Let’s proceed to hemispheric specialization.

To answer the question, How did psychologists find out that the
two hemispheres have different responsibilities? So I won’t be reading the whole text, so we can save up time,
instead I will be summarizing it. Anyway if you want to read the full text on the presentation, you may take a
screenshot or ask for a copy of our ppt later on. To continue,

By 1836, Marc Dax had treated over 40 patients with aphasia (loss of speech) due to brain damage. He
observed a pattern—speech loss consistently occurred when damage was on the left side of the brain. Upon
post-mortem examinations, he found that all cases of speech loss were associated with damage to the left
hemisphere, and he couldn't find a single instance where speech loss resulted solely from damage to the right
hemisphere. This observation laid the groundwork for our understanding of the left hemisphere's specialization
in language functions, a concept later known as hemispheric lateralization.

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In 1861, Paul Broca examined the brain of a stroke patient with aphasia and found a lesion in the left cerebral
hemisphere. By 1864, he firmly believed that the left hemisphere is crucial for speech. This idea has stood the
test of time, and the specific brain region Broca identified, now known as Broca's area, is recognized for its
significant contribution to speech functions. In essence, Broca's observations and conclusions marked a pivotal
moment in our understanding of language localization in the brain.

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In the pursuit of understanding language functions in the brain, German neurologist Carl Wernicke studied
patients who could speak but their speech lacked coherence. Similar to Broca's findings, Wernicke concluded
that language ability is linked to the left hemisphere of the brain. His focus was on a specific area, now named
Wernicke's area, which is recognized for its role in language comprehension. So, while Broca's area is
associated with speech production, Wernicke's area contributes significantly to understanding and
comprehending language. Together, these pioneering researchers laid the foundation for our understanding of
the brain's specialized regions for language functions.

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In 1915, Karl Spencer Lashley, considered the father of neuropsychology, delved into the study of brain
localization. His experiments involved implanting electrodes in seemingly identical locations in the brain, but
the results were inconsistent. Surprisingly, different locations sometimes produced similar outcomes, and
identical locations yielded different results. Lashley's findings challenged the simplistic view of strict localization
of functions in the brain and contributed to the development of a more nuanced understanding of how complex
and interconnected the brain's functions are. His work paved the way for recognizing the brain's intricate
organization and the distributed nature of certain cognitive functions.

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Split-brain patients are people who have undergone operations severing the corpus callosum. Split-
brain research reveals fascinating possibilities regarding the ways we think.

Split-brain patients are individuals who have undergone surgical procedures that sever the corpus callosum,
the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain. In essence, split-brain research has
opened up new avenues for understanding the intricacies of brain function and cognition. It has challenged and
enriched our comprehension of how the two hemispheres collaborate and operate independently, offering a
unique perspective on the organization and capabilities of the human brain.

The left hemisphere is important not only in language but also in movement. People with apraxia—
disorders of skilled movements—often have had damage to the left hemisphere.
In summary, the left hemisphere is not only crucial for language-related activities but also plays a significant
role in the planning and execution of skilled movements. Damage to this hemisphere can result in apraxia,
underlining its importance in the seamless integration of linguistic and motor functions.

The right hemisphere is largely “mute” (Levy, 2000). It has little grammatical or phonetic
understanding.

The right hemisphere tends to be more "mute" in terms of grammatical and phonetic understanding compared
to the left hemisphere. While the left hemisphere is often associated with language processing, the right
hemisphere plays a different role in language comprehension.

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The frontal lobe, toward the front of the brain, is associated with motor processing and higher thought
processes, such as abstract reasoning, problem solving, planning, and judgment.

In essence, the frontal lobe is the brain's powerhouse for both motor control and higher thought processes. It's
the epicenter for your ability to move purposefully and think strategically, making it a crucial player in
orchestrating complex actions and navigating the challenges of everyday life.

The prefrontal cortex, situated at the front of the frontal lobe, is a key player in orchestrating complex motor
control and tasks that demand the integration of information over time. So kapag we are playing a musical
instrument, planning a vacation, or managing a long-term project, si refrontal cortex is at the forefront ng lahat
ng complex cognitive and motor functions.

The parietal lobe, at the upper back portion of the brain, is associated with somatosensory processing.

Let's say you close your eyes and someone lightly touches your arm. The sensation of touch is processed
in the somatosensory cortex within the parietal lobe. It's this region that enables you to recognize not
just that you've been touched but also the specific qualities of the touch—whether it's gentle or firm, hot
or cold.

In summary, the parietal lobe's somatosensory processing allows you to navigate and understand the tactile
world around you, making it possible to feel and interpret sensations like touch and temperature.

The temporal lobe, directly under your temples, is associated with auditory processing (Murray, 2003)
and comprehending language.

Imagine you're listening to a friend telling a story. The sound waves carrying their words are processed in
the temporal lobe. As you comprehend the story, recognizing the words and understanding the
narrative, your temporal lobe is hard at work, ensuring that the auditory information is translated into
meaningful language.

The temporal lobe is the brain's hub for processing auditory information and understanding language, making it
possible for you to engage in conversations, enjoy music, and interpret the sounds of the world around you.

The occipital lobe is associated with visual processing.

Picture yourself looking at a beautiful sunset. The light waves carrying the vibrant colors of the sunset enter
your eyes and are captured by the retina. These visual signals are then transmitted to the occipital
lobe's projection areas. It's in these areas that the brain interprets the colors, shapes, and arrangement
of the scenery, allowing you to experience and appreciate the breathtaking sunset.
The occipital lobe and its projection areas are essential for visual processing, turning incoming visual stimuli

into the rich tapestry of images that make up your visual perception of the world.

The visual cortex is primarily in the occipital lobe.

Imagine you're looking at a familiar face, like that of a friend or family member. The visual information from
the features, expressions, and colors of the face is processed in the visual cortex within the occipital
lobe. This processing enables you not only to recognize the person but also to perceive details like
emotions and subtle nuances in their expression.

the visual cortex in the occipital lobe is instrumental in the brain's ability to transform visual stimuli into
coherent and meaningful perceptions, shaping your visual experience of the world.

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Rostral: Refers to the front part of the brain, specifically the nasal region. Imagine it as the "noseward"
direction. For example, the frontal lobe is rostral to the occipital lobe.

Ventral: Relates to the bottom surface of the body or brain, often associated with the side of the stomach.
Think of it as the "belly side." For instance, the spinal cord is ventral to the brainstem.

Caudal: Literally means "tail" and points to the back part of the body or brain. It's like the "tailward"
direction. The spinal cord, for instance, is caudal to the brain.

Dorsal: Refers to the upside of the brain, essentially the "back" side. In animals, this is where the back is
situated. The top of the brain is dorsal. For example, the occipital lobe is dorsal to the temporal lobe.

In summary, these terms provide a directional language for understanding different regions of the brain and
body, whether it's the front (rostral), bottom (ventral), back (caudal), or top (dorsal). They offer a standardized
way to describe the spatial relationships within anatomy and neuroscience.

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Now let’s proceed to the Neural Structures and Functions.

Neurons and Electrical Signals: Neurons, or nerve cells, are responsible for transmitting electrical signals
within the nervous system. They are the communication channels of the brain and body.

Soma: The soma, or cell body, houses the nucleus and is the metabolic and reproductive center of the
neuron. It connects dendrites (receivers) to the axon (transmitter) and is vital for the neuron's overall
function and survival.

Dendrites: Branch-like structures extending from the soma that receive information from other neurons.
Dendrites act as input receivers, collecting signals and passing them to the soma for integration.

Axon: A single, long tube extending from the soma, responsible for transmitting electrochemical signals.
When appropriate, the axon sends signals down its length to the terminus, the end of the axon.

Signal Transmission: The electrochemical signal travels along the axon to the terminus. At the terminus,
the signal can be transmitted to other neurons, continuing the communication process.
In essence, neurons are the messengers of the nervous system. Dendrites gather information, the soma
integrates it, and the axon transmits signals to other neurons, enabling the rapid and complex communication
that underlies brain function and information processing throughout the body.

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The synapse is a crucial junction in the nervous system where communication between neurons takes place.
Here's a concise breakdown:

Synapse Junction: The synapse acts as a meeting point between the terminal buttons of one neuron and
the dendrites (or soma) of another neuron. It's where the relay of information occurs.

Signal Transmission: Neurons communicate across the synapse by releasing neurotransmitters from their
terminal buttons. These neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that travel across the synaptic gap
to reach the receiving dendrites of the next neuron.

Neurotransmitters as Messengers: Neurotransmitters play a pivotal role in the transmission of information

In essence, the synapse is a critical point of communication in the nervous system. It's where the language of
electrical signals is translated into chemical messages (neurotransmitters), facilitating the seamless transfer of
information from one neuron to another. This intricate process is fundamental to the functioning of neural
circuits and the overall complexity of the brain's communication network.

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Neurotransmission involves three main types of chemical substances:

Monoamine Neurotransmitters: These neurotransmitters are synthesized by the nervous system through
enzymatic actions on specific amino acids present in our diet. Examples include acetylcholine,
dopamine, and serotonin. These molecules play crucial roles in transmitting signals between neurons,
influencing various aspects of mood, cognition, and bodily functions.
Amino Acid Neurotransmitters: Obtained directly from the amino acids in our diet without further synthesis,
these neurotransmitters include gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA, for instance, is a major
inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, regulating neuronal excitability and playing a vital role in
maintaining balance and preventing excessive neuronal activity.
Neuropeptides: These are peptide chains, molecules made from the combination of two or more amino
acids. Neuropeptides function as neurotransmitters and are involved in a variety of physiological
processes, including pain modulation, stress response, and emotional regulation.

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Next we have the receptors and drugs.

The use of psycho pharmacologically active drugs can impact receptors in the brain, leading to various
consequences such as withdrawal symptoms and dependence. Here's a concise breakdown:

Receptor Hijacking: Psycho Pharmacologically active drugs, whether legal or illegal, can hijack receptors in
the brain normally occupied by standard neurotransmitters. This interference alters normal brain
function, producing the desired effects of the drugs.
Withdrawal Symptoms: When individuals cease using these drugs, withdrawal symptoms can arise. These
symptoms are the body's response to the absence of the drug, reflecting physiological and
psychological adaptations to its presence.
 Treatment Approach: Treatment for narcotic dependence differs between acute toxicity (resulting from a
specific overdose) and chronic toxicity (damage from long-term drug addiction).

Acute Toxicity Treatment: Acute toxicity is often addressed with drugs like naloxone or related medications.
Naloxone, for example, is effective in treating opioid overdoses by occupying opiate receptors more
strongly than the opioids themselves, thereby blocking their effects and reversing the toxic effects of the
drug.

In essence, the use of psychoactive drugs can lead to changes in receptor occupancy in the brain, causing
dependence and withdrawal symptoms. Treatment approaches, such as using naloxone, aim to counteract the
acute toxic effects of drug overdose and mitigate the impact of drug dependence on the body's neural
pathways.

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Naloxone and methadone are utilized in the treatment of narcotic dependence with different mechanisms and
outcomes:

Naloxone and Non-Addictive Binding: Naloxone is a non-addictive drug used in the treatment of opioid
overdose. It binds to opiate receptors without activating them, effectively blocking the effects of opioids
and reversing overdose symptoms. Its non-activating nature makes it a valuable tool in emergency
situations without the risk of creating dependency.

Methadone in Detoxification: In narcotic detoxification, methadone is often substituted for the narcotic, such
as heroin. Methadone, unlike naloxone, binds to endorphin receptor sites and activates them. This
activation is more gradual and sustained compared to shorter-acting opioids like heroin, helping to
reduce cravings and withdrawal symptoms in individuals recovering from addiction.

In summary, while naloxone is non-addictive and primarily used to counteract opioid overdose effects by
blocking receptors, methadone is employed in detoxification as a replacement for opioids. Methadone's ability
to activate receptors in a controlled manner helps manage cravings and withdrawal symptoms, contributing to
a smoother transition for individuals seeking recovery from narcotic addiction.