it.
2. Advantages and disadvantage of research designs (Table 2.1, text p. 48)
B. Naturalistic Observation: Studying Humans “In the Wild”
1. Naturalistic observation: watching behavior in real-world settings
2. Robert Provine (1996, 2000) observed human laughter in natural settings;
women laughed more than men, speakers laughed more than listeners, and
most laughter was not in response to “funny” remarks.
3. The major advantage of naturalistic observation is that studies are often high in
external validity—the findings may be generalized to real-world settings.
4. The major disadvantage of naturalistic observation is that studies tend to be
low in internal validity and we are limited in the degree to which we can draw
cause-and-effect conclusions.
49
C. Case Study Designs: Getting to Know You
1. One of the simplest designs in the psychologist’s investigative toolbox is the
case study.
2. Case studies can provide “existence proofs” that phenomena can occur
and can enable us to generate hypotheses for controlled studies.
3. Caution should be used when coming to conclusions based on case studies;
the plural of “anecdote” is not “fact.”
D. Self-Report Measures and Surveys: Asking People about Themselves and Others
1. Random Selection: The Key to Generalizability
a. Random selection is a survey approach in which every person in the
population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate. This
is essential for generalizing survey findings to a larger population.
i. Random selection should not be confused with random
assignment, one of the two ingredients in an experiment.
Random selection deals with how we choose
participants, random assignment deals with how we
assign participants after they’ve been selected.
b. The Hite Report (1987), a survey with surprising results about women
and relationships, is an example of the misleading effect of
nonrandom selection. Only 4.5 percent of those contacted responded
to the Hite Report; a simultaneous Harris poll using random selection
reported nearly opposite findings.
2. Evaluating Measures
a. Reliability—consistency of measurement
i. Test-retest reliability—a measurement yielding
similar scores within a group of people over time.
ii. Interrater reliability—the extent to which different people
who conduct an interview or make behavioral observations
agree on characteristics.
b. Validity—the extent to which a measure assesses what it claims
to measure.
c. Reliability and validity: The differences
i. Reliability is necessary for validity, but it is not sufficient
for validity.
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Report Measures
a. Self-report measures: questionnaires assessing a variety of
characteristics
i. Surveys: measure opinions, attitudes.
b. Pros are that measures are easy to administer; direct (self) assessment
of person’s state.
c. Cons are that accuracy is skewed for certain groups (narcissists);
potential for dishonesty.
i. Response sets—tendencies to distort answers to items
appear more positive, for example, than they actually are.
4. Rating Data: How Do They Rate
a. Ratings of others are subject to halo effect and horns effect in
which positive or negative ratings on one characteristic influence
ratings of other characteristics
50
E. Correlational Designs
1. Identifying When a Design Is Correlational
a. Correlation design—research design that examines the extent to
which variables are associated.
2. Correlations: A Beginner’s Guide
a. Positive correlations indicate that as one variable increases,
so does the other.
b. Negative correlations indicate as one variable increases, the other
decreases.
c. Zero correlations indicate no relation between variables.
d. Correlations range from –1.00 to +1.00; both of these correlation
ratings indicate a perfect relationship; a correlation of 0 indicates no
relationship between two variables; the strength of the association
between two variables is indicated by the absolute value of the
correlation; and the positive or negative sign indicates the direction of
the association (Figure 2.4, text p. 56).
3. The Scatterplot
a. A scatterplot is a grouping of points on a two-dimensional graph in
which each dot represents a single person’s data (Figure 2.4, text p.
56).
4. Illusory Correlation
a. Correlations are illusory when we perceive an association between
two things that does not exist, such as an association between the
full moon and strange occurrences.
b. We tend to pay too much attention to memorable events, while not
attending to non-memorable events.
c. We can minimize tendencies to make illusory correlations by
forcing ourselves to keep track of disconfirming instances.
5. Correlation versus Causation: Jumping the Gun
a. The most common mistake we make when interpreting correlational
data is to draw causal conclusions from them.
b. Correlational data does allow us to make predictions, but conclusions
from this type of research are limited because we can’t be sure why
these predicted relationships exist.
c. The news media frequently falls prey to the correlation vs.
causation fallacy (Figure 2.5, text p. 59).
51
F. Experimental Designs
1. Experimental designs permit us to make cause-and-effect inferences.
2. Unlike correlational designs, researchers conducting experimental designs
manipulate variables to see whether these manipulations produce differences
in participants’ behavior.
3. What Makes a Study an Experiment: Two Components
a. An experiment is a research design characterized by random
assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an
independent variable.
i. Random Assignment—experimenter randomly sorts
participants into two groups.
a. The experimental group receives the
manipulation.
b. The control group does not receive the
manipulation.
ii. Manipulation of an Independent Variable
a. Independent variable—the treatment or
intervention that the experimenter “manipulates”
or varies.
b. Dependent variable—variable that an
experimenter measures to see whether
the manipulation has an effect.
c. When we define our independent and dependent
variables for the purposes of a study, it is called
an operational definition—a working definition of
what it being measured.
4. Confounds: Sources of False Conclusions
a. A confounding variable is any variable that differs between the
experimental and control groups other than the independent variable.
i. e.g., patients who received an antidepressant also received
psychotherapy not received by the control group; “sessions of
psychotherapy” is a confound.
5. Cause and Effect: Permission to Infer
a. Experiments are distinct because they permit cause-and-
effect inferences.
52
6. Pitfalls in Experimental Design
a. The Placebo Effect—an improvement resulting from the mere
expectation of improvement. Our expectations can become reality.
i. Participants should be blind to the condition to which they
have been assigned. If not, expectations will differ.
b. The Nocebo Effect—Similar to the placebo effect, the nocebo
effect results from the mere expectation of harm.
i. More than two-thirds of students reported headaches
when led to expect them after exposure to a nonexistent
“electric current.”
c. The Experimenter Expectancy Effect—phenomena in
which researcher’s hypotheses lead them to unintentionally
bias a study outcome.
i. It is essential that experiments be conducted in a double-
blind design in which neither researchers nor subjects know
who is in the experimental or control group.
ii. In a classic example of experimenter expectancy, Clever Hans
the horse appeared to know mathematics; in fact, Clever Hans
was detecting subtle cues coming from his questioners.
d. Demand Characteristics—cues that participants pick up from a
study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher’s
hypotheses.
i. To minimize the potential for demand characteristics,
researchers can disguise the purpose of the study.
III. ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH DESIGN (Text p. 67)

▲ Return to Chapter 2: Table of Contents
> Lecture Launchers

An Historical Perspective on Research Ethics
Is There Privacy in a Public Restroom?
A. Tuskegee: A Shameful Moral Tale

1. From 1932 to 1972, the U.S. Public Health Service studied the course of
untreated syphilis among poor African-American men in the South.
a. Researchers never informed the men they had syphilis or
that effective antibiotics were available.
b. By the end of the study, 128 men had died as a result of syphilis,
40 wives were infected, 19 children had been born with syphilis.
B. Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
1. Throughout history there have been a variety of ethically questionable
studies that had the potential to inflict serious psychological harm.
2. Every major American college/university has at least one institutional
review board (IRB) that carefully reviews all research with an eye toward
protecting participants against abuses.
53
3. Informed Consent—informing research participants of what is involved
in a study before asking them to participate.
a. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) now require informed consent from
participants.
b. In Milgram’s study of obedience (1963), deception was used to induce
participants to deliver “shocks” to a learner.
c. The American Psychological Association states that deception is
justified only when it is necessary and the scientific knowledge
outweighs the cost (Table 2.3, text p. 69).
4. Debriefing: Educating Participants
a. In debriefing, participants are informed about the purpose of the
study. C. Ethical Issues in Animal Research
1. Animal research, particularly invasive animal research, generates a
great deal of anger and discomfort.
2. About 7–8 percent of published research in psychology relies on
animals, usually rodents and birds.
3. Some opponents argue that the deaths of 20 million animals per year aren’t
worth the benefits.
4. Supporters argue that animal research has directly benefited humans,
especially in the area of brain function and medication effectiveness.
5. Nevertheless, animal research has yielded important insights about brain
and behavior. Animal researchers must weigh carefully the potential scientific
gains of their work against the costs in death and suffering they produce.
IV. STATISTICS: THE LANGUAGE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Text, p. 70)

▲ Return to Chapter 2: Table of Contents
> Lecture Launchers

Oscar the Deathcat: A Case of Illusory Correlation?
A. Statistics—the application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data. They

help us determine the value of a hypothesis.
B. Descriptive Statistics: What’s What?
1. Descriptive statistics—numerical characterizations that describe data. There
are two types of descriptive statistics: central tendency and variability.
2. Central tendency: The 3 Ms
a. There are three measures of central tendency (Table 2.4, text p. 71).
i. the mean, or arithmetic average;
ii. the median, or middle score;
iii. and the mode, or most frequent score.
b. If the data are normally distributed, the mean is the better measure of
central tendency; if the data are skewed, the median or mode may be
more representative (Figure 2.6, text, p. 71).
54
3. Variability (dispersion)
a. Measures of variability describe how loosely or tightly bunched
the scores are.
b. The range is the difference between the highest and lowest score.
(Figure 2.7, text p. 72).
i. But it’s key to note that data sets can display very different
distribution of scores across the range.
c. The standard deviation takes into account how far each data point is
from the mean.
C. Inferential Statistics: Testing Hypotheses
1. Inferential statistics—these statistics allow us to determine whether we can
generalize our sample findings to a larger population, or whether they just
occurred by chance alone.
2. Statistical Significance
a. A statistically significant finding is one that would occur by chance
alone less than 5 percent of the time; if it would occur by chance that
rarely, we conclude that the finding we observed in our sample is
probably real.
b. In psychology journals, a statistically significant finding is described
using the phrase “p < .05”.
3. Practical Significance
a. A finding may be statistically significant, or unlikely to have occurred
by chance, yet be so small that the findings do not translate into
meaningful consequences in the real world.
b. All other things being equal, larger sample sizes will increase the
likelihood that a finding will be statistically significant, but will not have
an effect on practical significance.
D. How People Lie with Statistics
1. If the distribution of data is skewed, reporting the mean as the measure of
central tendency can give a false picture of the nature of the majority of the
scores.
2. A truncated line graph in which the y axis starts at the lowest possible
score, not 0, can create the illusion that groups of scores are very different
from each other when real differences are tiny (Figure 2.8, text p. 74).
55
V. EVALUATING PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Text p. 75)
> Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and

Exercises Give the Doctor Some Advice
What Do Journals Look Like?
Wonder Horse Dials 911 to Save Boy’s Life
A. Becoming a Peer Reviewer

1. In this process, fellow experts try to identify flaws that could undermine a
study’s findings and conclusions.
2. Potential flaws include lack of random assignment to groups and lack of a true
placebo control group in which participants receive an ineffective treatment.
B. Most Reporters Aren’t Scientists: Evaluating Psychology in the Media
1. Most reporters are not trained in psychology, and so fall prey to
heuristics and biases that we are all susceptible to.
2. We should consider the source, giving greater credence to reputable
science magazines and less to tabloids or popular magazines.
a. Internet sources associated with reputable organizations such as the
APA and APS are more reliable than sites not affiliated with
scientific organizations.
b. Primary sources such as journal articles are more reliable than
secondary sources such as newspapers and Web sites.
3. We should be on the lookout for storytelling techniques, such as sharpening,
in which the central gist of a study is exaggerated, and leveling, in which the
less central details are downplayed.
4. We should beware of pseudosymmetry, in which reporters present two sides to
a controversy, when the evidence strongly favors one side. This gives the
appearance of scientific controversy when none exists.
56
CHAPTER 2
Learning Objectives
On completion of this chapter, students should be able to

2.1a: identify two modes of thinking and their application to scientific reasoning (text p.
46); APA LO 2.4a (Describe research methods used by psychologists including
their respective advantages and disadvantages); APA LO 1.5a (Relate examples
of how a researcher’s value system, sociocultural characteristics, and historical
context influence the development of scientific inquiry on psychological
questions)
2.2.a: describe the advantages and disadvantages of using naturalistic observation,
case studies, self-report measures, and surveys (text p. 49); APA LO 2.4a
(Describe research methods used by psychologists including their respective
advantages and disadvantages)
2.2b: describe the role of correlational designs and distinguish correlation from
causation (text p. 54); APA LO 2.2e (Interpret simple graphs and statistical
findings)
2.2c: identify the components of an experiment, the potential pitfalls that can lead to
faulty conclusions, and how psychologists control for these pitfalls (text p. 60);
APA LO 2.4b (Discuss the value of experimental design (i.e., controlled
comparisons) in justifying cause-effect relationships)
2.3a: explain the ethical obligations of researchers toward their research participants
(text p. 67); APA LO 3.1a (Describe key regulations in the APA Ethics Code for
protection of human or nonhuman research participants)
2.3b: describe both sides of the debate on the use of animals as research subjects
(text p. 68); APA LO 3.1c (Discuss relevant ethical issues that reflect principles in
the APA Code of Ethics)
2.4a: identify uses of various measures of central tendency and variability (text p. 70);
APA LO 4.1f (Interpret quantitative data displayed in statistics, graphs, and
tables, including statistical symbols in research reports)
2.4b: explain how inferential statistics can help us to determine whether we can
generalize from our sample to the full population (text p. 72); APA LO 2.5d
(Identify under what conditions research findings can be appropriately
generalized)
2.4c: show how statistics can be misused for purposes of persuasion (text p. 72); APA
LO 2.2d (Articulate criteria for identifying objective sources of psychology
information)
2.5a: identify flaws in research designs and how to correct for them (text p. 75); APA
LO 2.4a (Describe research methods used by psychologists including their
respective advantages and disadvantages)
2.5b: identify skills for evaluating psychological claims in the popular media (text p. 76);
APA LO 2.2b Describe what kinds of additional information beyond personal
experience are acceptable in developing behavioral explanations (i.e., popular
press reports vs. scientific findings).
57
58
CHAPTER 2
Key Terms
Blind (text p. 63) Internal Validity (text p. 48)
Case Study (text p. 48) Mean (text p. 71)
Central Tendency (text p. 71) Median (text p. 71)
Control Group (text p. 61) Mode (text p. 71)
Correlational Design (text p. 54) Naturalistic Observation (text p. 47)
Demand Characteristics (text p. 66) Operational Definition (text p. 61)
Dependent Variable (text p. 61) Placebo Effect (text p. 63)
Descriptive Statistics (text p. 71) Prefrontal Lobotomy (text p. 44)
Double-Blind (text p. 65) Random Assignment (text p. 61)
Existence Proof (text p. 49) Random Selection (text p. 50)
Experiment (text p. 60) Range (text p. 72)
Experimenter Expectancy Effect (text p. 65) Reliability (text p. 51)
Experimental Group (text p. 61) Response Set (text p. 53)
External Validity (text p. 48) Scatterplot (text p. 55)
Heuristic (text p. 46) Standard Deviation (text p. 72)
Illusory Correlation (text p. 57) Statistics (text p. 70)
Independent Variable (text p. 61) Validity (text p. 51)
Inferential Statistics (text p. 73) Variability (text p. 72)
Informed Consent (text p. 68)
▲ Ret u rn t o Ch apt er 2: T able of

Co n t ent s
59
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Title: History for ready reference, Volume 6

Recent history - 1894-5 to 1901 A-Z
Author: J. N. Larned
Release date: October 17, 2023 [eBook #71897]
Language: English
Original publication: Springfield, Mass: C. A. Nichols Co, 1895
Credits: Don Kostuch
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, VOLUME
6 ***
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HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE.
FROM THE BEST HISTORIANS, BIOGRAPHERS, AND SPECIALISTS
THEIR OWN WORDS IN A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF HISTORY

FOR ALL USES, EXTENDING TO ALL COUNTRIES AND SUBJECTS,
AND REPRESENTING FOR BOTH READERS AND STUDENTS THE BETTER
AND NEWER LITERATURE OF HISTORY IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
BY
J. N. LARNED
WITH NUMEROUS HISTORICAL MAPS FROM ORIGINAL
STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BY
ALAN O. REILEY
REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION
IN SIX VOLUMES
VOLUME VI—RECENT HISTORY

1894-5 TO 1901
A to Z
SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
THE C. A. NICHOLS CO., PUBLISHERS
COPYRIGHT, 1901,
BY J. N. LARNED.
The Riverside Press,

Cambridge, Massachusetts, U. S. A.
Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company.
PREFACE TO THE SIXTH VOLUME.
The six years that have passed since the original five volumes
of this compilation were published, in 1894-5, have been
filled with events so remarkable and changes so revolutionary
in political and social conditions that the work has seemed to
need an extension to cover them. The wish for such an
extension, expressed by many people, led to the preparation of
a new volume, in which all the lines of the historical record
are taken from the points at which they were dropped in the
early volumes, and are carried to the end of the Nineteenth
Century, and beyond it, into the opening months of the present
year.
In plan and arrangement this additional volume is uniform with

the preceding ones; but the material used in it is different
from that dealt with before, and a quite different character
is given consequently to the book. The former compilation
represented closet-studies of History—perspective views of a
past more or less remote from those who depicted it. This one,
on the contrary, exhibits History in the making,—the day by
day evolution of events and changes as they passed under the
hands and before the eyes and were recorded by the pens of the
actual makers and witnesses of them. If there is crudeness in the
story thus constructed, there is life in it, to quite make good
the lack of literary finish; and the volume is expected to
prove as interesting and as useful as its predecessors. It
sets forth, with the fulness which their present-day interest
demands, all the circumstances that led to the
Spanish-American war; the unforeseen sequences of that war, in
the Philippine Islands, in Cuba, in Porto Rico, and in
American politics; the whole controversy of Great Britain with
the South African Boers and the resulting war; the shameful
dealings of western nations with China, during late years,
which provoked the outbreak of barbaric hostility to
foreigners, and the dreadful experiences of the siege and
relief of Peking; the strange Dreyfus agitations in France;
the threatening race-conflicts in Austria; the change of
sovereign in England; the Peace Conference at The Hague and
its results; the federation of the Australian colonies; the
development of industrial combinations or trusts in the United
States; the archæological discoveries of late years in the
East, and the more notable triumphs of achievement in the
scientific world. On these and other occurrences of the period
surveyed, the record of fact is quoted from sources the most
responsible and authentic now available, and always with the
endeavor to present both sides of controverted matters with
strict impartiality.
For purposes of reference and study, a large number of

important documents—laws, treaties, new constitutions of
government, and other state papers—are given in full, and, in
most instances, from officially printed texts.
BUFFALO, NEW YORK; May, 1901.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
I am indebted to the following named authors, editors, and

publishers, for permission kindly given me to quote from books
and periodicals, all of which are duly referred to in
connection with the passages severally borrowed from them:
The manager of The American Catholic Quarterly Review;

the editor of The American Journal of Archæology;
the editor of The American Monthly Review of Reviews;
General Thomas F. Anderson;
Messrs. D. Appleton & Company;
Messrs. Wm. Blackwood's Sons (Blackwood's Magazine);
Mr. Andrew Carnegie;
Messrs. Chapman & Hall (The Fortnightly Review);
Mr. Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain);
Hon. W. Bourke Cockran;
the editor of The Contemporary Review;
Prof. John Franklin Crowell;
the G. W. Dillingham Company;
Messrs. Dodd, Mead & Company;
Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Company;
The Ecumenical Conference on Foreign Missions;
Mr. J. Foreman;
The Forum Publishing Company;
Harper & Brothers (Harper's Magazine);
Mr. Howard C. Hillegas;
Prof. H. V. Hilprecht;
Hon. Frederick W. Holls;
Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Company (The Atlantic Monthly);
Mr. George Iles;
the editor of The Independent;
Prof. John H. Latané;
Messrs. Longmans, Green & Company (The Edinburgh Review);
Mr. Charles F. Lummis;
Messrs. McClure, Philips & Company (The Popular Science Monthly);
Messrs. MacMillan & Company (London);
The New Amsterdam Book Company;
the editor of The Nineteenth Century Review;
the editor of The North American Review;
the editors of The Outlook;
the managing editor of The Political Science Quarterly;
Mr. Edward Porritt;
Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons;
Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons;
George M. Sternberg, Surgeon-General, U. S. A.;
The Frederick A. Stokes Company;
the managing editor of The Sunday School Times;
Prof. F. W. Taussig;
Prof. Elihu Thomson;
the manager of The Times, London;
The University Press, Cambridge;
Mr. Herbert Welsh; the editors of The Yale Review.
My acknowledgments are likewise due to the Hon. D. S.

Alexander, Representative in Congress, and to many officials
at Washington, for courteous assistance in procuring
publications of the national government for my use.
LIST OF MAPS.
Map of Asia, Preceding the title page
Map of Africa, Following page 2
Map of Alaska, Following page 8
Map of Australia, Following page 30
Map of Central America,

showing the Isthmian Canal routes, Following page 66
Map of the East Coast of China, Following page 76
Map of Cuba and the West Indies, Following page 170
Map of Hawaii, Following page 254
Map of the Philippine Islands,

and of the seat of war in Luzon, Following page 368
Map of Porto Rico, Following page 410
Map of the Boer Republics

and their surroundings, Following page 492
Map illustrating the Santiago campaign

in the Spanish-American war, On page 603
LIST OF TABLES.
The descendants of Queen Victoria, Page 215
Protestant foreign missions

and missionary societies, Pages 311-313
Navies of the Sea Powers, Page 318
Philippine Islands, area and population, Pages 367-369
The Shipping of the World in 1900, Page 452
British military forces in South African war, Pages 509-510
Statistics of the Spanish-American War, Pages 628-631
Twelfth Census of the United States (1900), Pages 645-646
Revenues and expenditures of the government

of the United States for the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1900, Page 666
Losses from all causes in the armies
of the United States from
May 1, 1898, to May 20, 1900, Pages 666-667
Qualifications of the elective franchise

in the several States of the United States, Pages 676-677
Military and naval expenditures of

the greater Powers, Pages 694-697
Chronological record of events, 1895 to 1901, Pages 702-720
{1}
HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE.
ABORIGINES, American.
See (in this volume)
INDIANS, AMERICAN.
ABRUZZI, the Duke of: Arctic expedition.
See (in this volume) POLAR EXPLORATION, 1899-1900, 1901.
ABYDOS, Archæological exploration at.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: RESULTS.
ABYSSINIA: A. D. 1895-1896.
Successful war with the Italians.
See (in this volume) ITALY: A. D. 1895-1896.
ABYSSINIA: A. D. 1897.
Treaty with Great Britain.
A treaty between King Menelek of Abyssinia and the British

Government was concluded in May, 1897. It gives to British
subjects the privileges of the most favored nations in trade;
opens the port of Zeyla to Abyssinian importations; defines
the boundary of the British Somali Protectorate, and pledges
Abyssinia to be hostile to the Mahdists.
ACETYLENE GAS, Production of.

SCIENCE, RECENT: CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
ADOWA, Battle of.
See (in this volume) ITALY; A. D. 1895-1896.
AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1893-1895.
Relinquishment of claims over Swat, Bajaur and Chitral.

INDIA: A. D. 1895 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1894.
The Waziri War.
See (in this volume) INDIA: A. D. 1894.
Anglo-Russian Agreement.
Determination of the northern frontier.
The joint Anglo-Russian Commission for fixing the northern

frontier of Afghanistan, from Zulfikar on the Heri-Rud to the
Pamirs, finished its work in July, 1895. This was consequent
upon an Agreement between the governments of Great Britain and
Russia which had been reduced to writing on the previous 11th
of March. In part, that Agreement was as follows:
"Her Britannic Majesty's Government and the Government of His

Majesty the Emperor of Russia engage to abstain from
exercising any political influence or control, the former to
the north, the latter to the south, of the above line of
demarcation. Her Britannic Majesty's Government engage that
the territory lying within the British sphere of influence
between the Hindu Kush and the line running from the east end
of Lake Victoria to the Chinese frontier shall form part of
the territory of the Ameer of Afghanistan, that it shall not
be annexed to Great Britain, and that no military posts or
forts shall be established in it. The execution of this
Agreement is contingent upon the evacuation by the Ameer of
Afghanistan of all the territories now occupied by His
Highness on the right bank of the Panjah, and on the
evacuation by the Ameer of Bokhara of the portion of Darwaz
which lies to the south of the Oxus, in regard to which Her
Britannic Majesty's Government and the Government of His
Majesty the Emperor of Russia have agreed to use their
influence respectively with the two Ameers."
Great Britain, Papers by Command: Treaty Series,

Number 8, 1895.
Conquest of Kafiristan.
By the agreement of 1893, between the Ameer of Afghanistan and

the government of India (see, in this volume, INDIA. A. D.
1895-MARCH-SEPTEMBER), the mountain district of Kafiristan was
conceded to the former, and he presently set to work to
subjugate its warlike people, who had never acknowledged his
yoke. By the end of 1896 the conquest of these Asiatic Kafirs
was believed to be complete.
AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1897-1898.
Wars of the British with frontier tribes.
See (in this volume) INDIA: A. D. 1897-1898.
Russian railway projects.
See (in this volume) RUSSIA-IN-ASIA: A. D. 1900.
----------AFRICA: Start--------
AFRICA: A. D. 1891-1900
(Portuguese East Africa).
Delagoa Bay Railway Arbitration.

DELAGOA BAY ARBITRATION.
AFRICA: A. D. 1893 (Niger Coast Protectorate).
Its growth.

NIGERIA: A. D. 1882-1899.
AFRICA: A. D. 1894 (The Transvaal).

The Commandeering question.

SOUTH AFRICA: (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1894.

Dissatisfaction of the Boers with the
London Convention of 1884.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1884-1894.
AFRICA: A. D. 1894-1895 (British South Africa Company).

Extension of charter and enlargement of powers.
Influence of Cecil J. Rhodes.
Attitude towards the Transvaal.

SOUTH AFRICA
(BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY): A. D. 1894-1895.
AFRICA: A. D. 1894-1895 (Rhodesia).

Extended territory and enlarged powers of the British
South Africa Company.
Ascendancy of Cecil J. Rhodes.

SOUTH AFRICA
(BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY): A. D. 1894-1895.
AFRICA: A. D. 1894-1898
(British Central Africa Protectorate: Nyassaland).
Administrative separation from British South Africa Company's
territory.
Conflicts with natives.
Resources and prospects.

BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA PROTECTORATE.
{2}
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Bechuanaland).

Partial conveyance to British South Africa Company.
Several Bechuana chiefs visited England to urge that their

country should not be absorbed by Cape Colony or the British
South Africa Company. An agreement was made with them which
reserved certain territories to each, but yielded the
remainder to the administration of the British South Africa
Company.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (British East Africa).

Transfer of territory to the British Government.
The territories previously administered by the Imperial

British East Africa Company (excepting the Uganda
Protectorate, which had been transferred in 1894) were finally
transferred to the British Government on the 1st of July. At
the same time, the dominion of the Sultan of Zanzibar on the
mainland came under the administrative control of the British
consul-general at Zanzibar.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Cape Colony).

Annexation of British Bechuanaland.
Proceedings for the annexation of British Bechuanaland to Cape

Colony were adopted by the Cape Parliament in August.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (French West Africa).

Appointment of a Governor-General.
In June, M. Chaudie was appointed Governor-General of French

West Africa, his jurisdiction extending over Senegal, the
Sudan possessions of France, French Guinea, Dahomey, and other
French possessions in the Gulf of Benin.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Orange Free State).

Proposed federal union of the Free State with the Transvaal.
A resolution making overtures for a federal union with the

Transvaal was passed by the Volksraad of the Orange Free State
in June.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Sierra Leone).

Establishment of a British Protectorate over the
Hinterland of Sierra Leone.
Anglo-French boundary agreement.

SIERRA LEONE PROTECTORATE.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Transvaal).

Action in Swaziland.
By a proclamation in February, the Transvaal Government

assumed the administration of Swaziland and installed King
Buna as paramount chief.

Closing of the Vaal River Drifts.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1895 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).
Discontent of the Uitlanders.
The Franchise question.

A. D. 1895 (NOVEMBER).

Opening of Delagoa Bay Railway.

A. D. 1895 (JULY).
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Zululand).

Extension of Boundary.
A strip of territory west of Amatongaland, along the Pondoland

River to the Maputa was formally added to Zululand in May, the
South African Republic protesting.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895-1896 (Portuguese East Africa).

War with Gungunhana.
The Portuguese were involved in war with Gungunhana, king of

Gazaland, which lasted from September, 1895, until the
following spring, when Gungunhana was captured and carried a
prisoner, with his wives and son, to Lisbon.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895-1896 (The Transvaal).

Revolutionary conspiracy of Uitlanders at Johannesburg.
The Jameson raid.

A. D. 1895-1896.
AFRICA: A. D. 1895-1897 (British East Africa Protectorate).

Creation of the Protectorate.
Territories included.
Subjugation of Arab chiefs.
Report of commissioner.

BRITISH EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE:
A. D. 1895-1897.
AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (Ashanti).

British conquest and occupation.

ASHANTI.
AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (British South Africa Company).

Resignation of Mr. Rhodes.
Parliamentary movement to investigate.

SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY):
A. D. 1896 (JUNE); and (JULY).
AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (Cape Colony).

Investigation of the Jameson raid.

SOUTH AFRICA (CAPE COLONY): A. D. 1896 (JULY).
AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (Rhodesia).

Matabele revolt.

SOUTH AFRICA (RHODESIA):
A. D. 1896 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (Zanzibar).

Suppression of an usurper by the British.
On the sudden death (supposed to be from poison) of the Sultan

of Zanzibar, August 25, his cousin, Said Khalid, seized the
palace and proclaimed himself sultan. Zanzibar being an
acknowledged protectorate of Great Britain, the usurper was
summoned by the British consul to surrender. He refused, and
the palace was bombarded by war vessels in the harbor, with
such effect that the palace was speedily destroyed and about
500 of its inmates killed. Khalid fled to the German consul,
who protected him and had him conveyed to German territory. A
new sultan, Said Hamud-bin-Mahomed was at once proclaimed.
AFRICA: A. D. 1896-1899 (The Transvaal).

Controversies with the British Government.

A. D. 1896 (JANUARY-APRIL), to 1899 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Congo Free State).

Mutiny of troops.
The Congo troops of an expedition led by Baron Dhanis mutinied

and murdered a number of Belgian officers. Subsequently they
were attacked in the neighborhood of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza
and mostly destroyed.
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Dahomey and Tongoland).

Definition of boundary.
By a convention concluded in July between Germany and France,

the boundary between German possessions in Tongoland and those
of France in Dahomey and the Sudan was defined.
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Nigeria).
Massacre at Benin.
British expedition.
Capture of the town.

NIGERIA: A. D. 1897.
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Nigeria).

Subjugation of Fulah slave-raiders.
In January and February, the forces of the Royal Niger Company

successfully invaded the strong Fulah states of Nupé and
Ilorin, from which slave raiding in the territory under
British protection was carried on. Bida, the Nupé capital, was
entered on the 27th of January, after a battle in which 800
Hausa troops, led by European officers, and using heavy
artillery, drove from the field an army of cavalry and foot
estimated at 30,000 in number. The Emir of Nupé was deposed,
another set up in his place, and a treaty signed which
established British rule. The Emir of Ilorin submitted after
his town had been bombarded, and bowed himself to British
authority in his government. At the same time, a treaty
settled the Lagos frontier. Later in the year, the stronghold
at Kiffi of another slave-raider, Arku, was stormed and
burned.
Map of Africa
{3}
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Orange Free State and Transvaal).

Treaty defensive between the two republics.

SOUTH AFRICA (ORANGE FREE STATE AND TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1897 (APRIL).
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Sudan).

Beginning of the Anglo-Egyptian conquest.

EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896.

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Statistics: The Language of Psychological Research

FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics

BRIEF OUTLINE INSTRUCTOR

II. Scientific Methodology: A Toolbox of Learning Objectives: 2.2a,

The Placebo Effect

The Road from Hypothesis to

Equating Groups on Multiple

Identifying the Parts of an

Can Science Answer This

Observational Research in the

Correlational and Experimental

Testing Random Assignment

Which Method Would You Use?

Name That Research Method

Using Memory to Demonstrate

Softens Hands While You Do

III. Ethical Issues in Research Design (Text Learning Objectives: 2.3a,

Is There Privacy in a Public

IV. Statistics: The Language of Learning Objectives: 2.4a,

V. Evaluating Psychological Research (Text Learning Objectives: 2.5a,

What Do Journals Look Like?

Wonder Horse Dials 911 to

> Lecture Launchers

> Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises

A. Why We Need Research Designs (Figure 2.1, text p. 43)

> Lecture Launchers

> Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and

> Writing Assignment

A. There is no single scientific method; all methods enable us to test

III. ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH DESIGN (Text p. 67)

> Lecture Launchers

A. Tuskegee: A Shameful Moral Tale

IV. STATISTICS: THE LANGUAGE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Text, p. 70)

> Lecture Launchers

A. Statistics—the application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data. They

> Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and

A. Becoming a Peer Reviewer

On completion of this chapter, students should be able to

▲ Ret u rn t o Ch apt er 2: T able of

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