FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA

NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

FUTMINNA
e-LEARNING

B.TECH. PHYSICS

COURSE TITLE
GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS

COURSE CODE
PHY 107/PHY 108

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 COURSE CODE
PHY 107/PHY 108

COURSE UNIT
1

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Abiodun Stephen Moses (Ph.D.)
Department of Physics
Federal University of Technology (FUT) Minna
Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.

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Course Development Team
PHY 107/PHY 108: GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Engr. J D Aje, Dauda Ibrahim, Yabagi
Subject Matter Experts
Mohammed, Hussaini Usman, Abdulrahaman
Kareem, Michael Gimba, Abigail Taiwo and
Khadijat Abdulkadir,
FUT Minna, Nigeria.
Course Coordinator Abiodun Stephen Moses (PhD)
Department of Physics,
FUT Minna, Nigeria.

Joel A. Ezenwora (PhD)

Instructional System Designers Engr. J. D. Aje
e-Learning Experts Prof. Amosa Isiaka GAMBARI

Dean of School Prof. M. Jiya

School of Physical Sciences
FUT Minna, Nigeria.

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PHY 107/PHY 108 Study Guide
Introduction
The study of physics without adequate exposure to practical makes the subject very abstract and
difficult to students in schools and higher institutions to understand. Physics is defined as the study of
matter and energy that is associated with it. An experiment in physics is a search after the mode of
behavior of matter, thus it forms the basic foundation on which the whole structure of physics is built.
It aids the students understanding of the basic theory of physics, laws, concepts and hypotheses.
Regular conduct of practical will go a long way in equipping students with necessary scientific and
technological skills such as:
(I) Ability to handle simple apparatus and demonstrate the understanding of the concepts and
principles involved.
(II) Ability to connect or set up the experiment as given in the diagram of the experiment.
(III) Ability to observe readings effortlessly and accurately to the required degree of accuracy.
(IV) Ability to plot graph correctly and make useful deductions from plotted graph by using
slope, intercept, shape of the graph, etc.
In this laboratory practical manual, the apparatus required for each experiment is listed and the
procedure. This will help the laboratory technologist, attendants and students in assembling the
apparatus for practical class. Detailed instructions for performing each experiment are given together
with spaces for tables where all the measured and calculated values are to be entered. A Graph is also
provided for each experiment. What is required, therefore, is a strict adherence to the instructions
which invariably will facilitate the success of the experiments. Students are therefore advised to take
the practical class seriously because the weekly practical classes form 60% of the overall performance
for them to move to the next level.

Instructions to Students
Under any given circumstances, a scientist must be able to keep accurate and complete record of his
work. It is only on such basis that valid conclusion can be drawn. In the conduct of laboratory
experiments, one of the main objectives is to provide you with training in this important area. In
attempting any experiment therefore, you should observe the following very carefully:
(i) You are required to prepare for the experiment far ahead of time by studying this
practical manual before coming to the laboratory. If the theory of the experiment is
not well understood, you are strongly advised to consult the relevant textbooks for
better understanding.
(ii) You should avoid following instructions blindly in quest of wanting to finish the
experiment as early as possible.
(iii) Before the commencement of your experiment, examine and carefully setup your
apparatus making sure you understand its main function. You should be able to know,
using your own volition, to decide what measurement you need to make, as well as
thinking about the precautions that are necessary to be taken in order to ensure
accuracy.
(iv) Ensure that the academic technologist inspects your set up before proceeding to carry
out the experiment.
(v) Credit will be given for neatness and orderly presentation of wok while marks will be
for a serious lack of neatness. Any breakage or damage must be reported
immediately. Report book must be properly identified with the student's registration
number and name. you should provide yourself with a biro, sharpened pencil and
mathematical instruments; a transparent ruler is preferable and should be calibrated in
metric edition.

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 (vi) Read through the experiment very carefully and if there is anything you do not
understand as per the procedure, contact the academic technologist in charge for more
explanation before starting the experiment.
(vii) You are advised to check that you have all the apparatus you required and if
necessary, ask question for proper identification of each and every apparatus provided
for you
(viii) You should always record your reading directly into your practical data notebook
from which your write up can later be done. Never enter your readings on scraps of
loose paper which could easily get lost.
(ix) If you are working in a group, try to participate fully in handling the apparatus,
readings and relevant observations. It is only by taking active part in the experiment
that you will gain any positive benefit from your practical work.
(x) If you feel you can make a definite improvement on the method suggested, bring to
the laboratory academic technologist.
(xi) Report any breakage at ones. After your experiment, dismantle your apparatus and
leave it as you met them.

General Laboratory Rules

(i) Avoid making noise in the laboratory so that you do not disturb others who are still
busy with their experiments.
(ii) Smoking, eating, drinking, and littering is not allowed in any of the Physics
Laboratories.
(iii) Stay inside the laboratory only during lab classes. Only officially registered students
are permitted inside the laboratory during practical sessions.
(iv) Use all laboratory fixtures properly. Do not sit on tables and do not open cabinets or
lockers unless there is an instruction to do so.
(v) Turn off all electrical appliances in the laboratory if they are not being used.
(vi) Maintain the cleanliness of the laboratory at all times.
(vii) Always observe proper safety procedures in the laboratory.

Borrowing Procedures and Use of Equipment

(i) All pieces of equipment necessary for physics experiments may be borrowed from the Physics
Stockroom using a valid student ID.
(ii) Collect only the pieces of equipment which are specified in your experiment or are required
by the laboratory instructor.
(iii) The borrower and his/her group are held responsible for all pieces of equipment borrowed
from the Physics Stockroom.
(iv) Pieces of equipment borrowed must be returned upon completion of the experiment.

Laboratory Safety
(i) Students are advised to read all precautionary notes on all pieces of equipment before using
them. All questions about safety precautions on the equipment being used must be addressed
to the lab instructor.
(ii) The lab instructor must first check the set-up for experiments requiring the use of electrical
components before any of these are plugged in or turned on. In case of faulty equipment, the
instructor must be informed immediately so that a replacement can be secured from the
Physics Stockroom.
(iii) Experiments involving the use of boiling water, heaters, and the like must be performed close
to the water sinks in the lab. Proper safety procedures must be employed when performing
such experiments.
(iv) Chemicals used in some experiments must be handled with utmost care. Used and unused
chemicals must be returned to the Physics Stockroom as soon as the experiment is finished.
Chemicals should never be thrown into the water sinks or the trash bins.
(v) All injuries, however minor, must be reported to the lab instructor.

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 (vi) In case of a minor injury, the instructor and/or the lab technicians may administer first aid.
The student may be sent by the instructor to the university clinic accompanied by a person
designated by the instructor.
(vii) If the instructor and/or the lab technicians feel they cannot administer the proper first-
aid treatment, the student must be taken to the school clinic immediately, if possible
accompanied by a lab technician.

Special/Make-Up Lab Experiments

(i) Special or make-up experiments outside of regular class hours are discouraged. However, if a
student has valid reasons for missing a laboratory period, make-up may be arranged for
him/her.
(ii) In case of a special or make-up experiment outside the regular class hours, the student has to
confirm the availability of the technicians/technologists, the equipment, and the laboratory
room before scheduling one with his/her instructor. Special or make-up experiments must
only be performed in a lab room.
(iii) Special or make-up experiments outside the regular class hours are allowed only upon the
approval of the lab technologist in charge.
(iv) No special or make-up experiments are allowed if the lab instructor cannot be present during
the special or make-up experiment.
(v) Laboratory technologists are required to assist the students during the special or make-up
experiments.

Breakage, Loss, and Damage to Lab Equipment

1. Any incident of breakage, loss, or damage to any lab equipment must be reported
immediately to the lab instructor.
2. The borrower and his/her group members are responsible for the replacement or payment of
the broken, lost, or damaged equipment.
3. The cost of the damage to the equipment is assessed by the Chief Technologist and
technologists and a billing statement is forwarded to the borrower.
4. Students must pay for, repair, or replace broken, lost, or damaged equipment on or before the
end of the semester.
5. Once the equipment has been paid for, replaced or repaired, students would be issued a
clearance by the Chief Technologist.

Assessment of Practical Reports.

Each practical report is assessed on a total of 25 marks under different sub-heading:
Observation (d) Deduction
Graph (e) Precaution
Slope (f) Short Answer question

Observations (readings)
This is a record of the measurement taken during the experiments should be recorded.
In a composite table: A table containing all the measurements evaluations required in the experiment.
To at least one decimal place with unit of each measured quantities specified. Units wrong or missing
attract loss of ½ mark each.
With the same significant figure for all values in each column, inconsistent significant figures (S.F)
attract a loss of ½ marks per column up to a maximum of 1 mark per table.

NOTE: Calculated values should be recorded to at least 3 decimal places or to 3 significant figures
depending on values required. By calculated values, we mean all data got with the assistance of your
four – figure table or scientific calculator. Such data include reciprocals, square roots, squares, sine,
consine, tangent, logsine, logcosine, logtangent etc.

Graph:
a graph is a pictorial representation of a relation between
quantities which can vary. It is a very important tool for analyzing experimental results.
Linear graphs or straight line graphs are obtained from linear equations in the form given
below.

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 y = mx + c
where
y = quantity on the vertical axis
x = quantity on the horizontal axis
m = slope or gradient
c = Intercept.

Plotting of Graph.
Axes distinguished: - The quantities plotted on a graph must be clearly and neatly indicated with
units along the axes in such a way that an observer can see at a glance what the graph is all about.
Axes are usually given in the procedure and that should be strictly adhered to.
Scales: - Scaling is the art of even division of the axes such that the observed or given values are
easily accommodated. Scaled should be chosen such that the graph occupies one third of the graph
sheet. Scales that are multiples or submultiples of prime numbers are unacceptable e.g. 3, 7, 9, 11, 13
etc.
Points plotting: - points should be plotted correctly to nearest half square on both axes. Students
should avoid error of over approximation (e.g. 6.73 should be plotted to the second decimal places but
not 7.0). all points on the graph must be correctly plotted. Points wrongly plotted or missing students
will score zero for line best fit.
Line of best fit: - a suitable line or curve capable of joining maximum number of points is required.
Points that are not passing through the line of best fit must be distributed equally by the line of best fit
below and above the line.
Errors
Observation are a record of the measurements of a physical quantities taken during the laboratory
practical. A measured value will differ from the "true" value of the quantity, this difference is known
as error can be grouped into:
Random Errors: - These are due to inaccuracy in scale reading, scale setting fluctuating condition in
temperature, pressure, voltage etc. Random error can be minimized by taken repeated reading of the
physical quantity and finding the mean value of these observations.
Types:
Maximum error and
Standard error
Systematic error: - These are due to faulty apparatus, environmental influence etc. systematic error
in a measurement can be detected by measuring the quantity using different method.
Erratic error are due to mistakes: - arising e.g. from arithmetic calculation, miscounting a number of
periods, faulty electrical contact etc. erratic error can be minimized with a little more care and
practice.

Estimation of Standard Error in Slope

The Standard error in slope is found as follows: -
Draw two parallel lines to the line of the best fit of the graph, one passing through most deviated point
from the line of best fit and the other passing through least deviated point from the line of best fit.
Determine the range of residuals 'w' i.e. vertical separation between the lines through least and most
deviated point to the line.
Determine 'R' the horizontal separation between least deviated and most deviated points from the line
of best fit. If there is 'n' number of plotted points, the range estimator for standard error is given by:
Se = × 100%
While the percentage
Error is given by
% = Se × 100%
= × 100%

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Study Units
There are 8 study units and 2 Modules in this course. They are:

Module One Experiments in Mechanics

Unit 1 The Use of Vernier Calipers and Micrometer Screw Gauge

Unit 2 Simple Pendulum

Unit 3 Principle of Moment

Unit 4 Coefficient of Friction

Unit 5 Verification of Hooke’s Law

Module Two Experiments in Current Electricity

Unit 1 Current/Voltage Relationship in a Circuit
Unit 2 Wheatstone Bridge
Unit 3 Potential Drop Along a Length of a Wire

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Table of Contents
Course Development Team………………………………………………………………3

Study Guide………………………………………………………………………………4-8
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………9

Module 1 Experiments in Mechanics …………………………………...........................10

Unit 1 The Use of Vernier Calipers and Micrometer Screw Gauge…………………………11-13
Unit 2 Simple Pendulum ……………………………………….………………………14-15
Unit 3 Principle of Moment…………………………………………………………….16-17
Unit 4 Coefficient of Static Friction ………………………………………..……...…..18-19
Unit 5 Verification of Hooke’s Law ……...………….......................................................20-21

Module 2 Experiments in Current Electricity ……..……………………………...........22

Unit 1 Current/Voltage Relationship in a Circuit ……………………………………….23-24

Unit 2 Wheatstone Bridge …………………………………….......…………………...25-26

Unit 3 Potential Drop Along a Length of a Wire ……………………………………….27-28

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 Module 1
Experiments in Mechanics
Introduction
Mechanics is basically the study of how particles/bodies respond to the influence of force(s). The
physical characteristics, such as size etc., of the bodies play significant role in understanding the
interaction of forces and bodies. Therefore, it is imperative for students to have adequate knowledge
on measurement and measuring devices.
In this module, Experiments to demonstrate the effect of forces on bodies are presented which covers
Unit one (1) to Units five (5).

Aim: To carry out Laboratory Experiments on the main aspects of Mechanics.

Objectives
1. To teach students how to carry out measurement of physical parameters using measuring
apparatus.
2. To demonstrate in practical terms the influence of forces on bodies.

Unit 1 The Use of Vernier Callipers and Micrometre Screw Gauge

Unit 2 The Use of Vernier Callipers and Micrometre Screw Gauge

Unit 3 Principle of Moment
Unit 4 Coefficient of Static Friction
Unit 5 Verification of Hooke’s Law

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 Unit 1
Vernier Calliper and Micrometre
Screw Gauge
Introduction
Measurement is the act of comparing an unknown value with a known standard; and it is usually
expressed in units. Measurement is the key to the whole study of science and engineering. The
dimensions given on a drawing may dictate to the mechanic tool which if the parts may need
adjustments in the sequence of operations.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to illustrate and demonstrate the students how Vernier Callipers and
Micrometer Screw Gauge could be used to take measurements using various samples of unknown
dimensions.
Objectives:
(i) To create awareness on the importance and relevance of measurements in human endeavours
(ii) To teach students how to use the Micrometer Screw Gauge and Vernier Calliper
(iii) To enable the students, know the application of Vernier Calliper and Micrometer Screw
Gauges.
1(a)
Experiment One
The Use of Vernier Calipers and Micrometer Screw Gauge
Aim: - to measure the length and diameter of a given metal cylinder.
Apparatus: -Vernier calipers, metal (wooden) cylinder, copper wire, meter rule
Diagram: -

Inside jaw (internal diameter)

Locking
Screw

Main Scale

Outside jaw (internal diameter)

Metal Cylinder

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Procedure: - Close the jaws of the calipers and see that the zero of the main scale and the zero of the
venire scale are coinciding. Gently put the length of the given cylinder between the two jaws. Take
the reading indicated by the zero of the Vernier on the main scale.
Look for the number of the Vernier division which coincides with the main scale division. Multiply
this number by the least count. Add the product to the main scale reading and this will be the length of
the cylinder. Measure the length of the cylinder at three more places and find the average length.
State two precautions you took to ensure accurate results.
Theory: - the least count of Vernier calipers is the least distance that can be accurately measured by it.
It is equal to the difference between one main scale division and one Vernier scale division.
OR
Least Count =

Length of Cylinder
No. of reading Main Scale Vernier Vernier Scale Length L (cm)
reading(cm) Coincidence Reading (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Diameter of Cylinder.
No. of reading Main Scale Vernier Vernier Scale Length L (cm)
reading(cm) Coincidence Reading (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Results:-
Length of cylinder L = …………..cm
Diameter of cylinder D = ………….cm
Radius of cylinder …..(n)
Calculations: Volume of the cylinder ……………
QUESTION:
What do you understand by the reading accuracy or error of an instrument?

1 (b). Apparatus: - Micrometer screw gauge, 1m (100cm) copper wire, meterrule.

Diagram: -

Anvil Head Scale

Spindle Pitch Scale

Thumb Screw (ratchet)

Frame

Procedure: - Turn the head of the screw unit till the gap is fully closed. Record the zero error of any of
the gauge. Gently grip the wire between the two jaws. Take the readings, first on the pitch scale and

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then on the head scale (head coincidence x least count). The sum of the two will give the diameter.
Measure the diameter of the wire in three other places.
State two precautions you took to ensure good results.
Theory: - The distance moved by the head scale over the pitch scale for the complete rotation of the
head scale is pitch of the screw. There are 50 divisions, it moves through a distance of one pitch along
the pitch scale.
Least distance =
Results: -

Diameter of wire
No. of Main Scale Micro Screw gauge Micro Screw gauge Scale Length L
reading reading(cm) Coincidence Reading (cm) (cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.

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 Unit 2
The Simple Pendulum
Introduction:
The Simple Pendulum was an early example of Oscillation in Mechanics. The period, T, is
the time for a complete to and fro Oscillations for the same Pendulum length, Experiment
shows that T remains constant when the mass M of the bob is changed. T is also constant as
long as the swings are small even though the swings are different in size. The knowledge
from simple Pendulum experiment can be applied to length measurement.

Aim:
To demonstrate to students how the knowledge from Simple Pendulum experiment can be
used in the measurement of length.

Objectives:

(I) To enable students, understand that the knowledge acquired previously from the
concept of Simple Pendulum can be applied for achieving many other specific
purposes.
(II) In particular to show how the concept of Simple Pendulum can be used to determine
the height of a ceiling using the floor as a point of reference.
(III) To allow students to know some other examples of situations when the principles
of Simple Pendulum are applied in real life situations.

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 Experiment Two
Simple Pendulum
Aim: To determine the height of ceiling by simple pendulum
Apparatus: - Pendulum bob, retort stand and clamp, thread, meter rule and stop watch/stop clock,

Diagram:

H
Floor.

Procedure: - You are provided with a pendulum bob, a thread and stopwatch. Suspend the bob from
the ceiling such that the pendulum bob just touches the floor. Determine the point of suspension from
the ceiling to the floor L and should be kept constant throughout the experiment.
Reduce the length of the pendulum with H = 10 cm as shown in the diagram above. In this position,
displace the bob and record the time t for 20 oscillations. Hence, determine the period T of oscillation.
Record your values of H, t and T. evaluate T2.
Repeat the experiment for H = 20, 30, 40 and 50cm respectively. In each case, record the
corresponding values of t, t and T2. Tabulate your readings.
Plot a graph of T2 against H, starting both axes from the origin (0, 0).
Determine the slope, S of the graph and the intercept I on the vertical axis.
Deduce the value for 'g' i.e. acceleration due to gravity. State two precautions taken to ensure accurate
results.
The periodic time T is given as:
T=
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, l is the length of the thread, and H is the height of bob from
the ceiling to the floor.

Questions
Why is a spherical bob preferred to bobs of other shapes for use in the experiments?
Differentiate between oscillatory and rotational motions
Explain how the period of oscillations of the pendulum of a clock may be affected by an increase in
temperature.
An oscillation pendulum bob of mass 2kg has an angular speed of 3.0 rads1. Calculate its maximum
kinetic energy if its amplitude is 5cm.
Why is it that the motion of a simple pendulum is said to be simple harmonic?

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 Unit 3
Principles of Moment
Introduction
Forces can produce turning effects in everyday life and in machines. The moment of a force
is the tendency of the force to turn a body about a point or axis. Principle of moment is
employed in the design of industrial machines and in Automobile industries.

Aim
Determination of the moment of Inertia of a metre rule using the principle of moment.

Objectives
(i) To show how the principle of moment of a force can be demonstrated in the
Laboratory.
(ii) To conduct an experiment that shows how the principle of moment is applied.

Experiment Three
Principle of Moment
Aim:- Determination of the moment of inertia using meter rule.
Apparatus: -Meter rule, two set of 100g masses, adhesive, knife edge and other necessary
apparatus.

Diagram:

V B

0 cm 50 80 100 cm

Procedure
Determine and record the centre of gravity of the metre rule.
Fix the 100g mass, marked P at a point B, the 80 cm mark of the uniform metre rule, using an
adhesive suspend another 100g mass marked Q at a point A, a distance V = 10.0cm from the

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0cm mark of the meter rule. Balance the whole arrangement horizontally on a knife edge as
shown in the diagram above. Measure and record the distance U of the knife edge from the 0
cm mark of the meter rule. Repeat the procedure for five other values of V = 15.0; 20.0, 25.0,
30.0 and 35.0 cm. In each case, measure and record the corresponding values of U. Tabulate
your readings.
Plot a graph of U on the vertical axis against V on the horizontal axis.
Determine the:
Slope, S, of the graph
Intercept C on the Vertical axis.
Evaluate:
1  2 S 
(i) k1   100
 S 
2C
(ii) k2   160
S
State two sources of error and precautions taken to minimized them.

Questions
Explain how the position of the centre of gravity of a body affects the equilibrium of the
body.
A body of mass 58g is suspended at the 20cm mark of a uniform meter rule. The meter rule
is adjusted on a pivot until it balances horizontally at the 40 cm mark. Determine the mass of
the meter rule.
State TWO conditions under which a rigid body at rest remains in equilibrium when acted
upon by three non-parallel coplanar forces.
If m is the mass of the meter rule and R is the reaction at the knife edge, use the value of the
attached mass to write the correct equation for the system to be in vertical equilibrium.

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 Unit 4
Coefficient of Static Friction

Introduction
Fraction is force that opposes motion. Frictional forces contribute a lot to losses of energy
from Machines, and it requires great efforts to reduce or overcome them. The force required
to overcome frictional force when the bodies are at rest is called the limiting friction.
Frictional force can be desirable in some instances.

Aim
Determination of the coefficient of static friction by inclined plane method.

Objectives:
(I) To expose students to the use of a simple system or apparatus that can be used to
demonstrate and measure static friction in the Laboratory.

(II) To make students realized the advantages and disadvantages of friction.

(III) To enable students recognize how the effect of friction can be applied in human
endeavour.

Experiment Four
Coefficient of Static Friction
Aim: -Determination of the coefficient of static friction by inclined plane method.
Apparatus: - Scale pan/hanger, light string, inclined plane, wooden block protractor.

Diagram

Method: - Weigh the wooden block A and record the mass of the scale pan attach a string to the
wooden block, pass the string over the pulley and attach the scale pan W to the free end. Incline the
platform at 200 and add weights to W until A just begins to slide up the inclined plane.
Repeat the experiment for three more values of A at which it just begins to slide up. Find tan θ.
Repeat the experiment for θ = 25, 30 and 350.

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Plot a graph with W on the vertical axis against tan θ on the horizontal axis, determine the slope of the
graph and error associated with slope. State two precautions you have taken to ensure accurate result.

Result.
Ø0 W1(N) W2(N) W3(N) Mean W(N) Tan θ

20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0

Theory: - the limiting frictional force between two surfaces in directly proportional to the normal
force pressing the two surfaces together.
F is the limiting frictional force. R is the normal reaction and μ is the coefficient of static friction. It
follows therefore that:
FαR (1)
F=μR (2)
μ = R/F (3)
But, F = W sin θ (4)
R = W cos θ (5)
μ= = tan θ (6)

Questions
What does the slope of the graph represent?
What is the difference between static friction?
Explain the term limiting.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of friction?
Mention 3 practical application of friction.

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 Unit 5
Verification of Hooke’s Law
Introduction
Materials used on day-to-day activities are always under tension due to forces which act on them.
These forces stretch or compresses the materials. But when the force is removed, the material should
go back to its original position of length, if the material is elastic, if not then the material is inelastic.
The subject matter of this theory was based on the theory propounded by Robert Hooke in 1976, and
can be applied in physical systems.

Aim
Verification of Hooke’s Law and determination of acceleration of freefall due to gravity
using Spiral Spring.

Objectives
(I) To show how students can easily verify Hooke’s Law in the Laboratory.
(II) To apply the concept of acceleration due to gravity, the principle of Hooke’s Law to
determining force constant if a material and hence its young’s modulus
(III) To highlight few examples of areas where Hooke’s Law could be applied.

Experiment Five
Aim: -Verification of Hooke’s Law and determination of acceleration of freefall due to
gravity using Spiral Spring.
Apparatus: -Retort Stand, Clamp and boss, meter rule, spiral spring, set of slotted weights
and pointer, plasticine, optical pin as pointer and mass hanger or scale pan.

Procedure: -
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above, attach a scale pan/hanger and record the
position of the pointer and the meter rule.
Place a mass on the hanger, read and record the new length of the spring and
determine the extension produced.

20
Set the system into small vertical oscillation, measure and record the time ‘ ’ for complete
oscillations, determine the period of the oscillation and evaluate .
Repeat the procedure for five other values of respectively.
In each case, read and record the corresponding values of and . Tabulate your
readings.
Plot a graph of on the vertical axis against on the horizontal axis, starting both axes from
the origin . Determine the slop of the graph.
If and are related by the equation

Theory:-

Where is a constant, use your value of slope to determine the value of

State two sources of error and precautions taken to minimized them.

Question:
Explain acceleration of free fall due to gravity.
Define Yong’s modulus and force constant
Calculate the work done to stretch an elastic string by 40 cm if a force of 10N produces an
extension of 4 cm in it.
A wire of cross-sectional area of 6 × 10-5 m2 and length 50 cm stretches by under a
load of . What is the Young’s Modulus of the wire?

21
 Module 2
Experiments in Current
Electricity
Introduction
Current Electricity deals with study of movement charges in circuit when there is potential difference
(pd). There are circuit elements responsible for the characteristics of current flow in a circuit.

In this module, Experiments to demonstrate the basic concept of current electricity are presented
which covers Unit one (1) to Units three (3).

Aim: To carry out Laboratory Experiments on the main aspects of Current Electricity.

Objectives
1. To demonstrate to students the basic concept of Electric circuit.
2. To introduce and demonstrate to students circuit elements and their effects.

Unit 1 Current/Voltage Relationship in a Circuit

Unit 2 Wheatstone Bridge
Unit 3 Potential Drop Along a Length of a Wire

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 Unit 1
Experiment on Current Voltage
Relationship in Circuit
Introduction
In a simple closed electric circuit, comprising of a source of potential difference, and other
relevant circuit elements, the application of potential difference causes current to flow.
Current itself comprises of moving charges or electron. The relationship that exists between
the applied potential difference and the current that flow in the circuit is a useful tool in
predicting the behavior of such circuit and its application.

Aim
To determine Voltage/Current relationship in a given circuit.

Objectives

(I) To show students basic components of a simple electric circuit

(II) To demonstrate possible causes of failure of such circuits
(III) To point our practical areas of application of such circuits

23
 Experiment One
Current-Voltage Current Relationship in a Circuit.
Aim: To determine voltage current relationship in a circuit
Apparatus: - Dry cell/power supply, key, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, two standard
resistors of (10Ω) and connecting wires.

Diagram: -

Rh E K

I1 R1 R2

Fig. 1.1 V1

Rh E K

I2 R1

R2

Fig. 1.2 V2

Procedure: -
Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram in figure 1.1 and figure 1.2 above. Adjust the
rheostat and obtain six pairs of readings of current I, and Voltage V, in figure 1.1. now
connect R1 and R2 in parallel as shown in fig 1.2 and repeat the experiment to obtain six new
sets of values of I2 and V2. Tabulate your readings. Find the ratio V1/I1 and V2/I2 in Fig. 1.1
and Fig. 1.2 respectively. Plot the graphs of V1 against I1 and V2 against I2 using the same
axes.
Record and interpret what the slope of the two graphs represent.
V1(v) I1(A) V2(v) I2(A) V1/I1 V2/I2

Theory:-
When an electric charge is in motion through a conductor it constitutes an electric current. In
order to sustain the flow of current through a conductor an electric potential difference (V) is
necessary. When ohm's law is satisfied the potential difference, V is directly proportional to
the current I flowing through the conductor.
Thus, V = constant and I.
This constant (which is to be determined) is a characteristic of the opposition offered to the
passage of current by the conductor.
Questions:-
How does the slope agree with the theory and the calculated values? Discuss eventual
discrepancy
Why is the key in the circuit necessary?

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 Unit 2
The Wheatstone Bridge
Introduction
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit was designed by Wheatstone about 1843. It is an apparatus
designed for an accurate measurement of a given unknown resistance. The current is most
sensitive when a galvanometer is connected between the junction of the highest resistances
and the junction of the lowest resistances.

Aim
To determine the value of an unknown resistance using a metre bridge.

Objectives
(I) To expose the students to the rudiments of design and construction of a Wheatstone
Bridge.

(II) To allow the students to see and appreciate the use of a metre bridge for the
determination of an unknow resistance.

(III) To teach students that some materials (e.g copper) are good conductors of
electricity while some (e.g. constantan resists the flow of electricity.

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 Experiment Two
Wheatstone Bridge
Aim: - To determine the value of an unknown resistance using a meter Bridge.
Apparatus: - 2V accumulator, meter bridge, zero center galvanometer, jockey, plug key, crocodile
clip, 2 bar constantan wires, meter rule, 2Ω resistor and connecting wirers.

Diagram: -

2Ω

Wire L2

Wire L1 Crocodile clip

E F S T

A B

E K

Procedure: - Connect the standard resistor of 2Ω across the gap EF of the meter bridge. Connect one
end of wire L1 to the terminal S and an appropriate point on the same wire to terminal T such that
when the bridge circuit is completed and the key is closed, a balance is obtained at exactly the
midpoint of the meter bridge, keep this length ST of the wire L1 undisturbed throughout the
experiment. Open the key K, connect one end of the wire L2 to the point S. by means of the crocodile
clip, connect the point P on L2 to T such that SP = 20cm.
Find the balance length L measure along the bridge wire. Repeat the experiment with SP taking
lengths of 30, 40, 50 and 60cm measured along L2. Find the corresponding balance length L measure
along the bridge wire.
Plot a graph with SP on the vertical axis against L on the horizontal axis. Using your graph to
determine the balance length L0 when SP = 40cm.
State two precautions taken to ensure accurate result.

Theory:-
=

where:
X is the unknown resistance,
R is the known resistance and
L is the length of the jockey from point A.

Questions
Describe briefly how you would protect the galvanometer from being damaged by excessive current
or heat.
Two equal lengths of wire made of the same material but of different diameters have an effective
resistance of when they are connected in parallel. If the cross- sectional are of one is four times
the other; calculate the resistance of the thicker wire.

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 Unit 3
Potential Drop Along a Length of
a Wire
Introduction
A long piece of material may be a good conductor or a poor conductor of electricity irrespective of the
length. For a resistive material, the potential drop along the length of the wire is not uniform. It
changes from point to point. A voltmeter helps to find out how the potential difference is shared or
distributed in electrical circuit. The knowledge of Ohm’s law is hereby applied to allow students
comprehend the phenomenon of potential drop along a length of a wire.

Aim
To study the fall in potential a long uniform resistance wire carrying a steady current.

Objectives
(I) To demonstrate to the students, appreciate the applicability of Ohm’s law in diverse electric
circuits

(II) To teach the students that potential drop along a length of a given resistive material may not
be the same at every point.

(III) The resistance R of a length of wire depends on its length, its gives sectional area A and
its material.

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 Experiment Three
Potential Drop Along a Length of a Wire

Aim: - To study the fall in potential along uniform resistance wire carrying a steady current.
Apparatus: - Voltmeter, 2Ω standard resistor, 2 jockey, 2V accumulator, 1m length of wire or
potentiometer, plug key and connecting wires.

Diagram: -

Jocke
x x y
S
P C
T
V Jocke
y

Procedure
Connect the circuit as shown above.
Make connections at S and T with the jockeys such that
Close the key. Read and record the voltmeter reading V when X = 10cm. Evaluate and .
Repeat the experiment for values of X = 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60cm respectively.
Determine the values of V1, and . Plot a graph of against . Determine the slope, S, of the
graph

State two precautions you took to ensure accurate result.

Theory:-
V, X, E and R are related by the equation
(1)
where K is constant.

Questions:
From equation (1) above using your value of intercept I, and that of E determine the value for K.
State two advantages of using a potentiometer over a voltmeter for measuring potential difference.

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