Chapter 01

Sample

Hyperion

The California redwood, known to scientists as Sequoia sempervirens, is the

tallest species of tree in the world. Many redwoods have grown to a height of 90
meters or more. The tallest of these is named Hyperion.
This tree, which was first measured in 2006, is 115.9 meters tall. It is
estimated to be about 600 years old. Scientists say its great height is due to
favorable climatic conditions such as mild temperatures and heavy rainfall.
Hyperion is located in Redwood National Park in California, USA, but its precise
location is kept a secret. Environmentalists worry it could be vandalized or
unintentionally damaged by tourists trying to take a photograph of the giant tree.
People have been making an effort to preserve Hyperion, and fortunately, there
have been no traces of human activity on the ground near the tree.

Starting Up

Many animals communicate by instinct. This means they know what sounds to
make when they are born. But some songbirds are like humans—they must learn
how to communicate by mimicking adults.
Researchers recently conducted an experiment with young songbirds. They
repeatedly played a song for the birds. The birds did not try to memorize the song
all at once. Instead, they learned it part by part. When they learned a new part, they
added it to the parts they already knew. At first, they mixed up the order of the
parts. But they eventually learned how to sing the song correctly.
When the researchers played a new song, the young birds slowly altered the old
song to match it. However, once they fully matured, they no longer changed their
songs.

Everyone knows that flowers smell nice, but few people realize that many plants
use smells to attract insects. They need insects to pollinate them so that they can
reproduce.
Not all smells come from flowers. Some smells come from fragrant oils in the
leaves of certain plants, such as the lemon tree. These oils also protect the plants
from drying out in strong sunshine. Others come from the fruit, bark, roots and
seeds of plants. Many well-known aromas come from plants, including orange,
cinnamon, ginger, mustard, and chili. However, not all plant smells are pleasant.
The corpse lily, which is one of the world’s largest plants, smells like rotting meat.

Building Up

Photosynthesis

Plants differ from animals in that they do not eat other things to survive. They
use their own food by using the sun’s energy to convert carbon dioxide and water
into food. This process is called photosynthesis, which comes from the Latin words
meaning “formation in light.”
Photosynthesis takes place in the plant’s leaves. Most leaves contain a chemical
called chlorophyll. Sunlight stimulates the chlorophyll and reacts with carbon
dioxide and water. Plants obtain carbon dioxide when they breathe in and absorb
water through their roots. During a series of reactions, the water molecules are
broken down into hydrogen and oxygen. Then the hydrogen combines with carbon
dioxide to produce a basic sugar called glucose. The glucose is used for building
other carbohydrates. These serve as fuel for the plants’ growth and metabolism.
Photosynthesis is vital to the earth. It is the process through which plant life is
established. It provides food and supports all the other consumers in the food
chain. Moreover, photosynthesis renews the earth’s oxygen supply by releasing
oxygen into the environment.

Moving Up 1

Beavers

Beavers are the second-largest rodents in the world. Their distinctive broad, flat
tails and prominent teeth make beavers easy to spot. They originally came from
Europe and North America.
Beavers use their strong jaws and big teeth to cut down trees. They use the
trees to form dams on streams and rivers. These dams block the water, so the rivers
flood and form ponds. The flooding can cause some damage, but the long-term
effects are very advantageous for the environment. The benefits of beaver dams are
cleaner water and more wetlands, which provide homes for other animals. Dams
also control the seasonal flooding of the rivers and help maintain a steady water
level year-round. Ponds that are formed by dams help the beavers catch fish and
protect their homes.
Beavers live in lodges made out of wood. They are located in the middle of
ponds. Beavers build underwater entrances to their lodges, which makes it harder
for predators to attack them. Even though they are located in ponds, these lodges
are dry inside. Lodges usually have two rooms—one room is for the beavers to dry
off in after swimming through the pond, and the other is where the beavers actually
live.

Moving Up 2

Habitats

A habitat is the type of environment in which an organism or species normally

lives. The earth has many different habitats. Each of these habitats has distinct life
forms living in it and forming complex communities. A complex community of
plants and animals in a region is called a biome.
Eight different types of biomes are found throughout the world. The six
terrestrial biomes are rainforest, desert, grassland, temperate deciduous forest,
taiga, and tundra. The two aquatic biomes are freshwater and marine. Rainforests
are most commonly found in tropical regions close to the equator with very heavy
rainfall and constant warm temperatures. Deserts are the driest biome. Organisms
living in deserts must have special adaptations to survive. Grasslands are also called
prairies. They have both a wet season and a dry season. However, they do not get
enough rainfall to support large trees. Temperate deciduous forests are generally
warm in the summer and cold in the winter. They are home to deciduous trees that
lose their leaves in the autumn. Taiga is a kind of needleleaf forest. It has extremely
cold winters with a short growing season. Tundra is the coldest of all of the
terrestrial biomes. No trees can survive there. The freshwater biome includes ponds,
rivers and lakes, while the marine biome refers to the oceans and other areas of
saltwater areas.
Challenge TOEFL iBT

Eugenie Clark

Eugenie Clark was a marine biologist and an expert on sharks. As a child, she
spent many hours at the New York Aquarium. It was there that she developed her
love for fish. She would often press her hands against the glass of the tanks and
imagine she was in the water with them. She majored in zoology in university, and
she later earned a master’s degree and a doctorate degree from New York
University.
As a marine biologist, Clark worked hard to educate people on the importance
of taking care of our oceans. She wrote three books and more than 175 scientific
articles. She also worked on 24 television shows and often gave lectures at
universities around the world. Of all the creatures in the sea, she was most
enthusiastic about sharks. For this reason, she was often referred to as the “Shark
Lady.” Clark focused on disproving the many incorrect myths about sharks. She
worried that movies and television shows portrayed sharks as cruel monsters. When
she first started studying sharks, most people considered them “dumb and deadly.”
But Clark helped people understand that sharks are intelligent creatures that rarely
attack humans. In fact, there are 350 species of sharks, and most of them are not
dangerous at all. Clark was also the first scientist to observe sleeping sharks. Before
that time, it was believed that sharks could not breathe if they stopped moving.
Clark proved this to be untrue. Also, she had four species of fish named after her.
Clark’s research on sharks was extremely valuable to marine science. Most
importantly, she discovered a natural substance that repels sharks. It is produced
by a small, flat fish known as the Moses sole. Many divers now use it to dive safely
among sharks. Thanks to Clark’s legacy, people have been able to observe and
research sharks better.
Chapter 02
Sample

WWOOF (World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms)

World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms (WWOOF) is network of

organizations that work together to arrange homestays on organic farms. It began
in England in 1971, but today there are WWOOF host farms in more than 100
countries around the world, most notably Australia, New Zealand, and the United
States. Each of these three countries has more than 2,000 host farms, all of which
offer the experience of working on an organic farm to volunteers.
These volunteers, often referred to as “woofers,” are generally unpaid. In return
for four to five hours of work per day, they receive meals and a place to stay, as
well as valuable experience and knowledge. The duration of each homestay varies.
Many woofers stay for a few days or a couple of weeks, but others remain on the
host farm for a year or longer.

Starting Up

A community consists of different groups of people who live and work together.
The very smallest unit in a community is an individual. Then come families,
neighborhoods, and finally towns and cities. People who work together to solve
problems and improve situations are called community helpers. They can be found
in nearly every community.
Community helpers give their time to people who need help. Anyone can be a
community helper. Mail carriers, firefighters, police officers and doctors, for
example, help their communities in many ways. So do lawmakers, government
officials and volunteers. The list goes on and on.

“Fiscal policy” is a term used in economics to describe how a government

collects and spends money in order to influence the national economy. It should not
be confused with “monetary policy,” which is how the nation’s central bank
regulates the amount of currency that is created. Fiscal policy includes both the
purchase of goods and services and the taxation of individuals and businesses.
When a government collects more money than it spends, its fiscal policy is said
to be “tight.” On the other hand, a fiscal policy that spends more money than it
collects is referred to as “loose.” Neither of these models is considered superior to
the other. Instead, a successful fiscal policy is considered to be one that finds the
proper balance between spending and taxation.

Building Up

Oil Spills

The term “oil spill” often refers accidents in which oil is released into the ocean
or coastal waters. This usually happens when a ship that carries oil, called an oil
tanker, hits a rock or shallow land at sea. This can cause the ship to leak oil into the
water.
Oil spills cause massive environmental damage. Some things that affect the
severity of an oil spill include the type of oil and the weather. Some lighter oil
products, such as diesel and gasoline, cause less damage than thicker oil products,
like crude oil. This is because thicker oil remains for a longer time. So the thicker
oil can kill birds and fish for many years. If the weather is poor, the oil spill can
spread faster and cause damage to a greater area of the ocean and coast.
One of the worst oil spills was the Deepwater Horizon accident. It occurred in
the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. Although many efforts were made to remove the oil
from the coast, the oil contaminated the environment for years afterwards.

Moving Up 1

Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks was an African-American woman born in Alabama, USA, in 1913. In

1955, when she was a seamstress living in the city of Montgomery, she made
national news by refusing to give her seat on a bus to a white man. Because of her
act of rebellion, Parks eventually became known as “the mother of the civil rights
movement.”
At that time, many states in America’s Deep South had segregation laws, often
called “Jim Crow” laws. African Americans were not permitted to use the same
schools, libraries and bathrooms as white people. They even had to drink from
separate water fountains. On the Montgomery city buses, there was a section for
white people in the front of the bus and a section for African Americans in the back.
If the white section was full, African Americans were required to give up their seats
for white people.
When Parks was arrested for breaking this law, other African-American activists
—including Martin Luther King Jr., who was only 26 at the time—organized a bus
boycott. For more than a year, members of Montgomery’s African-American
community refused to ride the city buses. The boycott finally ended when the
Supreme Court decided that the United States Constitution did not allow segregation
laws. The bus boycott was ended the next day, but the civil rights movement had
just begun.

Moving Up 2

Acid Rain

Acid rain is a form of pollution. It can occur naturally near volcanoes or some
wetlands. But acid rain mostly comes from manmade sources, such as power plants,
factories and motor vehicles. Factories produce many kinds of toxic chemicals,
including the main components of acid rain, SO 2 (sulfur dioxide) and NO (nitrogen
oxide).
When SO2 and NO in factory smoke are emitted into the atmosphere, they get
absorbed by water droplets in clouds. The chemicals change the water’s pH level,
making it acidic. Later, when the toxic water droplets fall to the earth as rain, snow
or mist, the acid rain has adverse effects on the environment.
First of all, it changes the pH of the soil. This activates toxins and takes away
essential nutrients and minerals, slowing the growth of plants. Tree growth is also
slowed, with leaves and needles turning brown and dying. The death of trees is not
usually a direct result of acid rain, but it weakens them and makes them more
susceptible to other threats. Very strong acid rain can even dissolve building
materials. Although direct harm to human health has not been proved, some
scientists have claimed it causes illness and premature deaths. Nowadays, many
people are trying to safeguard the environment from acid rain.
Challenge TOEFL iBT

Election and Voting

Elections are the process by which people vote to choose a person or a group of
people for an official position. By voting, everyone can have a say in who runs the
government. This makes voting the best way to ensure that a government acts how
the people want. Voting is a benefit of living in a democracy, but it is also a
responsibility. Citizens have to vote wisely in order to get a good government that
represents them.
The question of who can vote is often an issue. Even in democracies, not
everyone is allowed to vote. Historically, people from many groups have been
excluded from voting. For instance, the people of ancient Athens did not allow
women, foreigners, or slaves to vote. In the early years of the United States, only
white males who owned land were able to vote. Today, most countries have a law
that only citizens and adults can vote.
Before an election, political parties organize political campaigns. This means
they raise money and hold speeches to communicate their ideas. Each party tries to
explain why its ideas are best. Voters use this information to make a decision. To
vote, people must register their names on a voter list. This makes it impossible to
vote more than once or to use someone else’s vote, which would make the election
unfair.
On election day, people go to voting centers. They choose which politicians or
parties they support and mark their choices on a piece of paper called a “ballot.”
Who each person chooses is a secret. This is one of the basic freedoms of
democracies. The ballots are kept safe until the election is finished, and then they
are counted. After all the votes have been counted, a winner is declared. The person
or the party who has the most votes wins the election. This person or political party
can then form the new government.
Chapter 03
Sample

Ice Age Animals

There were many large and interesting animals during the last ice age. It ended
10,000 years ago, but fossils and ancient cave drawings tell us that some special
animals lived during that time. These animals were similar to some that we can see
today, but they were much larger, had more hair, and bigger horns or teeth.
One such animal was the mammoth. This animal looked like a very hairy
elephant. Unlike the modern elephant, the mammoth had very long tusks that
reached 5 meters in length in some adults.
Another interesting ice age animal was the saber-toothed cat. These wild cats
were much larger than tigers today. They had very large upper teeth, as well as
other sharp teeth and powerful jaws, that they used to bite their prey, cutting it like
a sword.

Starting Up

The Chinese city of Xi’an became famous in 1974 when a farmer discovered an
army of statues hidden near the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, China’s first emperor. The
statues are now called the Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang.
The emperor had wanted an army to protect his spirit after he died, so his
workers built him 8,900 life-sized clay statues. The statues look very real, and none
of them look alike. The skilled craftsmen made unique faces for the statues. All the
statues wear armor, and originally they had real weapons. The statues were even
painted different colors to make them look more realistic.

The Nazca Lines are unique man-made pictures located in a very dry desert in
southern Peru. What makes them unique is their size and location. They are so big
that they can only be seen from the air, so the people who made them never saw
the pictures. The largest pictures are about 270 kilometers long.
The Nazca people made the pictures by moving the top level of gravel in the
desert, which exposed lighter colored rocks below. This contrast of light and dark
rocks allowed the Nazca people to make patterns and shapes. Some of the pictures
are simple shapes, but there are also complex pictures of humans, animals and
insects.

Building Up

Amber Fossils

Amber is a substance that is produced by certain trees to protect themselves

from damage. It is usually orange or gold, but its color can range from red to
green. When amber first comes out of a tree, it is a thick, sticky liquid, but it
quickly hardens into a clear, solid object. Because of this quality, amber has created
some amazing fossils.
Amber fossils form when creatures become stuck in fresh amber. These
creatures are usually small insects, as only limited amounts of amber are produced
by trees. However, larger animals, such as lizards and frogs, sometimes become
trapped in amber as well. Once the amber hardens, they are perfectly preserved.
Some of the oldest amber fossils that have been found are more than 200 million
years old.
Some amazing things have been well preserved in amber, such as an ancient
wasp being attacked by a spider. More recently, an amber fossil containing a 99-
million-year-old dinosaur tail covered in feathers was found in Myanmar. Amber
fossils such as these are beautiful objects, but they also provide scientists with
incredibly valuable information about extinct creatures.

Moving Up 1

Stonehenge

Stonehenge is one of the oldest and most unique places in England. There are
more than 900 stone rings in the British Isles, and some archaeologists believe that
there were twice as many in the past. Of course, Stonehenge is the most famous.
Archaeologists do not know who built it or how these people moved the massive
stones to this site from Wales, which is about 250 kilometers away.
The oldest parts of Stonehenge are a large, circular mound and ditch. Inside the
ditch, there are wooden posts and massive stones. The stones are about 2 meters
tall, and each stone weighs about 2 tons. The stones are arranged carefully in a
circle inside the mound and ditch. The stones stand upright, and some are
connected by other stones placed on their tops.
Nobody knows for sure why Stonehenge was built, but most experts believe it
was used for observing the stars’ movements or for religious ceremonies. The
entrance to the circle matches where the sun or moon appears on the winter or
summer solstices. The solstices are the shortest or the longest days of the year, and
they were believed to be spiritually significant days. Some historians believe that the
walking from the wooden posts to the stones along the water-filled ditch was a
symbolic journey from life to death, so Stonehenge could have been used for burials
or funeral rituals.

Moving Up 2

Cremation Urns

From 41 AD to 410 AD, a large part of Britain was ruled by the Roman Empire.
During this time, common people were buried in the ground after they died. The
bodies of the rich and powerful, on the other hand, were cremated in expensive and
elaborate rituals. Afterward, the remains were placed in containers called urns.
Today, British archaeologists trying to learn about this interesting period are
spending more and more time examining these urns and their contents. Although
numerous cremation urns from Roman times were discovered in the 19th century,
many of these were placed in storage before they could be properly analyzed. The
extremely hot fire used in the cremations completely destroyed clothes and most
other items, so the majority of the urns contain only ashes and small pieces of
bone. However, valuable information about the deceased, such as their age and
cause of death, can potentially be revealed through the careful study of these bone
fragments.
Other items also have been found in the urns. These include small pieces of
metal that may have once been jewelry and a pig’s tooth. The jewelry suggests that
people were burned while wearing their best clothing. As for the pig’s tooth, it
shows that food was burned along with the dead, possibly as part of a feast.
Archeologists hope these urns will continue to offer new information about the
practices and beliefs of the people of Roman Britain.
Challenge TOEFL iBT

Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu is sometimes called the Lost City of the Incas. Because of its
location, size and elaborate construction, it is the most important archaeological
site in South America. The Incas built Machu Picchu around 1440. It has a large
palace, with temples and other buildings surrounding a courtyard. There are about
140 buildings in Machu Picchu. All these buildings were made using large stones.
The Incan builders were very skilled at cutting the stones and fitting them together
precisely, so the buildings are strong and still remain today. The Incan rulers used
the city as both a fortress and a mountain resort because it was completely safe
from attack. Their priests also used it as an observatory of the stars. It is calculated
that only about 750 people lived in Machu Picchu at any one time, with a smaller
number of living there during the rainy season.
After the Spanish conquered the Incas in 1530, Machu Picchu was abandoned. It
was not used or visited for many hundreds of years. The city is located in a remote
area high in the Andes Mountains of Peru, making it very hard to get to, which is
why it remained unknown to the outside world for so long. Hiram Bingham, an
American archaeologist, was the first modern-day foreigner to visit Machu Picchu in
1911.
These days the mysterious lost city inspires a lot of people to visit each year.
Most visitors walk the famous Inca road system. Among the thousands of roads
constructed by pre-Columbian people in South America, the roads of the Inca were
some of the most advanced. The network of roads met at Cusco, the capital of the
Inca Empire. One of them went to the city of Machu Picchu. Although people who
walk to Machu Picchu today must hike up a very steep trail for 4 days, the route
passes several other interesting archaeological sites and offers opportunities to
view rare plants and animals along the way.
Progress Test 1

Aging

Aging is a natural process that happens to all living things. People’s attitudes
toward aging, however, can vary greatly from culture to culture.
In many modern Western cultures, youthful qualities are seen as superior to
those of older people, such as wisdom and experience. In a few places, such as
Greece, terms like “old man” and “old woman” are used by people to express
respect, but in most Western countries they are considered an insult. In fact, aging
is seen as something embarrassing and shameful that should be hidden from sight.
Elderly people are sent to live in nursing homes, where they are seldom visited or
even thought of. Experts worry that this view of aging as a negative process that
reduces a person’s value can have harmful effects on society.
In contrast, many Asian cultures view aging as a positive process that adds
value to an individual. Because of this, the elderly are treated with respect and
honor. In China, for example, some younger family members believe it is their duty
to take care of older family members. This attitude extends outside the family and
can be seen in the large, joyful celebrations that mark a person’s 70th and 80th
birthdays. In fact, the Chinese consider respect for older family members to be the
root of humanity. India has a similar outlook on aging. Grandparents and other
elderly relatives are viewed as a vital part of the family, often acting as the head of
the household and making important decisions. When younger family members
need advice, they usually turn to elderly family members.
Unfortunately, westernization is having a harmful effect on this kind of positive
attitude in many places. Furthermore, increased life expectancy is changing the
populations of many Asian countries, with the number of elderly people far
exceeding the number of young people. As a result, nursing homes are becoming an
acceptable option for some Asian families.
Ancient Mesopotamia

Ancient Mesopotamia was located between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers,
where Iraq, Iran, Syria and Turkey are today. “Mesopotamia” actually means “the
land between the rivers.” It is often referred to as the “cradle of civilization” because
the world’s 53first civilization began there around 3500 BC.
The Mesopotamian people, called Sumerians, were very skilled, so they
developed many technologies. One of their prominent achievements was irrigation.
They used water from rivers to grow more crops. By devising an irrigation system,
the Sumerians produced enough food to support large numbers of people and were
able to successfully establish cities.
Mesopotamia made many cultural advances. Mesopotamia’s religion is the
oldest religion recorded. The Sumerians looked to religion to answer questions
about life and death. They had very many gods, who acted like people. They could
be jealous, angry or joyful. Every city had its own patron god who owned everything
and everyone in the city. The Sumerians believed their gods had supernatural
powers, so they worshiped them in temples called ziggurats. People thought the
priests in the temples could tell them what the gods wanted. They also believed that
the gods could be made angry by the actions of people. This made the leaders of
the temples almost as powerful as kings.
Perhaps the most significant Mesopotamian invention was writing. Initially they
invented a type of writing called cuneiform. This writing system was difficult, so
few people knew how to read or write. Over time they invented a new alphabet that
was phonetic, which means it used symbols that represent the sounds of words.
This was a big step in the evolution of human culture. It allowed many people in
their society to learn how to read and write, so they were the first culture to have
widespread literacy. In addition to cities, irrigation, religion and writing, they also
invented metalworking, glassmaking and cloth weaving. All of these skills changed
the world. Without Mesopotamian culture, the world would not be the same as it is
today.
Chapter 04
Sample

Why Is Ice Slippery?

Most people assume that ice is slippery because it has a smooth surface.
However, tiled floors also have a smooth surface, and they are not nearly as
slippery as ice. This is because smoothness is not the actual reason why ice is so
slippery.
The real reason is pressure. When we step on ice, its pressure is increased. This
causes its melting point to drop, so a thin layer of water appears on its surface. Just
like tiled floors, ice is much more slippery when it is covered in water.
To understand the situation better, imagine an ice skater. The entire weight of
his or her body is being held by a pair of very thin blades. This means the ice
beneath the blades is under great pressure and quickly begins to melt. This allows
the skater to slide across the surface at great speeds.

Starting Up

Gravity is a force that can pull two objects toward each other. If an apple breaks
off of a tree, for example, the force of gravity will make the apple fall toward the
ground. This force of attraction is the reason why people and other objects do not
fall off the Earth even though it is spinning.
Gravitational force weakens the farther the objects are from each other. If an
object moves fast enough, it may be able to pull away from the gravitational force of
the Earth and escape it. A rocket ship, for example, can move at such great speed
that it breaks free of the Earth’s gravity.

When we think of technology, we usually think of machines, electronic devices

and other things that have been invented since the start of the 20th century.
Actually, technology is as old as humankind. The word “technology” comes from the
Greek word, technologia, which means the knowledge and use of man-made tools
and crafts. In other words, people were using technological know-how when they
changed natural materials such as plants, animal bones, stones, fire, and water and
used them to make things. Hence, early technology was simply the use of natural
resources for people’s comfort and survival. Today’s technology is just more
advanced and complex. Things such as engines, computers and robots are some
examples of modern technology.

Building Up

Drones in the Antarctic

Climate change is one of the most serious issues facing scientists today. It is
very challenging to accurately measure and record the changes taking place
around the globe. In Antarctica, one of the most affected regions on Earth, this
can be difficult due to extreme weather conditions. Therefore, some scientists are
turning to a new tool—drones.
Rising temperatures are causing Antarctica’s ice to melt rapidly. This could
raise sea levels dramatically, which would cause disasters in coastal areas around
the world. Therefore, the thickness of the ice must be watched closely. Satellites
have been useful in providing basic statistics, but these observations must be
verified from a shorter distance away. This is the role that drones are now
playing.
Flying drones in high winds and freezing temperatures is not easy. They must
land on ships that are moving around on rough seas. There is also the difficulty of
finding qualified pilots to fly the drones. Unlike toy drones, which can be flown by
anyone, the drones used in Antarctica must be piloted by certified professionals.
Despite these challenges, drones have been used effectively, capturing valuable
video of parts of Antarctica that no airplane or helicopter could have safely flown
over.

Moving Up 1

Biometrics

The word “biometrics” is a combination of “bio,” a prefix for things related to

the body, and “metrics,” meaning measurement. It is used to refer to the scientific
field of using body measurements for identification.
Perhaps the best known type of biometrics is fingerprinting. Since ancient
times, people have known that each person’s fingerprints are unique. As early as
2000 BC, people in ancient Babylon were using their fingerprints as a kind of
signature. In more recent years, fingerprints have become an important tool used by
the police to identify criminals. As we enter the digital age, however, researchers
have discovered even more useful and accurate forms of biometrics. These include
computer systems that scan our ears, eyes and faces, and then use this information
to identify us.
However, not all biometrics can be measured visually. A new branch of
biometrics, called invisible biometrics, focuses on biological processes that can be
measured without using our eyes. These include voiceprint biometrics, in which a
person is identified by his or her voice, and EKG (electrocardiogram) readings that
identify the unique pattern of a person’s heartbeat. There is even something called
behavioral biometrics, in which electronic devices identify individual users by the
way they interact with them. Although there are certain privacy issues to be
overcome, we can expect biometrics to play a greater role in our lives in the future.

Moving Up 2

Nuclear Power

Nuclear programs are sometimes used to develop weapons, but they can also
produce energy. The key to the production of nuclear power is a process known as
nuclear fission. It involves splitting the nucleus of an atom in half. When this
happens, the resulting heat, which reaches extreme levels, creates steam. This is
used to power generators and make electricity. Uranium-235 is used in nuclear
power plants because its atom split apart easily.
Compared to traditional energy sources, nuclear power is clean, efficient, and
inexpensive. Most importantly, unlike energy created through the burning of fossil
fuel, nuclear energy does not release greenhouse gas into the atmosphere.
However, it has two downsides. First, it can involve the release of deadly levels of
radioactivity. Second, spent nuclear fuel is very radioactive and must be stored in a
safe place for hundreds of years.
The United States has the largest number of power plants in the world. Some
Americans are enthusiastic proponents of nuclear energy because of its advantages
and widespread usage. However, it is opposed by many Americans. Along with the
disasters in Russia’s Chernobyl and Japan’s Fukushima plant, the United States
nearly experienced a meltdown at its Three Mile Island plant in 1979. Although a
true disaster was prevented, the incident turned many Americans against the use of
nuclear power.

Challenge TOEFL iBT

Dmitri Mendeleev

Dmitri Mendeleev was a Russian chemist and inventor born in 1834. He became
well known in 1867 for writing a chemistry textbook called Principles of Chemistry.
While working on this textbook, however, Mendeleev made a breakthrough involving
the classification of chemical elements that helped change the field of chemistry
forever.
By 1863, scientists had identified 56 elements, and a new one was being found
nearly every year. However, they were not able to find any patterns that could be used
to arrange them in a logical order. In 1864, a British chemist named John Newlands
introduced his “law of octaves,” which proposed that the elements could be arranged
into a table based on their atomic weights. Other scientists of the period, however,
were overtly critical of Newlands’ idea, and it was generally rejected by the most of
scientists. Five years later, Mendeleev published his own periodic table. Like Newlands,
he arranged the elements by their atomic weights. However, Mendeleev had figured
out that the properties of the elements were affected by their atomic weights.
Therefore, he was able to arrange the elements in groups that shared similar
properties.
Mendeleev’s finished table had some empty spaces in it. Some people saw this as a
sign that it was flawed. However, Mendeleev realized the spaces meant that there were
some elements that had not yet been discovered. Using his table, he was able to
predict the atomic weights and properties of these undiscovered elements. Not long
after, in 1875, the first of Mendeleev’s missing elements, gallium, was discovered. Two
more discoveries followed, confirming that Mendeleev’s table was accurate. Later, in
1913, a British chemist rearranged Mendeleev’s table by atomic number rather than
atomic weight, which led to the creation of the modern periodic table of elements.
Although Mendeleev is often viewed as the “father of the periodic table,” it should not
Chapter 05
be forgotten that it took the efforts of many chemists to develop and perfect it.
Sample

Cubism and Pablo Picasso

Cubism is an art movement that developed in the 20th century. In cubism,

natural forms such as the human body are represented as geometric shapes. As a
result, a cubist painting looks abstract even if its subject is real or natural. The
best-known cubist painter is Pablo Picasso.
Pablo Picasso was a Spanish painter and sculptor who lived from 1881 to 1973.
Before he became a cubist, Picasso actively supported realism. As the years passed,
his work showed influences from other art movements. One of Picasso’s most
famous works is Guernica, completed in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War. It is an
enormous, black-and-white mural painted in oil. The painting shows a scene full of
death, cruelty and violence. There are two main elements in the mural ̶ a bull and a
horse.

Starting Up

The Nobel Prize in Literature is awarded annually. Since it was instituted by the
Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel through his will in 1895, the prize has been given to
over 100 writers. Their work has been judged to meet Alfred Nobel’s standard of
being “the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency.” This refers to the
writer’s work as a whole, not to any individual book.
The Swedish Academy selects a winner from the nominations it receives.
However, not everyone agrees with how the winners are selected. Some excellent
writers have never received the award, perhaps because their work is not “idealistic”
enough. In other words, even though their work is brilliant, it does not meet the
Swedish Academy’s requirements.

The Lacemaker is a painting by the famous Dutch artist Johannes Vermeer. It is

the smallest of all of Vermeer’s works of art, measuring only 24.5 centimeters in
height and 21 centimeters in width. It was completed in either 1669 or 1670, and
it is on display at the Louvre in Paris.
The painting shows a young woman carefully making lace. It is unusual because
certain parts of the painting include small details, while other parts are unclear and
abstract. For example, the woman’s face is slightly blurry. However, her hands and
the lace she is working on are incredibly clear and realistic. It is believed that
Vermeer used this technique to draw viewers’ attention to what he felt was most
important.

Building Up

Mosaic

Mosaic is an art form that utilizes small pieces of glass, stone or other material
to form a picture. The tiny pieces cannot be seen from afar, but up close, an
observer can clearly see how the pieces are arranged. Although it is uncertain
whether the Macedonians invented the art form, mosaics were found in the
Macedonian city of Aegae in the 4th century. Later, mosaic art was brought to
Rome. It soon became popular throughout the Roman Empire, including such
places as Britain and North Africa.
Ceilings, walls and floors were decorated with mosaic art. Even churches made
use of mosaics, not only in their interiors but also on their facades. Today,
commuters can view modern mosaic art at the Museum of Natural History station
of New York’s subway.
There are two ways of making mosaics. One is called the direct method. It
involves putting each individual piece onto the supporting surface. This method is
useful for smaller works of art. The other is called the indirect method. It involves
temporarily fixing the mosaic pieces to a removable backing before transferring the
complete mosaic onto the surface. This method is usually used for larger works,
such as mosaics on the walls of buildings. Its advantage is that it allows the work to
be done horizontally on a table or the ground.

Moving Up 1

Chamber Music

Chamber music is a form of classical music. It gets its name from the French word
chambre, which means “room.” The music is designed to be performed in a large
room of a home or palace. It is played by a small number of musicians—usually
between two and eight—and there is no conductor. Two musicians playing chamber
music are called a duo, three are called a trio, and four are called a quartet.
Small orchestras with 40 or fewer musicians are sometimes referred to as
“chamber orchestras,” but orchestras perform symphonies. Chamber music differs
from symphonies in many ways. Most importantly, a single part of a symphony is
usually performed by several musicians playing the same instrument. Each part of
chamber music, on the other hand, is played by a single musician. This means each
musician plays an important role. However, there are no solos in chamber music.
All of the musicians must work together to make a great performance.
Chamber music first began with the chanson, a type of French music performed
by four singers and one person playing the lute, a stringed instrument similar to a
small guitar. Italy adopted the chanson, changing its name to canzona, and turned
it into instrumental music. This eventually evolved into chamber music. Many
famous composers wrote chamber music, including Mozart, Beethoven and Bach.

Moving Up 2

Baroque Art

The Baroque period began in Rome, Italy, in the 1600s and ended in the late
1800s. The word Baroque comes from the ancient Portuguese word barroco,
meaning “a pearl that is not round.” Such pearls sometimes have very elaborate
shapes and unusual details. Hence, the word Baroque can simply mean that
something is elaborate and has many details. The Baroque style was emotional,
dramatic and energetic. The colors used in Baroque paintings were rich, deep and
intense. The Baroque style was also used in sculpting, literature, art, dance and
music.
The Baroque style quickly spread across Europe. One of the reasons that it was
so popular was that artists were excited about putting their emotions into their
work. In previous art movements, this was frowned upon. Another reason was that
the Roman Catholic Church encouraged the style. Religious leaders believed that art
should express religious messages in a direct and emotional way.
One of the greatest Baroque painters was Caravaggio. He used strongly
contrasting shadows and light in his work. He also worked at great speed. The
church commissioned Caravaggio to produce paintings that would serve to fight the
threat of the growing Protestant movement. Unfortunately, Caravaggio was killed
10 years after his career as an artist began because he was so hot-tempered and
proud.

Challenge TOEFL iBT

The Tales of Hoffmann

Jacques Offenbach, a 19th-century French composer, was a renowned writer of

operettas—short, comic operas that closely resemble today’s musicals. Offenbach,
however, was eager to write a serious opera. He began working on The Tales of
Hoffmann after seeing a play with the same name. Both the play and his opera were
based on three fantasy stories by the German author E.T.A. Hoffmann. The opera
was scheduled to be performed at a famous theater in Paris in 1877, but it was
delayed due to Offenbach’s inability to complete the opera on time. Unfortunately,
he passed away in 1880 before finishing the opera, and another composer was
hired by the theater to complete it.
The opera was finally performed in 1881, featuring the writer E.T.A. Hoffmann
himself as the main character. It opens with Hoffmann agreeing to tell the audience
about the three great loves of his life. In the first act, Hoffmann falls in love with a
beautiful woman, who, as he later finds out, is actually a mechanical doll. In the
second act, Hoffmann is in love with a talented singer with a strange illness that can
cause her to die if she sings too much. The devil, disguised as her doctor,
persuades her to keep singing, which eventually leads to her death. In the final act,
Hoffmann falls in love yet again, this time with a woman who wants to steal his
reflection from a mirror. Hoffmann gladly gives it to her, but she leaves him once
she has it in her possession. The opera ends with Hoffmann revealing that the three
women in his stories actually represent one woman. Then he vows never to fall in
love again.
Multiple versions of The Tales of Hoffmann exist, and due to Offenbach’s
unfortunate death, which of these is the final version that he intended to be
performed on the stage is unknown. However, this is of little importance. Despite
their minor differences, each version of The Tales of Hoffmann is a masterpiece that
displays Offenbach’s talent as a composer and continues to please audiences
around the world.
Progress Test 2

Tolstoy

Leo Tolstoy was a Russian novelist born into a noble family in 1828—his full
name was Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy. He studied law in university, even though
he was far more interested in writing. He eventually quit school and joined the
army, fighting in the Crimean War. Afterward, he finally began to focus on his
writing. He wrote many stories and plays but is best known for his novels. Classic
Russian novels are famous for being long and detailed, and Tolstoy’s masterpiece
War and Peace is certainly no exception. More importantly, it is thought to be one of
the greatest books ever written.
Tolstoy began working on War and Peace in 1863. At that point in time, he was
considered one of the best young writers in Russia and had already published a
collection of his work. He had also just undergone a big change in his life, having
gotten married the year before. For his new novel, he decided to focus on an
important event in history—France’s 1812 invasion of Russia under the leadership
of Napoleon. Despite ending in a Russian victory less than six months later, it had a
powerful impact on Russian culture for many years after. Tolstoy’s wife was
enthusiastically involved in the project, editing his work and sharing her opinions
on it.
The finished version of War and Peace was nearly 600,000 words long,
contained more than 135 different characters, and had a storyline that covered a
span of 10 years. It was originally published as a series of six volumes. The first,
called 1805, was published in 1865, but the entire series was not completed until
1869. The series was a great success. Tolstoy was praised as a genius by critics, and
readers rushed to bookstores to buy it. Even after War and Peace made Tolstoy very
rich, he kept writing. By 1873, he was working on his next novel, Anna Karenina,
which somehow managed to surpass War and Peace in greatness when it was
published in 1878.
Icarus Uncovered by Hubble

In Greek mythology, Icarus is a boy who flew too close to the Sun. His fake
wings melted, and he fell back to the Earth. Icarus is also the name of a blue
supergiant star that is twice as hot as the Sun. Unlike the mythological Icarus,
however, it is nowhere near the Sun. In fact, it is the farthest individual star that has
ever been observed by humans.
Icarus cannot be seen from the Earth, even with the most powerful telescopes. It
is so far away that its light takes 9 billion years to reach the Earth. Only the Hubble
Space Telescope, which orbits the Earth at a height of about 560 kilometers,
managed to record its dim glow. When scientists first saw it, they assumed that it
was a distant supernova. Supernovas are exploding stars that can be as bright as 10
billion Suns. However, after analyzing the light, they realized they were looking at a
star. Although entire galaxies can be viewed at such distances, individual stars
usually cannot. In fact, Icarus is more than 100 times more distant than the second-
farthest individual star ever observed.
The reason the Hubble Space Telescope was able to spot Icarus is an unusual
natural phenomenon known as “gravitational lensing.” Basically, when there are
many galaxies packed together in a relatively small area, they have the ability to act
like a lens and bend light. Sometimes these galaxies—often referred to as a galaxy
cluster—cause a single object to appear to be multiple objects. Other times,
however, they act like a giant magnifying glass floating in space, making extremely
weak light bright enough to see. The galaxy cluster that allowed us to observe
Icarus is called MACS J1149+2223. About 5 million light years away, it is
approximately halfway between Earth and Icarus. Scientists hope to use
gravitational lensing, along with the information it provided about Icarus, to learn
more about the mysteries of the universe in the future.
Chapter 06
Sample

Trail of Tears

In 1830, the president of the United States, Andrew Jackson, signed the Indian
Removal Act. This law gave the government the power to force Native Americans to
leave their homes and move to land owned by the government. Unfortunately, this
law was passed because of greed. White Americans wanted the land the Native
Americans lived on. The government decided to move the Native Americans to
useless land in the west, which they called “Indian Territory.”
In the following years, approximately 100,000 Native Americans traveled from
the Southeastern United States to Indian Territory. This journey was so difficult and
long that it became known as the Trail of Tears. Years later, as the United States
expanded, Indian Territory was taken away as well. Today this period is remembered
as a shameful time in American history.

Starting Up

By the early 1700s, the British colonies in America had become more independent.
Their commerce had grown, roads had been built, and the colonists began to learn to
govern themselves. The British, however, did not want to give up their control over the
colonies. But the colonists did not want to give up their money, land and freedom to
any country. They wanted to be independent.
Britain began taxing the colonies. The British government insisted that they were
still protecting the colonies, even though the colonists did not want the protection.
When Britain passed the first of its tax laws, it made the colonists furious.

In the 18th century, the French people were so poor that they could barely afford
to feed themselves. The French nobles, on the other hand, enjoyed an extravagant and
luxurious lifestyle. Marie Antoinette was one of them.
Marie Antoinette was born in Austria and married King Louis XVI when she was
fifteen. The young and naive queen spent large amounts of money and focused on her
social life. Her husband did not share her interest in lavish social activities, but he was
not interested in politics, either. In fact, the citizens of France were gradually moving
toward a revolution.
In 1789, the French Revolution broke out. They besieged Versailles and forced the
royal family to flee. Marie Antoinette was later arrested and sentenced to death. In
1793, she was executed.

Building Up

Louvre Museum

The Louvre Museum, which is located in Paris, is one of the world’s largest
museums. Approximately 200,000 works of art are exhibited at the museum. It would
take about a week to see all of them. These include Mona Lisa, Venus de Milo, and The
Luncheon on the Grass.
Initially, the Louvre was a military facility. It was built in 1190 by the French king
Philip Augustus to help reinforce the city’s defenses and protect Paris from the Anglo-
Norman threat. Although it was a castle, it was used as a fortress. Years later, the
battles ended and the Louvre was half ruined. Some of the French royals decided to fix
and restore the building so that they could make it their home. After many years of
restoration and construction, the Louvre was given a new, sophisticated look.
After King Louis XIV moved to Versailles, however, no one wanted to live in the
Louvre. Instead, the works of art collected by the French royal family were stored there.
In 1793, the National Assembly decided to open the Louvre to the public so that
everyone could enjoy these treasures.

Moving Up 1

Women in World War ll

In 1941, America officially joined World War II, which had already been raging for
two years. The government soon realized that the entire nation had to get involved in
the war effort. This meant that both men and women were needed. However, having
women in combat would not have been socially acceptable in the United States at that
time. Therefore, the government decided to follow the model of Great Britain, where
women had taken over essential non-combat jobs.
Approximately 350,000 American women served directly in the armed forces. A
special group for women to serve in was created within each branch of the armed
forces. Members of the Women’s Army Corps were known as WACs. There were more
than 10,000 WACs, including 6,000 female officers. There were also WAVES, female
military members who served in the navy. And WASPs were female pilots who flew
planes for the air force.
Many other women took factory jobs, working for industries that were vital to the
war effort. During the war, the percentage of women in the workforce increased from
27% to 37%. In fact, a quarter of all married women were employed outside the home
by the war’s end. These numbers may not seem special by today’s standard, but at the
time they represented a significant change from the norm.

Moving Up 2

The Crusades

From the 11th century to the 13th century, there was a series of wars between
crusaders, who were European soldiers fighting for the Roman Catholic Church, and
Muslim armies. These wars were known as the Crusades. They fought for control of
Jerusalem, which both sides considered to be Holy Land. The crusaders used a special
Christian cross as their symbol. The word “crusade” actually comes from the word
“cross” in various European languages. It was not actually used to describe these wars
until hundreds of years later.
Muslims had occupied the Holy Land since the first Arab conquest of Palestine in
the 7th century. In 1095, the Roman Catholic Church decided to take back the Holy
Land from the Muslims. Christians throughout all of Europe gathered to participate in
the war. The First Crusade departed in 1096 and eventually recaptured Jerusalem in
1099. The Muslims, however, later took Jerusalem back. A new crusade was called for
and marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed. This time, the crusaders lost the war
because they did not have a clear goal and lacked strong leadership. In the third war,
which began in 1189, the Christians again failed to get the city back, despite the fact
that several European kings, including Frederick I, Richard I and Philip II, took part.
The Crusades finally ended in 1291. The crusaders and the Muslims fought nine
times over a period of about 200 years, with the Muslims finally retaining control of
Jerusalem. More than a million people were killed during the Crusades, and the Roman
Catholic Church lost a great deal of power. The Crusades did lead to an exchange of
ideas and culture between Europe and the Byzantine and Islamic civilizations. As a
result, European culture advanced and grew. And as the power of the Church
weakened, kings and kingdoms grew stronger.
Challenge TOEFL iBT

Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte, a French general, achieved fame when he led the French
army from one victory to another. Born into an Italian family, Napoleon studied at a
military school in Paris. In every battle, he proved himself to be a courageous and
brilliant leader. His successes led to peace in France, and the country demonstrated
its appreciation by making Napoleon first consul. He later changed his title to
“consul for life,” and in 1804 he proclaimed himself emperor of France. Napoleon
was a very good political leader and made positive changes in the country’s
administration and economy.
Although Napoleon led France well, he continued to engage in wars with other
European countries. The famous Battle of the Emperors resulted in the defeat of
Austria and Russia. Napoleon then planned an invasion of Britain. His goal was to
enforce a commercial boycott of Britain called the “Continental System.” Portugal
and Spain did not participate, so Napoleon invaded those countries. The wars that
Napoleon waged against other European countries are known as the Napoleonic
Wars. When Napoleon failed to gain control of Moscow, Prussia, Sweden and Austria
declared war on France. Napoleon and his army fought hard, but could not defend
France. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba in 1814.
While the leaders of the European countries met to make plans after Napoleon’s
defeat, Napoleon escaped from Elba, quietly returned to France, and regained his
throne. In 1815, he attacked the Allied forces in the Belgian region of Waterloo.
Great Britain, Prussia and Russia sent 150,000 soldiers each to Waterloo. Napoleon
prepared an army of 360,000 soldiers and quickly moved to the French-Belgian
border with 124,000 men. Napoleon’s plan of splitting his attacking army into two
wings and leaving reserve soldiers behind in France was brilliant. However,
Napoleon’s military commanders did not follow through on his commands, and the
Allied armies fought fiercely using brilliant strategies of their own. In the end,
Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. He may have been admired for his brilliance,
but he should be condemned for bringing about the deaths of so many people.
Chapter 07
Sample

The Composition of Our Atmosphere

Earth’s atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases. Oxygen can be

considered the most important of these gases, as it is essential for life. However,
the most common gas in our atmosphere is actually nitrogen.
Nitrogen makes up about 78% of our atmosphere, while oxygen makes up only
21%. Together, these two gases account for 99% of the gases in our atmosphere.
The rest is mostly argon, with tiny amounts of other gases, including hydrogen and
helium.
The percentages of nitrogen and oxygen in our atmosphere remain constant
year after year. Nitrogen is taken from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by
bacteria living in the soil or washed away by rain and snow. However, it is added
when living creatures decay or volcanoes erupt. And oxygen is taken in by humans
and animals, but it is released by plants. In this way, a perfect balance is
maintained.

Starting Up

The Seven Sisters cliffs are located in southern England, overlooking the English
Channel. According to a legend, “sisters” refers to seven local sisters who each had
a house near the cliffs. They are a popular attraction because of their bright white
walls and the crashing ocean waves below.
The cliffs’ color comes from the high amounts of chalk in the soil. They are part
of seven hills that were under the sea in prehistoric times. Sea water pushed the
soft chalk to the surface of the soil. When the sea became lower, the cliffs were
exposed.
Today, the cliffs are slowly returning to the sea due to erosion. As the waves
crash into them, large pieces of chalk fall off the cliffs and into the water. Since the
chalk cliffs are unstable, visitors are advised to stay away from their edges.

Continental drift is the theory that the Earth’s continents were once joined
together but gradually drifted apart into their present positions over a long period
of time. In 1912, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener offered the first
hypothesis. He insisted similar types of rock in disconnected global regions were
geological proof that the continents had moved apart. Then, around 1960, a new
theory offered a scientific upgrade over Wegener’s old ideas about drift. According
to it, volcanic activity beneath the Earth creates new layers of rock on undersea
mountain ranges. As the rock gradually spreads out, seafloor spreading takes place.
Thus, the seafloor itself moves and causes the continents to move, too.
Many fossil fauna of the same age and types, and even living creatures, have
been found in different continents. All of this evidence supports the continental
drift theory.

Building Up

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is energy that comes from the heat deep inside of the Earth.
Recent studies have shown that the Earth’s center, known as its core, can reach
temperatures of nearly 6,000 °C. That is as hot as the surface as the Sun.
One of the first human uses of geothermal energy was for bathing in Rome.
Water that is heated up underground rises to the surface of the Earth in the form of
hot springs. The ancient Romans found another use for this naturally hot water—
they used it to heat their homes. Today, geothermal energy is still used for heating.
It is also being used to generate electricity.
Geothermal power is considered one of the most efficient forms of alternative
energy. It is cheap, reliable and sustainable. Its biggest drawback is that it is only
available in certain areas—places where the Earth’s plates meet. New technology,
however, is making it possible to generate geothermal power in more and more
places. Ground source heat pumps, for example, allow people to use geothermal
energy for heating nearly anywhere. Unfortunately, systems that generate enough
geothermal power for electricity are still limited to certain countries, including
Iceland and Costa Rica.
Moving Up 1

Mount Everest

The highest mountain in the world is Mt. Everest. Located on the border of
Nepal and Tibet, it is part of the Himalayan mountain range. Measuring the exact
height of Mt. Everest is difficult because snow and ice cover the top of the
mountain. It was once measured at 29,002 feet by early surveyors. However, their
measurement was inaccurate. If they had considered the height of the snow and ice
that covered the top of Everest, it would have been more accurate. In May 1999, the
American Everest Expedition determined a new height for Mt. Everest ̶ 29,035 feet
above sea level ̶ using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology.
The mountain was not always called Everest. In the ancient Sanskrit language,
it was called Devgiri. In 1865, the surveyor general of India, Andrew Waugh named
the mountain “Everest” after his predecessor, George Everest. The Nepalese
government refused to accept the name at first and created a different one,
Sagarmatha. However, the English name later became more popular.
Mt. Everest is the most challenging mountain to climb because of its height.
The first climbers to reach the top of Everest were Edmund Hillary from New
Zealand and Tenzing Norgay, a Nepali guide skilled at mountain climbing. They
reached the top on May 29, 1953. As a reward for Hillary’s success, Queen
Elizabeth knighted him.
Unfortunately, a lot of climbing attempts in the past were unsuccessful or even
deadly. In 1996, fifteen people died trying to reach the summit. Their deaths were
attributed to the lower levels of oxygen that resulted from a snowstorm on the
mountain. Other people who have died climbing were killed because they took a
more dangerous route on the northwest side of the mountain.

Moving Up 2

The Ring of Fire

The Ring of Fire is an area of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It is

called a ring because it encircles the basin of the Pacific Ocean. It is actually more
of a horseshoe shape and is 40,000 kilometers long. The Ring of Fire covers the
Andes Mountains of South America, the coastal areas of western Central America
and North America, the Aleutian and Kurile Islands, Eastern Indonesia, the
Philippines and the islands of the western Pacific.
Ninety percent of the world’s earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire. The ring
is the result of the movement and collision of crustal plates, which are rigid layers
of the earth’s crust that are believed to drift slowly. The constant movement of the
plates creates a lot of pressure and causes the motion of faults. This generates
numerous small earthquakes, most of which are too small to be felt, multiple times
a day.
About half of the presently active volcanoes are located within the Ring of Fire.
Many of these active volcanoes have erupted at least once since recorded time.
Antarctica, which is at the southern end of the Ring of Fire, contains many large
volcanoes.
Some of the earthquakes that have occurred as a result of erupting volcanoes in
the Ring of Fire have been disastrous. Volcanic and seismic activity has been
particularly violent in the arc of the ring that includes Chile, Alaska, Japan, the
Kamchatka Peninsula and the Pacific Islands. The earthquakes in these areas are
sometimes accompanied by tsunamis, which makes them even more destructive.

Challenge TOEFL iBT

Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are violent, low-pressure storms that usually occur over warm
oceans with temperatures above 27 °C (80 °F). They spin counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. These powerful
storms are fueled by the heat that is released when water vapor condenses at high
altitudes, with the heat ultimately being derived from the sun.
The center of a tropical cyclone, called the eye, is relatively calm and warm. The
eye, which is roughly 20 to 30 miles wide, is clear, mainly because of subsiding air
within it. The ring of clouds around the eye is called the eyewall. It is where the
clouds reach their highest point and precipitation is heaviest. Strong winds, gusting
up to 360 kilometers per hour, occur when a tropical cyclone’s eyewall passes over
land.
There are various names for tropical cyclones depending on their location and
strength. In Asia, tropical cyclones are named according to their wind speeds. The
strongest, with winds of more than 117 kilometers per hour, are called typhoons. In
India, they are called cyclones. Over the North Atlantic and in the South Pacific, they
are called hurricanes. On average, there are about 100 tropical cyclones worldwide
each year. Tropical cyclones have their own seasonal patterns. They peak in late
summer, when the difference between the temperature in the air and surface of the
ocean is the greatest, and are least active in May.
The destruction associated with tropical cyclones results not only from heavy
wind but also from the accompanying storm surge and the waves it generates. They
form and strengthen over large bodies of warm water, and lose strength over inland
regions that are comparatively sheltered from strong winds. Although the track of
tropical cyclones are often erratic, weather services can still issue timely warnings
to the public if a tropical cyclone is approaching a densely populated area.
Chapter 08
Sample

The Solar System

The solar system is made up of the Sun and eight planets: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
The first four planets are called terrestrial planets because they are rocky. They
are smaller and denser than the outer planets. They contain high amounts of
metals, and they have less gas than the outer planets. Mercury has no atmosphere,
but Venus, Earth and Mars have atmospheres of varying thicknesses. Their
rotations are slower, and their orbits are closer together.
The outer four planets are known as gas giants. They are also called as Jovian
planets, which refers to the fact that they all resemble the planet Jupiter. They have
large diameters and very thick atmospheres. Although their surfaces contain large
amounts of gases, their cores are probably solid. All four Jovian planets have rings,
although only Saturn’s ring system can be observed from Earth.

Starting Up

Everyone knows Earth has a moon, but many people do not know that Mars has
two moons—Phobos and Deimos. The two are very close to Mars, with Phobos
about 9,377 kilometers away and Deimos about 23,460 kilometers away. In
contrast, the Moon is 384,403 kilometers away from Earth. Also, it is spherical in
shape, while Mars’ moons are irregular. In fact, they look more like asteroids than
moons. The Moon is also bigger, with a diameter of 3,474 kilometers. Phobos is
only about 28 kilometers by 20 kilometers, while Deimos is 16 kilometers by 12
kilometers. Having a 27-day orbit around Earth, the Moon revolves more slowly
than Phobos and Deimos, which have 7-hour and 30-hour orbits around Mars,
respectively. Finally, the Moon has a strong gravitational pull that makes Earth’s
oceans rise and ebb. Phobos and Deimos, however, are so small that they have no
effect on Mars.

Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. It is made up almost entirely of
gases—about 90% hydrogen, 10% helium, and tiny amounts of other gases.
There are clouds of ammonia and strong storms on the planet’s exterior. The
famous red spot on its surface is the largest of these storms. Gravity is two and a
half times more powerful on Jupiter’s surface than it is on Earth. The planet’s
surface, however, is not solid, so it would be impossible to stand on.
Scientists believe that Jupiter has a small solid center surrounded by liquid
hydrogen. The center most likely contains ice, metals and rocks. Even though most
of the planet’s interior is made up of liquids and gases, they are so dense that they
act like solid material.

Building Up

Galaxies

Galaxies are enormous systems of stars, gas, dust, dark matter and interstellar
clouds from which stars form. Some galaxies are small or dwarf galaxies that have
fewer than 10 million stars. Some are extraordinarily large. They have as many as
one trillion stars. There are probably more than 100 billion galaxies in the universe.
Most of them have either a spiral or elliptical shape. Other galaxies may have
irregular or unusual shapes.
Spiral galaxies are galaxies with a central, dense area and spiraling arms which
are often sites of star formation. The spiraling arms contain dense clouds of
interstellar matter and young stars. The central bulge contains older stars. The
Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are two of a multitude of known spiral galaxies.
Elliptical galaxies have a rounded egg-like shape. They are also called an “E” or
“E-type” galaxies. Unlike spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies are generally yellow-red
in color and do not have spiraling arms. They consist of older stars and contain
little interstellar dust or gas. It is believed that elliptical galaxies form when two
galaxies collide and merge.

Moving Up 1

Mercury vs. Venus

Mercury and Venus are the two planets in our solar system that are closest to
the Sun. Interestingly, although Mercury is closer to the Sun than Venus is, its
average temperature is lower.
 Mercury circles the Sun very quickly, completing its orbit in just 88 Earth days.
However, it rotates very slowly, which means its days and nights last for a long
time. The hottest parts of the planet reach daytime temperatures of 427 °C. But
during the long, cold nights, they can drop to −173 °C. Therefore, the average
temperature is only about 167 °C. Venus is twice as far from the Sun as Mercury and
takes 225 Earth days to complete an orbit. Venus rotates even more slowly than
Mercury, so a single night lasts about 100 Earth days. The average temperature is
462 °C. However, there is no difference between the daytime and nighttime
temperatures on Venus. Therefore, nighttime on Venus is hotter than daytime on
Mercury.
This may sound strange, but there is a simple reason: The atmosphere on
Venus is very thick, while Mercury does not have an atmosphere. On Venus, thick
layers of clouds trap the heat of the Sun and distribute it across the planet. On
Mercury, however, the Sun’s heat escapes almost immediately. For this reason,
Venus, not Mercury, is the hottest planet in the solar system.

Moving Up 2

Constellations

A constellation is a random arrangement of stars that looks like a figure or

pattern when seen from the Earth. People have always been looking up at the stars.
On a clear night, about 1,000 to 1,500 stars can be seen by the human eye.
Although the stars are actually very far away from each other, some may appear to
be in a single group and to have a pattern. What people see in these arrangements
of stars is often directly related to their culture. It may be a god they believe in or
an animal they hunt.
It is believed that the Babylonians and Sumerians created the early
constellations. This is because the oldest ones, such as Leo and Orion, could be
seen easily from where they lived. There are no recorded constellations in the
celestial sphere directly above the Earth’s South Pole. These skies are uncharted,
probably because the Babylonians and Sumerians could not see the stars in this
area clearly.
In 1929, the International Astronomical Union made 88 constellations official.
The 88 groups are called the modern constellations. These constellations have set
boundaries. This means that all the stars that are within a set boundary are part of
the constellation. These official constellations are based on the Greek tradition of
listing and describing constellations. Ptolemy made a catalog of 1,022 stars from
which 48 constellations could be arranged. These were added to by astronomers as
the years passed. Some older constellations are not considered constellations
today. They include groups of stars that astrologers named after themselves.

Challenge TOEFL iBT

The Life Cycle of Stars

Stars are born in the dense clouds of gas found mostly in the arms of spiral
galaxies. The thickest part of the cloud breaks up into fragments. Each of these
fragments forms a protostar, which is an early stage in star formation. The
protostar keeps collapsing because it has a strong gravitational force in its core.
When the protostar has contracted enough so that its core can burn hydrogen into
helium, it becomes a main sequence star. It is like a nuclear furnace that produces
energy and pushes it to the surface of the star. For most of its life, a star will
continue to undergo nuclear fusion. The radiation that is pushing forward is
balanced by the gravity that is pulling it inward. This is the equilibrium state of
stars.
The star will continue to grow older until its inner part begins to produce
nuclear fusion too slowly. When this happens, the star becomes unstable. This
usually occurs billions of years after the star was born. The more mass a star has,
the brighter it will burn and the faster it will use up the hydrogen in its core. An
unstable star begins to contract and expand until it grows very large. At this stage it
is called a red giant. When the red giant runs out of fuel, the star begins to get
smaller. The core heats up because of the contraction. However, because it has no
fuel, the outer layers of the star begin to come off. The core of the star becomes a
white dwarf. When the white dwarf uses all its energy, it is called a black dwarf or
dead star. Stars with very big masses collapse to a very small size and are called
neutron stars. Stars that are about forty times larger than the Sun may collapse into
a black hole, an area with a gravitational force so strong that even light cannot
escape from it. Not much is known about black holes, but they are a fascinating
Progress Test 3
subject that deserves to be looked into more closely.

Calderas

Melted rock trapped beneath the earth is called magma. A volcano’s magma is
held in a large underground space known as a magma chamber. If the volcano
erupts, some of this magma is expelled from the chamber and onto the surface of
the earth, where it becomes lava. If a large amount of magma is released in the
eruption, a hollow space is created beneath the volcano. Often, part of the volcano
will collapse into the empty chamber, creating a bowl-shaped formation. This is
called a caldera.
Calderas are sometimes confused with volcanic craters, but they are quite
different. First of all, calderas are formed when volcanoes collapse inward. As a
result, they are usually large and have an irregular shape. Craters, on the other
hand, are formed when material explodes outward from volcanoes.
There are several different types of calderas. Massive eruptions often form
crater-lake calderas. Most of the volcano’s magma is released, and a deep hole is
formed. Over time, this hole fills with water from rain and snow, creating a lake.
Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States, is a crater-lake caldera. When
smaller eruptions occur, rather than releasing their magma all at once, volcanoes
gradually emit it over a longer period of time. This forms shield volcano calderas.
They are smaller than other types of calderas and can be found on the Hawaiian
Islands and the Galapagos Islands. Finally, resurgent calderas are the largest type of
caldera. In fact, they are the largest volcanic structures in the world, with diameters
of up to 100 kilometers. They are formed when the enormous magma chambers of
supervolcanoes collapse after the most violent type of eruption. The sites of
resurgent calderas are closely monitored by scientists to make sure the volcanoes
are not going to erupt again. Fortunately, this type of eruption has not happened in
more than 70,000 years. The most recently formed resurgent caldera is found on
the island of Sumatra in Indonesia.
Eclipses

The word eclipse refers to an astronomical occasion when the light of one
celestial object is partly or completely blocked by the shadow of another object.
Eclipses are usually classified as solar or lunar. They occur as often as seven times
in a single year.
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Earth and the Sun. It
partly or totally blocks the Earth’s view of the Sun. This happens when the Moon is
exactly between the Sun and the Earth. A solar eclipse can occur only when the
Moon is a new moon. Thousands of years ago, solar eclipses were thought to be
terrifying events because everything went dark and no one could understand why.
Today, solar eclipses are no longer considered frightening, and hundreds of people
travel to areas where they can be viewed. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Sun
is completely blocked by the Moon and only a faint corona can be seen. This is rare
and usually lasts for a few minutes. A partial eclipse occurs when the Moon covers
parts of the Sun. The longest solar eclipses occur when the Earth is farthest from
the Sun, making the solar disc appear smaller, and the Moon is closest to the Earth,
making the Moon’s diameter seem larger.
A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through part of the Earth’s
shadow. The earliest recorded lunar eclipse happened on March 19, 721 BC. A
lunar eclipse can only occur during a full moon and when the Sun, Earth and Moon
are in a single line. The shadow of the Earth can be divided into two parts. The
outer part of the shadow is called the penumbra. The penumbra can block only
some of the Sun’s rays from reaching the Moon. When the Moon passes through
the Earth’s penumbra, it is called a penumbral eclipse. The inner part of the
shadow, called the umbra, blocks all direct sunlight. When the Moon falls under the
Earth’s umbra, it partly or completely disappears.
Actual Test

Kleptoparasitism

Animals have many different ways of getting food. There are some animals that
simply eat plants. Predators, on the other hand, hunt and kill other animals. And
scavengers eat animals that have already died. Sometimes, however, animals will
actually steal food from other animals. This is known as kleptoparasitism.
It can take place within a single species. For example, the oystercatcher is a bird
that feeds on mussels. It uses its beak to pry their shells open and eat the soft flesh
inside. This requires strength and skill, so younger birds are often unable to do it.
Instead, they wait for an adult to open a mussel. Then they grab it and fly away.
Kleptoparasitism can also involve one species stealing the food from another. This
commonly occurs with large predators. After a leopard kills its prey, hyenas or
jackals may attack the leopard, chasing it away and stealing its meal. This happens
to lions as well. To prevent it from occurring, leopards often carry their dead prey
up into trees. They leave the body hanging in the branches, safe from thieves on
the ground.
In the insect world, cuckoo bees use a special form of kleptoparasitism. Female
cuckoo bees enter the hives of other bee species, lay their eggs, and leave. Later,
the cuckoo bee larvae eat the food of the other bees. They even kill and eat the
larvae of the other species. Gulls are also well-known kleptoparasites. They eat fish,
but they usually do not catch them themselves. Instead, after another bird dives
into the water and catches a fish, they chase it until it drops its prey, which provides
the gulls with a stolen meal.
Even humans are affected by kleptoparasitism. If you have ever eaten honey
taken from a bee hive, you are a kleptoparasite. Humans also have their food stolen
through kleptoparasitism. When fish get caught on their lines or trapped in their
nets, the sperm whales eat them and quickly swim away. This clever behavior gives
them easy access to a reliable source of food.
Neanderthals

The first Neanderthal skull was discovered in Engis, Belgium, in 1829, but
scientists did not become interested until a third skull was discovered in Germany in
1856. Hundreds of Neanderthal skeletons have been found since that time. Many of
them are complete skeletons in excellent condition. Because of this, some scientists
concluded that the Neanderthals had the custom of burying their dead. This has led
them to believe that Neanderthals were closely related to humans in spite of the
differences in their skulls. Neanderthals are now believed to be a species of the
genus Homo that populated Europe and Asia. Humans are also a species of the
genus Homo—the last species that still exists.
Despite the similarities in their skeletal structures, Neanderthals and humans
are different in some ways. Generally, Neanderthals were shorter and had heavier
bones. Their necks were wider, and their muscles were more developed around the
shoulders, arms, hands and legs. Neanderthals also had long, low skulls. Their faces
projected forward, and their brows jutted out. This skull structure indicates that
Neanderthals had bigger brains than humans. However, scientists have not been
able to determine exactly how intelligent they were.
What really interested scientists at the time of these first Neanderthal skeleton
discoveries was the possibility that they had found the link between apes and
humans. There were problems with this idea, however. Scientists knew that apes
with bigger brains were smarter than those with smaller ones. They could not
understand why Neanderthals existed before human beings, as their brains were
bigger. Another problem was the time frame. Humans are believed to have evolved
about 200,000 years ago. Neanderthals, however, died out about 36,000 years ago.
Scientists realized humans could not have evolved from Neanderthals because they
were still alive when early humans were already walking the planet. It is now
believed that Neanderthals and humans evolved from a common ancestor. Some
scientists still feel that Neanderthals were a separate species, while others argue
that they were simply a subspecies of human beings. More recently, it has been
suggested that early humans and Neanderthals mated, and the two species mixed
together. The debate about this fascinating subject still continues today. The more
we learn about Neanderthals, the more we learn about ourselves.