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The usual result obtained was a better or comparable optimal solution reached more efficiently than
by algorithms previously used in the literature, without providing an explanation as to why the
selected algorithm performed better for a particular test network. Risk assessment screening methods
enable estimates of potential human health effects for circumstances where dose-response data are
lacking. Variable mutation rate as a function of the string length and the nature of the decision
variable is used. Sensitivity analysis is performed to test changes in total cost, and pipe and pump
decisions under varying demands, energy costs, annual discount rates and pipe material prices.
Objective (1): Minimise (a) the design cost of the network (pipes), (b) the energy cost of running
pumps. Severally governments have made attempts to mitigate or if possible arrest the problem, but
the problem still persists to date. It uses simple statistical measures such as mean and covariance
matrix to replace the original stochastic model with the deterministic model. An obtained solution is
robust and optimal to all possible scenarios in the uncertainty set. Data were collected through
planning, implementation and maintaining rural water supplies have always been considered there
responsibility of the central government and external support agencies. Note: Two MO models, the
first including objectives (1) and (2) (applied to the New York City tunnels and Hanoi network); the
second objectives (1), (2) and (3) (applied to the EXNET network). However, this approximate
optimal solution needs to be further improved because some of the pipes were not included in the
optimisation due to network partitioning. Constraints: (1) Pressure constraints for different loading
patterns, (2) flow constraints into and out of the tanks. To achieve a good performance of each
metaheuristic, a parametric analysis is performed. The purpose of the review is to enable one’s
speedy familiarisation with the scope of the field, insight in the overwhelming amount of
publications available and realisation of the future research directions. Understanding water quality
and quantity needs and inequities in access to safe water in Oregon is a prerequisite to developing
community-specific and culturally-relevant water security policy solutions to help communities build
adaptive capacity, strengthen resiliency and protect the health of all people in Oregon. The wider the
connection indicates that the two keywords appear more frequently. FIGURE 5. Keywords co-
occurrence. Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States: University of Michigan Press. Objective (3):
Minimise hydraulic failure of the system, expressed by the total system failure index (SFI)
combining (a) nodal failure index and (b) tank failure index. From number of articles published by
authors perspective, the top 30 authors with the most articles and the number of articles published
are shown in ( Figure 3C ). River basin is the only node closely connected to China ( Figure 8C ). For
a detailed discussion of the extent of effluent contributions to water supplies, see Chapter 2. In this
study, planning and management of rural drinking water supply scheme is reviewed and discussed by
assessing sustainable yield using existing and proposed sources through community participation.
These rights, however, do not entitle people to free water, unlimited use or a household connection.
This confirms results of earlier analysis that China was the country with the highest number of
research work on WRCC. 3.3 Keywords co-occurrence and hotspots dynamics analysis Keywords
can reflect the main content of the article, and the analysis of keywords can understand the general
status of the research field. The number of citations of the 5 articles are in the order 109, 91, 76, 73,
70. Objective (1): Minimise (a) the capital cost of the network including pipes and pumps, (b) present
value of pump replacement costs, (c) present value of pump operating costs (due to electricity
consumption). The review outlined high microbial contamination of surface water as almost all
surface waters were contaminated with either E. Moreover, the finding will further serve as reference
data and it opens avenue for any further investigation in the area, and as a useful material for
academic purposes. Birim in the Eastern Region as the main water body has been polluted. Countries
in the Sahelian regions are characterised by semi-arid climatic conditions.
Networks, for which the number of nodes cannot be identified from the reviewed paper or the
references provided, are excluded from the analysis. Scenario-based multi-objective robust
optimisation (SMORO) model for planning and designing a regional scale integrated water and
wastewater system is proposed. Results: NSGA-II with AIM outperforms NSGA-II without AIM in
terms of convergence speed as well as the quality of the solutions obtained. So far sector financing
has been largely through: budgetary allocations, external debt or grants from bilateral donors and
international NGOs, sometimes provided either directly to communities or local levels of government
and more recently other off-budget mechanisms such as ESRDF. Over time, the upstream countried
demanded equitable share of the Nile waters and this led to the establishment of NBI. Most parts of
the world is surrounded by water, but we lack accessibility to this resource especially potable water
needed to meet our fundamental needs such as food production, health, sanitation and sustainable
development (Owusu et al. 2016 ). Water constitutes largely over seventy per cent (70%) of the
earth’s surface and the singular entity to have ever existed naturally in all the three (3) states of
matter across the globe. However if you include, medium low countries of Rwanda, Burundi,
Ethiopia and South Sudan and the low-level Somalia, then East Africa’s score drops to 39%
(medium-low). Water resources commission pursuant to the Water Resources Commission Act,
19961 for proper management of Ghana water resources, inter alia. In addition, it found the new
lowest cost solutions for the test networks (3) and (4). Two approaches to model tanks are tested,
which differ in a way they determine the operating levels for new tanks. A gradient search is applied
and the objective function is approximated by shortening the extended period analysis. Objective (1):
Minimise (a) the design cost of the network (pipes), (b) penalty for violating the pressure constraint.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH). There have been
significant increases in reporting of bacterial outbreaks of Legionella in the last decade. The interface
between those two models occurs at wastewater and recycled water treatment plants (WTPs).
Villholth Environmental Sciences Initiative, Advanced Science Research Center at the CUNY
Graduate Center, New York, NY, USA Charles J. Results: MODE exhibits significantly better
performance than both conventional full-search methods SMODE and NSGA-II and its efficiency is
more notable for larger networks. This tree is part of the network graph, which contains only shortest
paths from the sources to all demand nodes. For both test networks, multi-objective and single-
objective optimisation is performed. This approach “is likely to make third pipe systems more
attractive and to lead to significant savings in the use of limited water supplies”. The demand will
depend on many factors, the most important of which are economic, social and climatic. The set of
permissible pipe diameters is reduced using velocity constraints. Specifically, it is a probabilistic
dynamic design over several prefixed time intervals and with the planning horizon ranging from a
number of years to an expected life cycle of the system. The approach ought to satisfy the
requirements of a water utility and other stakeholders for objectives, constraints, decision variables,
as well as model assumptions. Results: The optimal solutions represent a decrease in the total cost of
3-9% for the test networks, comparing to the costs for the initial flow distributions. For both real
networks, CANDA-GA finds feasible solutions whereas GA fails to do so. The major causes are
poor performance of developed water supply schemes and limitation in the development of new and
appropriate water supply schemes. Publications, which are concerned with staged rehabilitation
interventions involving their timing over an extended planning horizon, are reviewed in Section 3.2.1.
Expansion An expansion of a WDS means developing or expanding the existing system beyond its
current boundary, with the main objective to minimise the total design (or capital) and operation cost.
Currently there is no proper sludge disposal site and sludge is disposed in the farm land outside the
town. Water is an essential thought for all living things for the river ecosystem.
Afterwards, the water is transported to the city and distributed via a piped network to households,
commercial buildings, public entities and small industries (distributio n). Constraints: (1) Min
pressure at the nodes for peak demands, (2) min pressure at the nodes for average demands, (3) only
one pipe size selected for each link, (4) only one pump size selected for average demands, (5) only
one pump size selected for peak demands, (6) ensuring that the existing pump station is either
expanded or a new one constructed at the stage two, (7) binary constraints. Water redistribution in
South Africa has been fraught with political and technical issues, for example, the Water Allocation
Reform of 2003 failed to reconcile the apartheid disparity hence the equity component of IWRM
was compromised. Please let us know what you think of our products and services. Number of
publications by country indicates that China published the highest number of papers followed by
Indonesia, Germany, Algeria and other ( Figure 3A ) in that order. The algorithm is terminated when
all the individuals in the population have similar objective function values, which is checked using
the coefficient of variation. Objective (1): Minimise (a) the design cost of the network (pipes), (b)
cost of potential economic damages by the fire (expected conditional fire damages). Society also has
a pervasive indirect impact because anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are causing long-term
global changes in weather extremes and climate. Due to the macroscopic nature of Descartes’s
methodology, it is difficult to guide the specific steps ( Wikiquote contributors, 2020b ). Scanlon,
Sarah Fakhreddine, Ashraf Rateb, Robert C. Oregon should consider updating or developing surface
runoff water modeling and aquifer modeling at the catchment or grid level. The WPI provides a
structured and easy to follow, 8-step WPI model WPI is directed towards communities and poorer
areas, incorporating environmental integrity and ecosystem water needs. The water scarcity
variability mapping is useful as a regional tracking tool and delivers water scarcity data that will
inform health risks. The velocity constraint is included to eliminate water hammer and sedimentation
in pipes. The action you just performed triggered the security solution. We also hand-searched the
Water Security Journal from the ScienceDirect database and reference lists of relevant articles. A
pipe network service life of 100 years and a pump service life of 20 years are assumed. The objective
of this paper is to show the sustainable Malaysian policies on palm oil, the research is qualitative, it
has used document analysis and semi-structured interview, and used inductive thematic analysis to
analyse the interview with help of Atlas ti 8 software. Groundwater monitoring provides longer-term
context over the past century, showing rising water storage in northwest India, central Pakistan and
the northwest United States, and declining water storage in the US High Plains and Central Valley.
Objective (3): Minimise hydraulic failure of the system, expressed by the total system failure index
(SFI) combining (a) nodal failure index and (b) tank failure index. Moreover, mIA exhibits far
superior computational efficiency than GA or IA individually. Lost in Optimisation of Water
Distribution Systems? A Literature Review of System Design. In 1990s, the concept of WRCC was
clearly put forward by Shi Yafeng, an Academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences ( Shi and
Qu, 1992 ). The number of types of a decision (i.e., control) variable included in optimisation models
ranges from one to 13. This has not limited the use of more renewable sources of energy to meet
current energy demand as the venture into new emerging forms of energy sources such as wind and
solar. The chloride dominance over sulphate was due to activities, fertilizer use, household effluents
and other anthropogenic point sources. As progress towards objectives and goal can be pursued and
draw lessons for performance improvement. Objective (1): Minimise (a) the overall capital cost of the
network including pipes, pumps, reservoirs and valves, (b) present value of operating costs (pumps,
penalties on operating the dummy valves). Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors
and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
or the Department of Health and Human Services. But unlike larger towns or cities, these smaller
towns often lack the financial and human resources to independently plan, finance, manage and
operate their WSS systems. This implies that a key challenge for Town WSS is to allocate limited
government resources amongst a large number of dispersed towns.
The literature review identified research gaps that informed the employed search strategy. The aim is
to reduce the computational time of the optimisation process of a WDS with multiple loading
conditions. The problem complexity further increases by considering multiple simultaneous
objectives. These systems consist of pipes, pumps, valves, storage tanks, reservoirs, meters, fittings,
and other hydraulic appurtenances (Drinking Water Distribution Systems assessing and Reducing
Risks, page 2). Application areas (of papers from Appendix A Table A1 ). However, related resources
such as fisheries, forestry and land were establishment of Fisheries, Minerals and Lands
Commissions tasked to manage and coordinate policy in connection with these resources. United
States Regional: New England, Mid-Atlantic, East-North Central, West-North Central, Southeast-
South Central, West-South Central, Mountain Pacific Quantitative 2011 housing data from the
American Housing Survey (AHS) Interviews conducted only with heads of household in 134,918
units of the total sample of 186,448 units The AHS provides weights ensuring a representative
sample of the national housing stock. The Anytown network: reduced unit power cost of pump
construction and energy tariffs, altered pressure and concentration constraints at one consumer node,
decreased elevation at one consumer node. Figure 5 reveals that nearly a half of the networks (49%)
is limited in size to 20 nodes and the majority of the test networks (84%) contains up to 100 nodes.
Constraints: (1) Min pressure at the hydrant nodes, (2) pipe diameters limited to commercially
available sizes, (3) max number of pipe decision variables (i.e., pipes to be replaced). A
postprocessing stage can be included, which also refines the solutions, again using only half the
genes in the chromosomes, but a different half than in the preprocessing stage. For maximised
adoption of a practice, incremental innovation is required, which was Danida’s agenda in the quest to
drive IWRM in South Africa. Construction is a relatively young sector linked to the growing
demand for modern buildings. The network is separated into subnetworks, and pipe and pump size
reduction is performed for each subnetwork. Relevance and Feasibility of Interventions in Oregon.
The United Nations and California establishment of the human right to water suggests policymakers
and public health professionals are placing a greater importance on environmental justice and water
insecurity internationally and in the US. Objective (1): Maximise the present value of the benefit of
the network rehabilitation over the planning period (incorporating the welfare index), using the
following performance criteria: (a) carrying capacity, (b) physical integrity of the pipes, (c) system
flexibility, (d) water quality. Test networks (of papers from Appendix A Table A1 ) by network size.
Research on water insecurity health impacts and solutions is still an emerging field. The top 10
authors with the most articles include Feng, Lihua, Lei, Kun, Meng, Lihong, Berezowska-Azzag,
Ewa, Fu, Qiang, Gao, Yang, Luo, Gaoyuan, Su, Haimin, Wang, Xin, Wang, Zilong. According to the
town’s municipality the majority of households use toilets in their own compound and the prevalence
of open defecation is also significant and demands improvement. The water quality depends
primarily on some water parameters. Objective (1): Minimise (a) (both test networks) the design cost
of the network (pipes), (b) (test network (2) only) construction costs of pumps and tanks, (c) (test
network (2) only) operation and maintenance costs of pumps. Constraints: (1) Total head loss used by
the pipes (from the source to a node) should be less than the value of the head at the source minus
the head requirement at a node, (2) only one pipe diameter selected for each link. However, most of
the developing country like Ethiopia has still low potable water supply and sanitation coverage that
result the citizens to be suffered from water Shortage, water born and water related diseases. Using
the zebrafish model, we demonstrate that Shigella can establish persistent infection in vivo. Journal
of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD). Water insecurity also impacts those
communities suffering from extended drought and those served by coastal aquifers vulnerable to sea
level rise or saltwater intrusion. The articles that passed screening were found either through agency
publication lists or the Elsevier Water Security Journal, while the gray literature results were found
through follow-up searches originating from Nexis Uni legislative results. At the concept proposition
stage as well as the early exploration stage, the number of articles published was relatively few and
almost all were written in Chinese.
In Chapter 7, the committee presents the results of an original comparative analysis of potential
health risks of potable reuse in the context of the risks of a conventional drinking water supply
derived from a surface water that receives a small percentage of treated wastewater. Capital costs in
particular are site specific and can vary markedly from one community to another. In Ghana as at
2014, the renewable freshwater resources per capita were pegged at 1131. The growth of new mills
poisoned the river water by factory. Research on water insecurity health impacts and solutions is still
an emerging field. The scale is reproducible, since survey questions are general and prompt the
participant to share their own unique experience. The alteration of the hydrological cycle that governs
the spatio-temporal availability of water is apparent due to human interference with the natural
system. Rural or remote residents served by private wells with low means to assure adequate supply
and quality are disproportionately affected by water insecurity. Through a partnership between OHA
and the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), OHA’s Drinking Water Protection
Program helps protect Oregon public water system sources (streams, lakes and aquifers) from
contamination. The nodes that are most closely connected to the water resources carrying capacity
node are the management node and the sustainable development node ( Figure 6.). The carrying
capacity of water resources is an important means for water resources management and an important
measure for achieving sustainable development of water resources. FIGURE 6. Nodes connected to
water resources carrying capacity Node. They drove their wisdom from past experience and
prevailing rules and regulations as well as authoritative command specified by the chiefs and elders.
From Table 1, the top 5 documents were all within the period from 2008 to 2014. Decision variables:
D: (1) Pipe diameters, (2) tank max storage, (3) max pumping unit power, (4) max removal ratios at
treatment facilities, OP: (5) scheduling of pumping units, (6) treatment removal ratios. This explains
that more methods were applied at this stage. The majority of the inhabitants said they practiced
Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 73% of the population reporting they observed this belief,
while 20.44% of the populations were Protestant, and 5.43% were Muslim. Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations. The first technique is to ensure feasibility, so solutions found by
the ANN-GA are evaluated by EPANET in 3 stages: (i) each new best solution found by the ANN-
GA is evaluated by EPANET; (ii) several top solutions are evaluated by EPANET when GA
converges; (iii) local search is conducted after GA convergence. Lastly, the paper presents the
conclusion. 2 Methodology 2.1 conceptual framework and methodology. For this review, we define
surveillance as public health data collection and analysis to identify water access needs, to identify
populations experiencing water insecurity and to note existing public health inequities. A heuristic
solver is used to arrive at the final optimal solution from near optimal solutions generated by GA.
Objectives Objectives of a general optimisation model of WDS design are listed in Table 1. Piped
water reaches more urban Africans than any other form of water supply-but not as large a share as it
did in the early 1990s. The scenario helps clarify the constraints of a conventional picture of water
development and provides a useful point of departure for examining alternative long-range scenarios
and their implications for water and development policy. PDF Water as a Resource: Different
Perspectives in Literature This paper is exclusively a literature review. This presents a large challenge
for any optimisation approach as it creates a discontinuity (i.e., a large change in behaviour with or
without a tank at a particular location), which has to be properly managed by the algorithm. This
presented challenges with identifying proper search terms and sources specifically addressing a
public health perspective and quantifiable solutions. Its difference from a conventional GA is that it
uses, besides common GA operators, a process of concatenation. Real-world WDS design
optimisation problems normally involve large size, complex-topology networks, comprising a number
of elements of various types. Objective (1): Minimise (a) (both test networks) the design cost of the
network (pipes), (b) (test network (2) only) construction costs of pumps and tanks, (c) (test network
(2) only) operation and maintenance costs of pumps. WRCC is an extension of the concept of
carrying capacity in the field of water resources, and belongs to a research aspect of Resources
Carrying Capacity.
They can be divided into four distinct groups according to their type. The water is distributed to the
consumers through a total of 2,529 private connections and 24 public fountains. Objective (3) (for a
stochastic phase): Maximise (a) the robustness of the network. Results: Optimisation of WDS design
with construction phasing leads to better results than the traditional single construction phase
approach. There are few water insecurity policies that seek to promote public health and health
equity. At the time of the study, all households surveyed had a water service connection. However,
current American Housing Survey data are limited to a combined (Portland, Beaverton and
Vancouver) metropolitan area dataset so comparable data are needed. Discrete STA is able to find the
best-known solutions with fewer function evaluations. Constraints: (1) Costs cannot exceed the
available budget. OHA estimates approximately 20% of Oregonians use private domestic wells as
their primary source of potable water. The private well-owner has the responsibility to maintain their
well and ensure the water is safe to drink. I n t h e m i d l a n d, a n n u a l r a i n f a l l r a n g e s f
r o m 1 4 0 0 m m i n t h e s o u t h t o 4 0 0 0 m m i n t h e n o r t h. The second largest proportion
(27%) represents two-objective optimisation models. These uncertainties are assumed to be
independent and random following some pre-specified probability density function. Results find 11
public health-related water insecurity interventions including surveillance practices and indicator and
policy development. Lozan, Hartmut Grasl, Peter Hupfer, Lucas Menzel, and Christian-D. Some
current prominent reports are collected and reviewed. Constraints: (1) Min pressure at the nodes for
three demand loading conditions (average, instantaneous peak and fire flows). A gradient search is
applied and the objective function is approximated by shortening the extended period analysis.
Membership functions are provided with linguistic tags (e.g., “tolerant”, “strict”, “very strict”) to
enable implementation of decision maker requirements for specific network elements. United Nations
Water, the Global Water Partnership, and the World Economic Forum are a few of the international
organizations focused on global water security efforts. A thesis submitted to the Department of
Geography and Rural Development, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Mantey S (2017) Galamsey,
pollution destroying water bodies in Ghana—Water Company, March 22, 2017. Objective (1):
Minimise the total design cost of (a) wastewater, (b) recycled and potable networks. The
optimisation consists of two phases as follows: (i) the optimal design is found deterministically (a
single-objective problem); (ii) using the obtained solutions as initial population, the robust design is
found multi-objectively (cost minimisation and robustness maximisation) and stochastically
considering future nodal demands and pipe roughnesses uncertain variables. In such an application,
a pump power estimation method uses a FCV combined with an upstream reservoir to represent a
pump in the system, with the aim to maintain the flows via the FCV into the downstream tanks as
close as possible to the required flows. Constituent (i.e., salinity) mass balance equations make the
model nonlinear. Reuse systems designed for applications with possible human contact should
include redundant barriers for pathogens that cause waterborne diseases. Results: The modified GA
with search space reduction is more effective, especially for large networks. This has also substituted
the traditional authorities’ powers with that of the governor and successively the executive after
independence and laws imposed by the colonial power or ordinances enacted or by the legislature
have replaced customary edicts propounded by traditional authorities. We found that statistical
analysis was easier compared to bibliometric, so we finished the statistical analysis and then
conducted a bibliometric analysis.