Parametric test :used for ratio or interval data..

please explain it briefly

Parametric tests are statistical tests that are used when analyzing data that is measured on a ratio or
interval scale. These scales provide quantitative measurements with equal intervals between values.
Parametric tests make certain assumptions about the data, such as normality and homogeneity of
variances. Here are some key points about parametric tests:

Data Types: Parametric tests are suitable for analyzing continuous data, such as height, weight,
temperature, or test scores. This data is typically measured on a scale with equal intervals between
values.

Assumptions: Parametric tests assume that the data follows a normal distribution and that the variances
are equal across groups being compared. These assumptions are important for the accuracy and validity
of the test results.

Examples of Parametric Tests: Some commonly used parametric tests include t-tests, analysis of
variance (ANOVA), regression analysis, and parametric correlation tests. These tests help compare
means, assess relationships, and determine the significance of differences between groups or variables.

Benefits: Parametric tests have several advantages, including greater statistical power, the ability to
estimate population parameters accurately, and the availability of a wide range of established statistical
techniques.

Limitations: The main limitation of parametric tests is that they are sensitive to violations of the
assumptions. If the data does not meet the assumptions, alternative non-parametric tests may be more
appropriate.

When conducting parametric tests, it is important to ensure that the data meets the necessary
assumptions and to interpret the results accordingly. It is also worth considering consulting with a
statistician or conducting further research to fully understand the specific parametric test you plan to
use.

Please note that this is a brief explanation of parametric tests. For a more comprehensive
understanding, it is recommended to refer to statistical textbooks or consult with a statistician.

Parametric test used for normal distribution

Parametric tests are commonly used when the data follows a normal distribution. These tests assume
that the data points are sampled from a population that is normally distributed. When the data meets
this assumption, parametric tests can provide accurate and reliable results. Here are a few parametric
tests specifically used for normal distribution:

Student's t-test: The t-test is used to compare the means of two groups. It is often used when the
sample size is small and the population standard deviation is unknown. There are different variations of
the t-test, such as the independent samples t-test and the paired samples t-test.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): ANOVA is used to compare the means of three or more groups. It
determines if there are significant differences between the group means. ANOVA can be used for a
variety of experimental designs, including one-way ANOVA, factorial ANOVA, and repeated measures
ANOVA.

Linear Regression: Linear regression is used to model the relationship between a dependent variable
and one or more independent variables. It assumes that the relationship is linear and the residuals (the
differences between the observed and predicted values) are normally distributed.

Chi-Square Test of Independence: While not specifically for normal distribution, the chi-square test of
independence can be used to assess the association between two categorical variables. It is based on
the assumption that the expected frequencies follow a normal distribution.

It's important to note that even if the data approximately follows a normal distribution, parametric tests
can still provide reliable results. However, if the data significantly deviates from normality, non-
parametric tests may be more appropriate. It's always a good idea to assess the normality of the data
through graphical methods, such as histograms or Q-Q plots, before applying parametric tests.

Remember, it is advisable to consult with a statistician or refer to statistical textbooks for more detailed
information and guidance on parametric tests and their assumptions.

Parametric test Mean is usual central measure

Yes, in parametric tests, the mean is a commonly used measure of central tendency. The mean
represents the average value of a set of data points and is calculated by summing all the values and
dividing by the total number of data points.

Parametric tests often involve comparing means between different groups or assessing the relationship
between variables. For example, in a t-test, the mean values of two groups are compared to determine
if there is a significant difference between them. In analysis of variance (ANOVA), the means of three or
more groups are compared to assess if there are significant differences among them.

Parametric test information about population is completely known

Yes, in parametric tests, one of the assumptions is that the information about the population being
studied is completely known. This means that the parameters of the population, such as the mean and
standard deviation, are accurately known or can be estimated with high precision.

For example, in a t-test, the population standard deviation may be assumed to be known or estimated
from a previous study. Similarly, in linear regression, the population parameters (intercept and slope)
are assumed to be known or estimated accurately.

In summary, while the assumption of complete knowledge about population parameters is ideal in
parametric tests, it is often an approximation based on available information or prior knowledge. It's
crucial to be aware of the limitations and potential sources of uncertainty when making assumptions
about population parameters in statistical analysis.

Parametric test specific assumptions made regarding population

Parametric tests have specific assumptions that are made regarding the population being studied. These
assumptions are important for the validity and accuracy of the test results. Here are some common
assumptions made in parametric tests:

Normality: One of the key assumptions in parametric tests is that the data follows a normal distribution.
This means that the values of the variable being studied are symmetrically distributed around the mean.
Normality assumptions are particularly important for tests that involve comparing means, such as t-tests
and analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Independence: Parametric tests assume that the observations or data points are independent of each
other. This means that the value of one observation does not influence the value of another
observation. Independence is important for ensuring that the test results are not biased or influenced by
dependencies among the data points.

Homogeneity of Variance: Many parametric tests assume that the variances of the different groups
being compared are equal. This assumption is important for tests such as t-tests and ANOVA, where the
equality of variances ensures that the test results are valid and reliable.

Linearity: Parametric regression tests, such as linear regression, assume a linear relationship between
the dependent variable and the independent variable(s). This means that the relationship between the
variables can be described by a straight line.

Non PARAMETRIC TEST for ordinal and nominal data

Non-parametric tests are statistical tests that are used when analyzing data that is not normally
distributed or when the assumptions of parametric tests are not met. Non-parametric tests are
particularly suitable for analyzing ordinal and nominal data, which are categorical variables without a
natural numerical scale. Here are some common non-parametric tests used for ordinal and nominal
data:

Mann-Whitney U test: This test is used to compare the medians of two independent groups. It is an
alternative to the independent samples t-test and is suitable for ordinal or continuous data that do not
meet the assumptions of normality or equal variances.

Wilcoxon signed-rank test: This test is used to compare the medians of paired or dependent samples. It
is an alternative to the paired samples t-test and is suitable for ordinal or continuous data that do not
meet the assumptions of normality or equal variances.
Kruskal-Wallis test: This test is used to compare the medians of three or more independent groups. It is
an alternative to the one-way ANOVA and is suitable for ordinal or continuous data that do not meet the
assumptions of normality or equal variances.

Chi-square test: The chi-square test is used to assess the association between two categorical variables.
It determines if there is a significant difference between the observed and expected frequencies in
contingency tables. This test is suitable for nominal data.

Fisher's exact test: Fisher's exact test is used to assess the association between two categorical variables
when the sample size is small. It is an alternative to the chi-square test and is suitable for nominal data.

These are just a few examples of non-parametric tests used for analyzing ordinal and nominal data. It's
important to choose the appropriate non-parametric test based on the specific research question and
the nature of the data. Consulting with a statistician or referring to statistical resources can provide
further guidance on selecting and conducting non-parametric tests.

Non PARAMETRIC TEST any distribution

Non-parametric tests are particularly useful when analyzing data that does not follow a specific
distribution or when the assumptions of parametric tests are not met. These tests can be applied to data
with any distribution, making them versatile and robust. Here are some common non-parametric tests
that can be used regardless of the distribution of the data:

Mann-Whitney U test: This test compares the medians of two independent groups. It is a non-
parametric alternative to the independent samples t-test and can be used with data that does not follow
a specific distribution.

Wilcoxon signed-rank test: This test compares the medians of paired or dependent samples. It is a non-
parametric alternative to the paired samples t-test and can be used with data that does not follow a
specific distribution.

Kruskal-Wallis test: This test compares the medians of three or more independent groups. It is a non-
parametric alternative to the one-way ANOVA and can be used with data that does not follow a specific
distribution.

Spearman's rank correlation: This test assesses the strength and direction of the monotonic relationship
between two variables. It is a non-parametric alternative to Pearson's correlation coefficient and can be
used with data that does not follow a specific distribution.

Chi-square test: This test assesses the association between two categorical variables. It can be used with
data that does not follow a specific distribution.

These non-parametric tests are robust and do not rely on distributional assumptions. They are suitable
for analyzing data with any distribution, including skewed or non-normal distributions. However, it's
important to note that non-parametric tests may have less statistical power compared to their
parametric counterparts when the assumptions of parametric tests are met.

As always, it is advisable to consult with a statistician or refer to statistical resources for detailed
guidance on selecting and conducting non-parametric tests based on your specific research question and
data characteristics.

Non PARAMETRIC TEST median is usual central measure

Yes, in non-parametric tests, the median is often used as a central measure of the data instead of the
mean, which is commonly used in parametric tests. The median represents the middle value in a set of
data when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order.

Non-parametric tests, such as the Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and Kruskal-Wallis
test, compare medians between groups or conditions. These tests focus on the rank or order of the data
rather than the specific values. The use of the median allows for the analysis of ordinal or non-normally
distributed data.

It's important to note that while the median is a common central measure in non-parametric tests,
other measures like the mode or percentiles can also be used depending on the nature of the data and
research question.

Non PARAMETRIC TEST no information available

Non-parametric tests are statistical tests that can be used when there is limited or no information
available about the underlying distribution of the data. These tests do not rely on specific distributional
assumptions and are robust to the shape of the data.

Non-parametric tests can be used to compare groups or assess relationships between variables, even
when the specific distribution is unknown. Some commonly used non-parametric tests include the
Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and Spearman's rank correlation.

By using non-parametric tests, you can make inferences and draw conclusions based on the ranks or
order of the data, rather than relying on specific distributional assumptions. These tests provide a
flexible and reliable approach when no information about the distribution is available.

Non PARAMETRIC TEST assumption free test

Non-parametric tests are often referred to as assumption-free tests because they do not rely on specific
assumptions about the underlying distribution of the data. These tests are designed to be robust and
can be used when the data does not meet the assumptions of parametric tests.

While non-parametric tests are considered assumption-free in terms of distributional assumptions, they
still have some assumptions or considerations to keep in mind:
Independence: Non-parametric tests assume that the observations or data points are independent of
each other. This assumption is similar to parametric tests and ensures that the test results are not
biased or influenced by dependencies among the data points.

Random sampling: Non-parametric tests assume that the data is obtained through random sampling.
This assumption is important for making inferences about the population based on the sample data.

Level of measurement: Non-parametric tests are suitable for nominal, ordinal, and sometimes interval
data. However, the specific test chosen should align with the level of measurement of the variables
being analyzed. For example, the Mann-Whitney U test is appropriate for ordinal or continuous data,
while the chi-square test is suitable for nominal data.

Sample size: Non-parametric tests can be robust to sample size, but the power of the test may be
influenced by the sample size. Larger sample sizes generally provide more reliable results.

It's important to note that while non-parametric tests are more flexible in terms of distributional
assumptions, they still have their own specific assumptions and considerations. Understanding these
assumptions and ensuring they are met to the best extent possible will help ensure the validity and
reliability of the test results.

As always, it is advisable to consult with a statistician or refer to statistical resources for guidance on
selecting and conducting non-parametric tests in your specific research context.

Comparing TESTS

The paired t-test is a parametric test used to compare the means of two related groups, while the
Wilcoxon rank-sum test (also known as the Mann-Whitney U test) is a nonparametric equivalent used
for the same purpose.

Here's a comparison between the paired t-test and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test:

Paired t-test:

Assumption: The paired t-test assumes that the differences between the paired observations are
normally distributed.

Use: The paired t-test is used when you have two related groups or when you want to compare the
means of two measurements taken on the same subjects before and after an intervention or treatment.

Test statistic: The t-statistic is calculated based on the mean difference between paired observations and
the standard error of the mean difference.

Interpretation: The test determines whether there is a statistically significant difference between the
means of the paired observations.

Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test (Mann-Whitney U test):

Here's a comparison between the unpaired t-test and the Mann-Whitney U test:

Unpaired t-test:

Assumption: The unpaired t-test assumes that the data are normally distributed and that the variances
of the two groups are equal.

Use: The unpaired t-test is used when you have two independent groups and want to compare the
means between them.

Test statistic: The t-statistic is calculated based on the difference in means between the two groups and
the standard error of the difference.

Interpretation: The test determines whether there is a statistically significant difference between the
means of the two independent groups.

Mann-Whitney U Test (Wilcoxon rank-sum test):

Assumption: The Mann-Whitney U test does not assume any specific distribution for the data. It is a
nonparametric alternative that can be used when the assumption of normality is not met or when
dealing with ordinal or non-normally distributed data.

Use: The Mann-Whitney U test is used to compare the central tendency (medians) of two independent
groups.

Test statistic: The test statistic is based on the ranks of the observations in the combined data set for the
two groups.

Interpretation: The test determines whether there is a statistically significant difference in the medians
of the two independent groups.

Assumption: The Wilcoxon rank-sum test does not assume any specific distribution for the data. It is a
nonparametric alternative that is used when the assumption of normality is not met or when dealing
with ordinal or non-normally distributed data.

Use: The Wilcoxon rank-sum test is used to compare the medians of two independent groups or when
you want to compare the central tendency of two groups.

Test statistic: The test statistic is based on the ranks of the observations in the combined data set for the
two groups.

Interpretation: The test determines whether there is a statistically significant difference in the medians
of the two groups.
Both tests serve the same purpose of comparing two groups, but the paired t-test assumes normality
and relies on the mean difference, while the Wilcoxon rank-sum test is nonparametric and uses the
ranks of the observations.

The Pearson correlation coefficient is a parametric test used to measure the strength and direction of
the linear relationship between two continuous variables, while the Spearman's rank-order correlation
coefficient is a nonparametric equivalent used for the same purpose.

Here's a comparison between the Pearson correlation and Spearman correlation:

Pearson Correlation:

Assumption: The Pearson correlation assumes that the relationship between the two variables is linear
and that the data are normally distributed.

Use: The Pearson correlation is used when both variables are measured on a continuous scale and there
is an interest in examining the linear association between them.

Test statistic: The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to +1, where -1 indicates a perfect negative
linear relationship, +1 indicates a perfect positive linear relationship, and 0 indicates no linear
relationship.

Interpretation: The correlation coefficient indicates the strength and direction of the linear relationship
between the two variables.

Spearman Correlation:

Assumption: The Spearman correlation does not assume any specific distribution for the data. It is a
nonparametric alternative that can be used when the assumption of normality is not met or when
dealing with ordinal or non-normally distributed data.

Use: The Spearman correlation is used when the relationship between the variables is monotonic,
meaning that the variables tend to change together but not necessarily in a linear fashion.

Test statistic: The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to +1, similar to the Pearson correlation. It is
based on the ranks of the observations rather than the actual values of the variables.

Interpretation: The correlation coefficient indicates the strength and direction of the monotonic
relationship between the two variables.

Both tests serve the purpose of measuring the relationship between two variables, but the Pearson
correlation assumes linearity and normality, while the Spearman correlation is nonparametric and
assesses the monotonic relationship using ranks.

The one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a parametric test used to compare means across three or
more independent groups, while the Kruskal-Wallis test is a nonparametric equivalent used for the
same purpose.
Here's a comparison between the one-way ANOVA and the Kruskal-Wallis test:

One-way ANOVA:

Assumption: The one-way ANOVA assumes that the data are normally distributed and that the variances
are equal across all groups.

Use: The one-way ANOVA is used when you have three or more independent groups and want to
compare the means across these groups.

Test statistic: The F-statistic is calculated based on the variation between the group means and the
variation within the groups.

Interpretation: The test determines whether there is a statistically significant difference in the means
across the groups.

Kruskal-Wallis Test:

Assumption: The Kruskal-Wallis test does not assume any specific distribution for the data. It is a
nonparametric alternative that can be used when the assumption of normality is not met or when
dealing with ordinal or non-normally distributed data.

Use: The Kruskal-Wallis test is used to compare the medians across three or more independent groups.

Test statistic: The test statistic is based on the ranks of the observations in the combined data set for the
groups.

Interpretation: The test determines whether there is a statistically significant difference in the medians
across the groups.

Both tests serve the purpose of comparing means or medians across multiple groups, but the one-way
ANOVA assumes normality and equal variances, while the Kruskal-Wallis test is nonparametric and uses
the ranks of the observations.