Cad Cam Module

HARARE POLYTECHNIC
CAD CAM MODULE

FOR NATIONAL DIPLOMA COURSES
PREPARED BY C KEMBO
7/2/2015
Lines do speak. See value in them. Develop your career around them.
Acknowledgements
i
Abstract
ii
Contents
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... i
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ii
Contents .................................................................................................................................... iii
List of figures .......................................................................................................................... viii
List of tables ...............................................................................................................................x
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................ xi
INTRODUCTION TO AUTO- CAD ..........................................................................................1
1.1 History of Auto-CAD ....................................................................................................1
1.2 The CAD System ..........................................................................................................1
1.2.1 The CPU ................................................................................................................2
1.2.2 Input Devices .........................................................................................................2
1.2.3 Output Devices ......................................................................................................3
1.2.4 Display Devices .....................................................................................................4
1.2.5 Storage Devices .....................................................................................................5
1.3 Applications of Auto-CAD............................................................................................5
1.4 Advantages of Auto- CAD ............................................................................................5
STARTING A NEW DRAWING FROM SCRATCH .................................................................7
2.1 Drawing settings ...........................................................................................................7
2.1.1 Setting Units ..........................................................................................................7
2.1.2 Setting Limits ........................................................................................................8
2.1.3 Setting Grid ...........................................................................................................8
2.1.4 Setting Snap ...........................................................................................................8
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2.1.5 Use of Function keys..............................................................................................9
2.1.6 Loading Line Types ...............................................................................................9
2.2 Layers ......................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1 Layers Control Options ........................................................................................ 11
2.2.2 Creating Layers .................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Selecting Commands in Auto-CAD............................................................................. 12
2.4 Setting of Drawing Aids .............................................................................................. 13
2.5 Exiting Auto-CAD ...................................................................................................... 14
2.6 Opening an Existing Drawing ..................................................................................... 14
CAD PRACTICE ONE: 2 D DRAWING .................................................................................. 14
3.1 Cad Entities/Primitives ................................................................................................ 14
3.2 The coordinate system in AutoCAD ............................................................................ 15
3.2.1 Absolute Co-ordinates.......................................................................................... 15
3.2.2 Relative Co-ordinates ........................................................................................... 16
3.2.3 Polar Co-ordinates ............................................................................................... 17
3.2.4 Direct Distance Entry (DDE) ............................................................................... 19
3.3 Drawing straight lines in AutoCAD step by step instructions ...................................... 19
3.4 How to trim a line step by step instructions ................................................................. 20
3.5 How to extend a line ................................................................................................... 21
3.6 Creating a fillet step by step instructions ..................................................................... 21
3.7 Drawing a rectangular Polyline step by step instructions ............................................. 22
3.8 How to draw a circle step by step instruction ............................................................... 27
3.9 Creating and array of objects ....................................................................................... 28
3.9.1 Rectangular array ................................................................................................. 28
3.9.2 Polar array ........................................................................................................... 29
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3.10 Hatching .................................................................................................................. 31
3.10.1 To use a predefined hatch pattern from AutoCAD ................................................ 31
3.10.2 To create User-Defined Hatch Patterns: ............................................................... 33
3.11 Text Creation........................................................................................................... 34
3.11.1 Dtext .................................................................................................................... 35
3.11.2 Mtex .................................................................................................................... 35
3.12 How to pan and zoom drawings ............................................................................... 36
3.12.1 Pan a drawing ...................................................................................................... 36
3.12.2 Zoom a view in a drawing .................................................................................... 36
PRODUCTIVITY TOOLS IN AUTOCAD ............................................................................... 39
4.1 Templates ................................................................................................................... 39
4.2 Cad Standards ............................................................................................................. 39
4.3 Blocks ......................................................................................................................... 40
4.4 Dynamic Blocks .......................................................................................................... 41
4.5 Attributes .................................................................................................................... 41
4.6 Xrefs step by step instruction ...................................................................................... 42
CAD PRACTICE TWO: 3 D DRAWING ................................................................................. 44
5.1 Advantages of 3 D ...................................................................................................... 44
5.2 Modifying solid models .............................................................................................. 44
5.3 Presentation of Engineering Drawings......................................................................... 45
5.3.1 Model space and Paper Space .............................................................................. 45
5.3.2 Page Setup ........................................................................................................... 46
5.4 Modeling in 3D ........................................................................................................... 46
5.4.1 Solid modeling ..................................................................................................... 46
5.4.2 Wireframe modeling ............................................................................................ 48
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5.4.3 Surface Modeling ................................................................................................. 49
5.4.4 Mesh modeling .................................................................................................... 54
5.5 Other 3D commands ................................................................................................... 56
5.6 3D Solid Practical questions ........................................................................................ 57
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURE (CAM) ..................................................................... 59
6.1 Numerical Control (NC) Machines .............................................................................. 60
6.1.1 Basic Components of NC System......................................................................... 61
6.1.2 Applications of NC Machines .............................................................................. 62
6.1.3 Advantages of NC Machine Tools........................................................................ 62
6.1.4 Disadvantages of NC Machines............................................................................ 63
6.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) ........................................................................... 63
6.2.1 Functions of CNC ................................................................................................ 64
6.2.2 Controller Designs in CNC .................................................................................. 65
6.2.3 Advantages of CNC ............................................................................................. 66
6.3 Direct Numerical Control (DNC) ................................................................................ 67
6.3.1 DNC System ........................................................................................................ 67
6.3.2 Advantages of DNC ............................................................................................. 69
6.4 Control Systems .......................................................................................................... 70
6.4.1 Open-Loop Control System.................................................................................. 70
6.4.2 Closed Loop Control System................................................................................ 71
NC PART PROGRAMMING ................................................................................................... 76
7.1 Punched Tape Reader .................................................................................................. 76
7.2 NC Words ................................................................................................................... 77
7.3 CNC Lathe Axes ......................................................................................................... 78
7.4 Milling Machine Tool Axes ........................................................................................ 79
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7.5 Tape Formats .............................................................................................................. 81
7.5.1 Fixed Block Format ............................................................................................. 81
7.5.2 Tab Sequential Format ......................................................................................... 82
7.5.3 Word Address Format .......................................................................................... 82
7.6 Manual Part Programming .......................................................................................... 84
7.7 Writing Part Programme ............................................................................................. 84
7.8 Lathe Operations ......................................................................................................... 85
7.8.1 Tool Offset .......................................................................................................... 86
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List of figures
Figure 1: Auto-Cad System .........................................................................................................2
Figure 2: Auto-Cad Window .......................................................................................................7
Figure 3 : Absolute Coordinates System .................................................................................... 15
Figure 4 : Relative Coordinates System ..................................................................................... 16
Figure 5 : Polar Coordinates System 1 ...................................................................................... 17
Figure 6 : Polar Coordinates 2 ................................................................................................... 18
Figure 7 : Task 1 the Bracket .................................................................................................... 23
Figure 8 : Solution 1 bracket by Absolute Coordinates .............................................................. 24
Figure 9 : Solution 2 bracket by Relative Coordinates ............................................................... 25
Figure 10 : Solution 3 bracket by Polar Coordinates .................................................................. 26
Figure 12: General Configuration of NC System ....................................................................... 61
Figure 13 : General Configuration of CNC System.................................................................... 64
Figure 14 : Hybrid CNC ............................................................................................................ 65
Figure 15 : Straight CNC System .............................................................................................. 66
Figure 16 : General Configuration of DNC ................................................................................ 68
Figure 17: DNC with Satellite mini Computers ......................................................................... 69
Figure 18 : Open Loop System .................................................................................................. 71
Figure 19 : Closed loop System ................................................................................................. 72
Figure 20 : Point-To -Point System ........................................................................................... 73
Figure 21 : Linear Interpolation ................................................................................................. 73
Figure 22: Contouring System ................................................................................................... 74
Figure 23 : Absolute System ..................................................................................................... 75
Figure 24 : Incremental system.................................................................................................. 75
Figure 25 : Lathe Machine Tool Axes ....................................................................................... 79
Figure 26 : Milling Machine Tool Axes ..................................................................................... 80
Figure 27 : MS Flat Plate .......................................................................................................... 83
Figure 28 : Tool Motions ........................................................................................................... 86
Figure 29 : Tool Length Compensation ..................................................................................... 87
Figure 30 : Tool Radius Offset .................................................................................................. 88
Figure 31 : Milling example Profile to be milled ....................................................................... 89
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Figure 32 : Turning example A Component for Turning Operations .......................................... 90
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List of tables
Table 1 : Preparatory Functions (G-Codes)................................................................................ 77
Table 2 : Miscellaneous Functions (M- Codes).......................................................................... 81
Table 3 : Absolute Hole coordinates .......................................................................................... 83
Table 4 : Fixed Block Format .................................................................................................... 83
Table 5 : TAB Sequential Format .............................................................................................. 83
Table 6: Solution to milling example ......................................................................................... 89
Table 7: Part programming Operational schedule ...................................................................... 90
Table 8: Part program listing ..................................................................................................... 91
Table 9: Example solution Operation sheet................................................................................ 91
Table 10: Example part program ............................................................................................... 92
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Nomenclature
xi
INTRODUCTION TO AUTO- CAD
INTRODUCTION
Auto-CAD is a powerful drafting and designing package used in many industries and
educational institutions all over the world. It is flexible user friendly software that enables the
user to create 2 dimensional drawings and 3 dimensional models for a wide variety of
applications.
1.1 History of Auto-CAD

The first software of Auto-CAD came into market in December 1982 and the Release 10 in
1988. Auto-CAD R14 was released in 1998. The version of Auto-CAD 2013 was released in
March 2012.
1.2 The CAD System

It consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU) and a Work Station.
Work Station: is a set of hardware and software equipment.
Software: is a collection of instructions by which a computer operates, used by a draughts

person to produce drawings.
The work station is connected locally or remotely to the Central Processing Unit of the
computer. It consists of the input and output devices, display devices and the supporting
software. The included software consists of programs, which are lists of instructions written in
computer language needed for producing drawing, images etc. Basic activities of any CAD
system are:
 Inputting,
 Storing,
 Processing,
 Displaying and
 Outputting of information.
The diagram below shows the CAD System.
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Figure 1: Auto-Cad System
1.2.1 The CPU

Central Processing Unit is brain of the entire System. It consists of integrated circuits of three
parts: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Controller (CU) and Main Memory.
 The ALU consists of electronic circuits which perform logic and mathematical operations
like addition, subtraction, divide and multiply.
 Controller Circuits are used to regulate and interpret various operations carried out in
the computer.
 Main Memory circuit store processed data such as results of calculations and programme
instructions inside the computer.
Hundreds of electronic circuits are reduced and etched on to a silicon chip as small as a pin head.
1.2.2 Input Devices

-Are used for making selections from a menu.
MENU: - A layout of a variety of commands and functions required to operate the system.
Sending these commands into the computer produces complete engineering drawings. The
choice of optional commands on the screen menu is made by indicating the required position
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with the cursor cross hairs or by typing a required code. Movement of the cursor on the screen
may be controlled by the following devices.
(a) A Keyboard: where the located keys control the required movement.
(b) Thumb Wheel: where one wheel controls horizontal movement and another wheel
controls vertical movement.
(c) A Light Pen: where the required position is selected by pointing the pen directly at the
screen.
(d) A Joy Stick: a vertical lever mounted in a box controls movements in any direction.
(e) A mouse: a small box which when pushed across a surface controls movements in the
same direction.
(f) A Tracker Ball: - it’s rolling in mounting controls movements in any direction.
1.2.3 Output Devices

The output device receives data from the computer and provides an output, hard copy. There
are two main types of output devices namely printers and plotters.
The Printers
The Printer may be impact, where images are formed by striking action or non-impact.
Impact printers
Used for reproduction of drawings. They are the dot matrix type and form shapes by the
appropriate selection of small dots from the print head.
Non-Impact Printers
Include electrostatic, ink jet and laser printers.
(i) Electrostatic Printers
Creates shapes by burning a thin metallic coating on the special printing paper.
(ii) Ink Jet Printers
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Use a print head which directs a jet of ink at the paper to create the required shapes.
(iii) Laser Printers
Use a fine beam of laser to light, to create the required shapes.
Plotters
There are 2 basic types of plotters namely flat bed and drum.
(i) Flatbed Plotters
Have a flat area on which the paper of any type and thickness is placed and the pens of various
thickness and ink color are free to move in any direction with plot head providing all the motion.
(ii) Drum Plotters
Have rotating drum over which the paper can move in two directions and pens are limited to
move only across the drum and with a combination of pen movement and rotation, required
motion is provided. They produce drawings of longer length compared with flatbed plotter.
1.2.4 Display Devices

The display devices are used for visual display of information. There are three types of computer
display screen: storage, raster and refresh.
The Storage Tube
A phosphor surface on the inside of the tube is bombarded by electrons to produce the drawing
image. When the picture is produced it remains stored on the screen without flicker. The
disadvantage includes a slow update procedure (replacing old image by new) and its color
capacity is limited.
The Raster Scan Tube
It is similar to the television screen. - Uses a grid of dots known as pixels to display the image.
The resolution or clarity of the image depends on the number of pixels per screen area. This
system achieves a fast update and a good quality of color and resolution.
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The Refresh Tube System
It is maintained by regular redrawing, 50 times per second of the picture, lines, arcs and curves.
First, the points are located, and then the required connecting lines or curves are drawn directly
with an electron beam. The updating is very rapid but color capacity is limited and there is
tendency to flicker as the picture becomes more complex.
1.2.5 Storage Devices

There are two memories for storing computer information, symbols, programs etc.
(a) Primary Storage: is the main memory, which is connected directly to the CPU.
(b) Secondary Storage: is the auxiliary memory stored externally on magnetic disc,
USB/memory card and loaded into the main memory when required.
1.3 Applications of Auto-CAD

(a) Create conceptual models.
(b) Editing or refining the model to improve aesthetics, ergonomics and performance.
(c) Display the product in several colors, to select color combinations most appealing to
customer.
(d) Rotate and view the object from various sides and directions.
(e) Prepare detail component drawings, giving full details of dimensions, tolerance, surface
finish requirements, functional requirements, functional specifications etc.
(f) Prepare assembly drawings.
(g) Prepare exploded views of assemblies for service and maintenance manuals.
(h) Plot or print the picture/drawing stored in a computer file.
(i) Analyze stress, static deflection and dynamic behavior for different mechanical and
thermal loading configurations and carry out quickly and necessary design modifications
to rectify deficiencies in the design.
1.4 Advantages of Auto- CAD

1. Productivity Improvement in Designing: Cad helps in increased design productivity by
reducing the time for developing conceptual design, analysis and drafting. It is also possible to
reduce man power requirements for a given project.
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2. Shorter Lead Time: Interactive CAD is faster than traditional manual design process. It
speeds up the task of preparing the bill off material using CAD system as finished set of drawing
and documentation can be prepared in a relatively short time.
3. Flexibility in Design: With improved accuracy, CAD offers the advantage of easy
modification of design to accommodate customer specific requirements
4. Design Analysis: The use of analysis helps to optimize a Design.
5. Fewer Design Errors: Errors occur naturally during operation will be avoided.
6. Standardization of designs, drafting and documentation
1.5 Disadvantages of Auto – CAD

1. User dependent: The software heavily rely on the level of expertise of the user
2. The software is expensive to install and maintain.
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STARTING A NEW DRAWING FROM SCRATCH
Figure 2: Auto-Cad Window
2.1 Drawing settings

When starting a new drawing the user should define and set the following: Units, Limits, Grid
Spacing, Snap Spacing, Object Snap, Line Types and Layers.
2.1.1 Setting Units

Type: Units <Enter> or Pull-down: Format Units
Dialog box appears. Select appropriate type, precision and press the OK button.
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2.1.2 Setting Limits
Select drawing limits command using one of the following:
Type: Limits <enter>
Pull Down: Format→ Drawing Limits.
Command: Specify lower left corner or ON/OFF <0.00, 0.00>
Command: Specify upper right corner <12.00, 9.00>
NB You can specify one of the following paper sizes the coordinates of the upper right corner:
Paper Sizes
A4 210 * 297 mm
A3 297 * 420 mm
A2 420 * 594 mm
A1 594 * 841 mm
A0 841 * 1189 mm
2.1.3 Setting Grid

It displays dotted lines on the screen at defined spacing. These dotted lines act as a graph used as
reference lines in drawing. You can change grid spacing as you require.
Command: Grid
Grid spacing or ON/OFF/SNAP/ASPECT<0>: 0.5 <ENTER>
2.1.4 Setting Snap

It is used to set increments for cursor movement. If the screen is on snap mode, the cursor jumps
from point to point only. This jumping distance can be set to any value, say 0.5 units.
Command: SNAP
Snap spacing or ON/OFF/Aspect/Rotate/Style <current>: 0.5 <ENTER>
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You can select drafting setting by using one of the following:
a) Typing : DS <ENTER> or OS <ENTER>

b) Pull Down: Tools→ Draughting Settings
- The dialog box appears
- Select the GRID and SNAP tab.
View→ Zoom All- to make the screen display the new drawing limits and other settings.
2.1.5 Use of Function keys

Function keys act as toggle switches to make the function ON/OFF by pressing.
F1- for AutoCAD help
F2- edit
F3 – turns OSNAP ON or OFF
F4- tablet on/ off
F5 -
F6- turns Dynamic UCS ON or OFF
F7- turns the grid ON or OFF.
F8 – turns the ORTHO ON or OFF.
F9 – turns the SNAP ON or OFF.
F10- turns POLAR ON or OFF
F11- turns OBJECT SNAP TRACKING ON or OFF
F12-
2.1.6 Loading Line Types

Type Ltype on the command prompt area or use the Pull-down menu as follows:
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Format Linetype. Linetype Manager Dialogue box appears. Pick the LOAD tab to open
the load or reload linetypes dialogue box. Select the required types of lines from the available
list. E.g. centre line, hidden line, etc. A continuous line for outlines is loaded by default.
After loading the required linetypes, press the OK button and close the linetype manager box.
2.2 Layers
A layer is an electronic drawing sheet which consists of a name, color, line type, line weight and
whether or not it should plot.
Using layers is an important part of managing and controlling your drawing. It is better to have
too many layers than too few. Draw like objects on the same layer.
For example, place all hidden lines on the layer “hidden line” or centerlines on the layer
“centerline”.
The Layer command is a very important tool of AutoCAD. It lets you create layers to separate
your drawing objects. Layers are used to group, change the visibility and to control objects.
Each layer you create has its own associated properties that are unique to that layer.
A list of things you can do using layers:
 Control objects by locking and unlocking layers so they are not accidentally modified.
 Allow layers to be plotted or not.
 Create as many layers as you want.
 Group layers by colours, line types, names, etc... Also, you can create a group filter inside
the layer manager that can be saved within the drawings so other sharing users can use it
later.
 Isolate layers and objects with the same properties in the drawing space. For example,
you want to show only walls and hide all doors.
 Change the visibility of drawing layouts.
 Turn on or off, freeze or thaw layers in model space or in the viewport layouts in paper
space.
 Globally changes object properties.
It is necessary to create and use different types of layers and lines because:
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i. Layers: control the drawing by means of visible drawing entities in color, linetype
and line weight.
ii. To facilitate drawing management through layer options:
2.2.1 Layers Control Options

i. On/Off: used to turn off a layer that is to remain dormant for long periods of time. A
turned off layer that is not displayed (visible), thus they are still part of the file, but
they are turned off temporarily. NB: Objects on a layer that is turned OFF can be
accidentally erased even though they are invisible. When you are asked to select
objects in the erase command, if you type ALL <enter> all objects will be selected;
even the invisible ones.
ii. Freeze /Thaw: These are very similar to ON and OFF. Freeze makes a layer
inaccessible (invisible) and this saves time during regenerations and redraws when
working with complex and large drawings because the information is not active.
Thaw turns off freeze. Only thawed layers can be edited and plotted additionally..
objects on a frozen layer cannot be accidentally erased by typing ALL
iii. Lock /Unlock: Locking a layer makes it inaccessible for editing but may remain
visible for reference to features to be drawn on other layers. Locked layers cannot be
selected by typing ALL.
iv. Freeze /Thaw in current viewport: used when drawing is generated with more than
one viewport. Freeze makes a layer in current viewport inaccessible and saves time
during regens and redraws.
v. Plot: This option prevents the layer from plotting even though it is visible if
deactivated.
vi. New: Layers selected will be frozen in the next view port created. So you are
selecting the layers to be frozen before you have created the view port.
2.2.2 Creating Layers

When you create a new layer you will assign a name, color, line type, line weight and whether or
not it should plot.
1. Type LAYER in the command line or select from the layer toolbar.
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2. By default AutoCAD will name the layer “layer1”.
3. Double click and rename it
4. In the right column you can assign colour, line type to the layer, freeze or thaw it.
5. Select the object in the drawing to which the layer will be assigned.
6. Click on the layer icon bar and select the appropriate layer.
2.3 Selecting Commands in Auto-CAD

AutoCAD provides the following methods to enter or select commands
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a) Keyboard
b) Screen menu
c) Pull down menu
d) Icon menu
Keyboard
Enter any Auto-Cad command at the keyboard by typing the command name at prompt. After
entering command, press enter key.
Screen Menu
This menu is shown at the right or left hand side margin of the drawing screen. Select an item
from the screen menu by picking an icon using the cursor.
Pull down menu
The status line and menu bar presents a lot of titles for pull down menus. These pull down menu
are almost a repetitions of the standard screen menu.
Icon menus
An icon menu displays different graphic images (icon) available for selection. Examples are
hatch patterns, text fonts etc.
2.4 Setting of Drawing Aids

Drawing aids are positioning tools for locating specific points on electronic drafting sheet. The
three positioning tools are Ortho, Grid and Snap.
Ortho Command
Ortho command enables you to draw perfect horizontal or vertical lines.
Command: Ortho (ON/OFF)
Grid command
Snap command
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Saving a File
To save a file, choose “SAVE AS” from the pull down menu.
File → Save As.
The dialog box will appear.
Type the drawing file name and save.
2.5 Exiting Auto-CAD

Start the command by using one of the following methods:
Typing: Exit <enter> or Quit <enter>
Pull Down: File → Exit.

Save Changes: Yes, No or Cancel
2.6 Opening an Existing Drawing

To open an existing file, choose “OPEN” from the pull down menu of file, the select dialog box
will appear.
Type the required file name in the file name box. Then click on OPEN box.
CAD PRACTICE ONE: 2 D DRAWING
3.1 Cad Entities/Primitives

An Engineering drawing is considered to be made up of different elements, called entities.
These are lines, circles, arcs, rectangles, etc.
To tell AutoCAD which entity to draw, type the required command (e.g. line) on the key board
or select the command from the menu by a pointing device e.g. Mouse.
Then respond to the prompts on the screen, by supplying the parameters of the chosen entity.
When the entity parameters are complete, the drawing of entity appears on the screen.
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3.2 The coordinate system in AutoCAD
A straight line can be drawn using the following methods of line command.
a) Absolute Co-ordinates
b) Relative Co-ordinates
c) Polar Co-ordinates
d) Trim/ Offset Commands
e) Direct Distance Entry Method
3.2.1 Absolute Co-ordinates

Use the horizontal distance x and the vertical distance y from the fixed origin to locate the
required point.
Figure 3 : Absolute Coordinates System
E.g. Draw a line from point (30,100) to point (350, 275).
Command: LINE
From Point: 30, 100
To Point: 350, 275
To point: (Press Enter) or click left mouse button.
Rectangular Absolute
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A point can be specified using X and Y coordinates with respect to the origin (0,0)
Eg. 200,300
Rectangular Absolute
3.2.2 Relative Co-ordinates

Relative coordinates enable the user to locate a point with reference to the co-ordinates of
previous point.
Example: Draw a line from point (30,100) to point 300 units in x- axis and 75 units in y -axis
relative to first co-ordinates.
Figure 4 : Relative Coordinates System
Command: LINE
From point: 30,100
Specify next point: @330,175
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Rectangular Relative
A point is specified using X and Y coordinates with respect to the previous point.
E.g @45,68
This method is also called the incremental
Rectangular Relative
3.2.3 Polar Co-ordinates

Polar coordinates use the length of the radius R and an anti-clockwise angle measured from
East to locate a required point.
Figure 5 : Polar Coordinates System 1

Example: Draw a line from point (30,100) to a length of 70 units at 60°.
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Figure 6 : Polar Coordinates 2
Command: LINE
From point: 30,100
To point: @70 < 60
Polar Absolute
A point is specified using a distance and an angle with respect to the origin.
Eg. 200<45
The origin is the position of the UCS
Polar Absolute
Polar Relative
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A point is specified using a distance and an angle with respect to the last or previous point.
Eg. @68<90
Polar Relative
3.2.4 Direct Distance Entry (DDE)

Direct Distance Entry is a combination of Keyboard Entry and Cursor Movement. DDE is
used to specify distances in the horizontal or vertical axes from the last point entered. DDE is a
relative input. Since it is used for horizontal and vertical movements, Ortho must be ON.
Using DDE is simple. Just move the cursor and type the distance. Negative and positive is
understood automatically by moving the cursor up (Positive), down (negative), right (positive) or
left (negative) from the last point entered. No minus sign necessary.
Moving the cursor to the right and typing 5 and < enter> tells AutoCAD that the 5 is positive and
horizontal.
Moving the cursor to the left and typing 5 and < enter> tells AutoCAD that the 5 is negative and
horizontal.
Moving the cursor up and typing 5 and < enter> tells AutoCAD that the 5 is positive and vertical.
3.3 Drawing straight lines in AutoCAD step by step instructions

In this section we will draw a straight line segment by using the Line symbol from the Draw tool
bar and the line command.
Method 1:
1. Select the line symbol from the draw menu.
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2. Select a starting point for the line segment.
3. Select an end point for the line segment.
4. Hit Enter.
Method 2:
1. Type Line or L in the command line.

3. Select an end point for the line segment.
4. Hit Enter.
Method 3:
1. Select the line symbol from the draw menu or type Line or L in the command line.
3. Move the cursor in the line direction.
4. Enter the length of the line segment, for example: type 3’ or 3”.
5. Hit Enter.
6. Hit Enter again to get out of the command.
3.4 How to trim a line step by step instructions

An AutoCAD line can be shortened by trimming the edges. In this tutorial we will trim a straight
line segment by using the trim symbol from the modify tool bar and the trim command.
Method 1:
1. Select the trim symbol from the modify menu.

2. Select the intersected object you want to trim from.
3. Hit Enter.
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4. Select the line you want to trim.
Method 2:
1. Type Trim or TR in the command line.

2. Hit Enter.
3. Select the intersected object you want to trim from.
4. Hit Enter.
3. Select the line you want to trim.
3.5 How to extend a line

A line can be extended to meet other lines or objects precisely at their boundaries. In this tutorial
we will use the extend symbol from the modify tool bar.
Method 1:
1. Select the extend symbol from the modify menu.

2. Select the intersected object to extend to.
3. Hit Enter.
4. Select the line you want to extend.
Method 2:
1. Select the line you want to extend. (The grip will be automatically highlighted in blue).
2. Pick a grip from the line.
3. Drag the line from the end grip or side that you want to extend. (This is also a stretch method).
3.6 Creating a fillet step by step instructions

A fillet connects two objects with an arc that is tangent to the objects.
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Creating a fillet - Method 1:
1. Select the fillet symbol from the modify menu.

2. Type R to specify the fillet radius..
3. Enter the radius.
4. Select the Select the first and second intersected line, object or polyline you want to fillet.
Creating a fillet - Method 2:
1. Type FILLET or F in the command line.

2. Type R to specify the fillet radius.
3. Enter the radius.
4. Select the first and second intersected line, object or polyline you want to fillet.
5. Hit Enter.
3.7 Drawing a rectangular Polyline step by step instructions
Method 1:
1. Select the Rectangle symbol from the draw menu.

2. Specify on the screen the first corner for the rectangle you want to draw.
3. Type D to specify the dimension for the rectangle.
4. Input the length.
5. Input the width.
6. Click anywhere inside the rectangle area to get out of the command.
Method 2:
1. Type RECTANG or REC in the command line.
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2. Specify on the screen the first corner for the rectangle you want to draw.
3. Type D to specify the dimension for the rectangle.
4. Input the length.
5. Input the width.
6. Click anywhere inside the rectangle area to get out of the command.
QUESTION
Draw bracket shown in figure 6 using (a) Absolute Coordinates, (b) Relative Coordinates and
(c) Polar Coordinates. Assume coordinates of the starting point to be 30,100.
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Figure 7 : Task 1 the Bracket
SOLUTION
(a) Absolute Coordinates
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Figure 8 : Solution 1 bracket by Absolute Coordinates
Specify the first point: 30,100 Specify next point: 180,210
Specify next point: 230,100 E.T.C
Specify next point: 230,130
Specify next point: 180,130
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(b) Relative Coordinates
Figure 9 : Solution 2 bracket by Relative Coordinates
Command: Line Specify next point: @-50, 0
Specify the first point: 30,100 Specify next point: @0, 80
Specify next point: @200, 0 E.T.C
Specify next point: @0, 30
(c) Polar Coordinates
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Figure 10 : Solution 3 bracket by Polar Coordinates
Command: Ortho
Command: Line Specify next point: @40<90
Specify the first point: 30,100 Specify next point: @20<180
Specify next point: @200<0 Specify next point: @80<270
Specify next point: @80<90
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3.8 How to draw a circle step by step instruction
You can create circles in many different ways. In this tutorial we will only use the circle symbol
from the modify tool and the command line.
Method 1:
1. Select the circle symbol from the draw menu.

2. Click on the screen where you want to specify the centre point for the circle.
3. Drag the mouse across to specify a node of the circle.
4. Click.
Method 2:
1. Type Circle or C in the command line.

2. Hit Enter.
4. Drag the mouse across to specify a node of the circle.
5. Click.
Method 3:
1. Select the circle symbol from the draw menu, or type Circle or C in the command line.
3. Specify the radius or diameter of the circle by typing R or D.
4. Hit Enter.
5. Input the numeric value.
6. Hit Enter.
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3.9 Creating and array of objects
The array command in AutoCAD is used to make multiple copies of objects. Although you can
use the copy command to duplicate objects, the array command is more flexible and precise. One
advantage of using the array command is that it allows you to copy objects in a defined angle and
exact number of copies. Therefore, you can create array in various pattern. For example, you can
show multiple objects in a row, column, or irregular pattern such as a spiral. Let’s look at a few
examples below:
To create an array of objects follow the steps below.
3.9.1 Rectangular array
1. Type Array in the command line or select from the modify toolbar.
2. Select the object you would like to array.
3. Input the number of rows. (negative number for downward array)
4. Input the number of columns. (negative number will point array to the left)
5. Pick or input the distance for the Row offset.
6. Pick or input the distance for the Column offset.
7. Enter the Angle for the array. (Use the default 0 degree).
8. Select the Preview button to see the sample array before you hit the Ok button. You can
accept the array or modify it. (Optional step).
See the figure below for visual step by step instructions.
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3.9.2 Polar array
1. Type Array in the command line or select from the modify toolbar.
2. Select the object you would like to array.
3. Enter or select the centre point of rotation for the object.
4. Select a method of array. (3 methods to choose from see terms definitions below).
5. Enter the number of items to array. (Methods 1 and 2).
6. Enter the array angle. (Methods 1 and 3).
7. Enter the angle between the objects. (Methods 2 and 3).
8. Make sure to check “Rotate items as copied” if you would like to copy the objects as
selected.
9. For Object base point use the default selected. (Optional step).
10. Select the Preview button to see the sample array before you hit the Ok button. You can
accept the array or modify it. (Optional step).
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See the figure below for visual step by step instructions.
Terms definitions:
Rows and columns: where you enter the number of rows and columns of objects. There are a
maximum number of rows and columns that can be entered. If you want to override that number
you can always do that by typing (setenv “MaxArray “####”) in the command prompt. Where
### is the new maximum number you would like.
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Method of array:
There are three (3) ways you can array objects.

(1) Total number of items & Angle to fill. This method will automatically calculate the
angle between the items based on the number of items and angle to fill.
(2) Total number of items & Angle between items. This will automatically calculate the
angle to fill the array based on the number of items.
(3) Angle to fill & Angle between items. This will automatically calculate the number of
items for you based on your input angle to fill and angle between the items.
Base point: is the reference point where AutoCAD will rotate the object. By default, depending
on the shape, the base point is already set. For example, a circle, an ellipse, or an arc, they all
have a default base point at the centre, but you can manually specify a different point.
3.10 Hatching
When drawing objects you can use the hatch command to fill areas. It creates block patterns that
can represent materials such as earth, insulations, or grass. You can also create solid fill the same
way you create hatch patterns. Although AutoCAD comes with custom standard patterns, you
can also create your own hatch patterns or use the external pattern library displayed in the hatch
Pattern Palette dialogue box.
You can define a simple hatch pattern based on the current linetype. You define the pattern by
changing the angle and spacing of the hatch lines.
3.10.1 To use a predefined hatch pattern from AutoCAD
1. From the Draw Menu, choose Hatch or type Hatch in the command prompt.
2. At the right of the Boundary Hatch and Gradient fill dialog box, choose Pick Points or Select
Objects.
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1. Specify an internal point for the hatch area or select the object.
2. Hit the Tab bar or press Enter to go back to the Hatch dialogue box.
3. Select Predefined in the Type box.
4. Select a Pattern From the Pattern box. If you select an ISO pattern, you can specify a
pen width, which determines the lineweight in the pattern.
5. Choose OK.
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3.10.2 To create User-Defined Hatch Patterns:
1. From the Draw Menu, choose Hatch or type Hatch in the command prompt.
2. At the right of the Boundary Hatch and Gradient fill dialog box, choose Pick Points or Select
Objects.
3. Specify an internal point for the hatch area or select the object.
4. Hit the Tab bar or press Enter to go back to the Hatch dialogue box.
5. Select User-defined in the Type box.
6. Specify the angle and spacing of the hatch pattern.
7. Select Double to use intersecting lines in the pattern.
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8. Choose OK.
3.11 Text Creation

In AutoCAD you can define many different text styles that will set unique fonts, sizes, angles,
orientations and other characteristics. To create a text style:
Method 1:
In AutoCAD, go to Format. Select Text Style. When the Text style dialogue box appears:
1. You can either select Standard style or create a new style.
2. Enter the name for your new style.
3. Select a Font Name and Style from the drop down menu.
4. Check the Annotative box if you want annotation text.
5. Enter the Text Height for your style. This is the size of the text that will be displayed each
time you apply your style.
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6. Enter a Width Factor.
7. Click Apply.
You can edit the style at any time by repeating the steps above.
Method 2:
Select the text style symbol from the format menu or type Style in the command line.
1. You can either select Standard style or create a new style.
2. Enter the name for your new style.
3. Select a Font Name and Style from the drop down menu.
4. Check the Annotative box if you want annotation text.
5. Enter the Text Height for your style. This is the size of the text that will be displayed each
time you apply your style.
6. Enter a Width Factor.
7. Click Apply.
3.11.1 Dtext
SINGLE LINE TEXT allows you to draw one or more lines of text. The text is visible as you
type. To place the text in the drawing, you may use the default START POINT (the lower left
corner of the text), or use one of the many styles of justification described on the next page
3.11.2 Mtex
MULTILINE TEXT command allows you to easily add a sentence, paragraph or tables. The
Mtext editor has most of the txt editing features of a word processing program. You can
underline, bold, italic, add tabs for indenting, change the font line spacing and width of the
paragraph
When using MText you must define a text boundary box. The text boundary box is defined by
entering where you wish to start the text (first corner) and approximately where you want to end
the text (opposite corner). It is very similar to draw2ing a rectangle. The paragraph text is
considered one object rather than several individual sentences.
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3.12 How to pan and zoom drawings
When you work in a drawing, you can control the display and move quickly to different areas of
the drawing while you track the overall effect of your changes. You can zoom to change
magnification or pan to reposition the view in the drawing area.
Here are several ways you can pan and zoom a drawing:
3.12.1 Pan a drawing

You can shift the location of your view by using PAN or by using the window scroll bars. With
the Realtime option, you pan dynamically by moving your pointing device. Using the PAN
command does not change the location of your drawing; it only changes the view.
To pan a drawing by dragging
1. From the View menu, choose Pan Realtime.

2. When the hand cursor appears, drag the view by holding down the button as you move
your mouse. If you are using a wheel mouse, hold down the wheel button and move the
mouse.
To pan by specifying points
1. Choose Pan from the view menu, Point.

2. Specify a base point. This is the location point you want to change.
3. Specify a second point. This is the new location for the selected point.
3.12.2 Zoom a view in a drawing

You can change the view of a drawing by zooming in and out. Zooming does not change the
absolute size of objects in the drawing; it changes only the magnification of the view. When you
work with large drawing plans, you will need to zoom out frequently to see an overview of your
work. You can use ZOOM Previous to return quickly to the prior view.
To Zoom in on a Specified Rectangular Area
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You can zoom in on a rectangular area of your drawing by specifying two diagonal corners of
the area you want to view larger.
1. From the View menu, choose Zoom Window.

2. Specify one corner of the rectangular area you want to zoom.
3. Specify the opposite corner.
Zoom in Real Time
Using the REALTIME option, you can zoom dynamically by moving your mouse up or down.
By right-clicking, you can display a shortcut menu with additional viewing commands.
To zoom by dragging
1. Choose Zoom from the view menu Realtime.

2. Hold down the button on your mouse and drag vertically to zoom in and out.
3. Press Enter, or ESC, or Right-click to exit.
Zoom to View All Objects in the Drawing
The ZOOM Extents command is used to display the largest possible magnification of the
drawing that includes all of the objects in the drawing. For example objects on layers that are
turned off but it will not include objects on frozen layers.
NB: When you use ZOOM All, it displays either your defined drawing limits or the drawing
extents, whichever view is larger.
Zoom to Centre a Point in the Drawing
You can quickly zoom to the centre of a specified point or object in your drawing by using
ZOOM Centre. It is very useful for resizing an object and bringing it to the centre of the
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viewport. To specify the size of the zooming area you enter either the number of vertical drawing
units or a magnification relative to the current view.
To zoom to the centre of an object in the drawing area
6. Choose Zoom from the view menu Zoom Centre.

7. Specify the centre point of the object you want to zoom.
8. Enter a height in drawing units or enter a scale factor. (For example, to specify a view
that is five drawing units high, enter 5. To specify relative magnification, enter a scale
factor followed by X. For example, enter 5X to display a view that is five times as large
as the current view. If you are working with layout viewports, you can enter XP to scale
the view relative to paper space).
To display the drawing extents by zooming
1. From the View menu, choose Zoom Extents.
To display the area of the grid limits by zooming
1. From the View menu, choose Zoom All.
The limits of the drawing grid fill the current viewport or the drawing area. If there are any
objects outside the grid limits, they are also included.
To restore the previous view
1. From the View menu, choose Zoom Previous.
NB: Zoom Previous will restore only the view magnification and position, not the previous
content of an edited drawing.
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PRODUCTIVITY TOOLS IN AUTOCAD
4.1 Templates
 It is tedious to set dimension styles, layers, and text styles each time you wish to start a
new drawing
 You can create a blank drawing file with all your requirements set and then save it as a
template. In this case a template can be made for the various paper sizes A0, A1, A2, ….
 These can be accessed whenever you wish to start a drawing
 A drawing template can be saved in the dwt file format
 A drawing office can establish its own templates that are can be used by everyone in the
organization for the sake of maintaining standards.
4.2 Cad Standards

 Just like templates, cad standards are used to maintain standards and uniformity in the
drawing office.
 They define common properties in order to maintain consistency throughout your
drawing files. Standards define a set of common properties for named objects such as
layers
 Standards make it easier for others to interpret drawings
 You can create standards for the following named objects:
Layers
Text styles
Linetypes
Dimension styles
 After you define standards, you save them as a standards file. Cad standards are saved
using the dws file format.
 Cad standards file created is then used to automatically audit all other drawings created in
the drawing office.
 You can then associate the standards file with one or more drawing files.
 To audit for standards Open a drawing that has one or more associated standards files
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 Click tools- CAD Standards - Check
 Use the CHECKSTANDARDS command
A standards audit can uncover two types of problems:
 An object with a nonstandard name is present in the drawing being checked. For
example, a layer named WALL is present in the drawing but not in any associated
standards files.
 A named object in a drawing matches the name of one in a standards file, but their
properties are different. For example, in the drawing the WALL layer
4.3 Blocks
Internal and external blocks
 Common objects like bolts or switches do not need to be drawn each time they are
required. A bolt can be drawn once and stored away as an external block. It can be called
when ever it is required.
 A title block is an example of a block
 Use command: block to create a block
 Fill in the dialog block
 To insert a block use command: -insert
 When you insert a block, you create a block reference and specify its location, scale, and
rotation
 To remove unused block definitions and decrease the drawing size, use PURGE at any
time in your drawing session.
 To make the block external use command: wblock.. writeblock
 Block references that contain other blocks are known as nested blocks. Using blocks
within blocks can simplify the organization of a complex block definition.
 A block library is a collection of block definitions stored in a single drawing file. You
can use block libraries supplied by Autodesk or other vendors or create your own.
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 You can use tool palettes to organize blocks that are stored in one drawing file or separate
drawing files
 Objects in the block inherit color, linetype, and lineweight properties from the color,
linetype, and lineweight assigned to the current layer only. For this choice, before you
create objects to be included in the block definition, set the current layer to 0, and set the
current color, linetype, and lineweight to BYLAYER.
 Objects inherit color, linetype, and lineweight properties from the current color, linetype,
and lineweight that you have set explicitly, that is, that you have set to override the color,
linetype, or lineweight assigned to the current layer. If you have not explicitly set them,
then these properties are inherited from the color, linetype, and lineweight assigned to the
current layer. For this choice, before you create objects to be included in the block
definition, set the current color or linetype to BYBLOCK.
4.4 Dynamic Blocks

 In a block definition, constraint parameters
 Associate objects with one another
 Restrict geometry or dimensions
 Once the block is inserted into the drawing, the constraint parameters can be edited as
properties by using the Properties Manager.
 Dynamic block references contain grips or custom properties that change the way the
reference is displayed in the drawing after it is inserted
 Constraint parameters are authored with mathematical expressions that affect the
geometry of the block
 Dynamic blocks allow you to insert one block that can change shape, size, or
configuration, instead of inserting one of many static block definitions
4.5 Attributes
 Attributes are normally associated with blocks.
 Quite often a block has some text attached to it. Attributes are used to edit the text
associated with the blocks, at the time of inserting the block.
 To create an attribute use command:attdef
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4.6 Xrefs step by step instruction
 Xref is acronym for external references.
 It allows many people to work on separate areas of the same project.
 There is a master drawing onto to which other sub-drawings are attached.
 Use command xattach, xref in order to attach a sub drawing to another drawing.
Xref is the most useful command from AutoCAD. If you are going to use the software for work
or you are looking to advance further, you will need to know how to use the xref command. It is
absolutely necessary.
Xref is used to cross reference plans and objects because you want to minimize repetitions,
maximize consistency, save time and increase productivity.
Now, let us become more practical here. Let us assume you have three drawings. I will call them
sheet 1, sheet 2 and sheet 3 (see images below).
Sheet 1 shows a rectangle. But it could be anything else. The two other sheets have circles, etc.,
but they both have one thing in common: a rectangle. So instead of drawing that rectangle twice,
it would be wise to draw it once and xref it to both drawings. Some of you might think: What if I
draw it once and then copy it to each drawing?
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If you copy the drawing you will have to copy it again if you want to make changes to that
rectangle. Let us say you want to make it larger or want to chamfer the edges. Do you want to
copy again? Or do you want to just change the xref and that is it.
The idea here is to reduce steps and time by drawing anything in common once. And that is
when the xref comes in handy.
There are two types of xrefs: Overlay and Attachment.
Overlay: only brings what you draw inside that xref sheet. No other dependent. In other words:
if you were to look at a tree diagram, it only goes one level deep (see image above on the left).
Attachment xrefs bring unlimited dependent xrefs and levels (see image above on the right).
Steps:
1. Type XREF at the command line to bring the dialogue box.

2. Right click and select Attach DWG.
3. Browse for the drawing you want to xref.
4. Select Open.
5. Pick Overlay or Attachment.
6. For the path, choose Full path for this tutorial.
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7. For insertion point, scale and rotation: leave them unchecked for this tutorial.
8. Click OK and close the dialogue box.
Your xref drawing should be inserted inside the current drawing like the above image.
CAD PRACTICE TWO: 3 D DRAWING
5.1 Advantages of 3 D
You can:
 View the model from any vantage point

 Generate reliable standard and auxiliary 2D views automatically
 Create sections and 2D drawings
 Remove hidden lines and do realistic shading
 Check interferences and perform engineering analysis
 Add lighting and create realistic rendering
 Navigate through the model
 Use the model to create an animation
 Extract manufacturing data
5.2 Modifying solid models

Gizmos help you move, rotate, or scale a set of objects along a 3D axis or plane.
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There are three types of gizmos:
 3D Move gizmo. Relocates selected objects along an axis or plane.

 3D Rotate gizmo. Rotates selected objects about a specified axis.
 3D Scale gizmo. Scales selected objects along a specified plane or axis, or uniformly
along all 3 axes.
Alternatively, use commands Rotate3D, scale3D and move3D
5.3 Presentation of Engineering Drawings

Managing your workspace is an important aspect in the presentation of engineering drawings
from CAD 3D models developed using AutoCAD.
5.3.1 Model space and Paper Space

Paper space represents the paper representation of your model as it will be plotted
– Model space is set using the command: limits. The space is derived from the paper size
and scale factor.
– The Model tab accesses a limitless drawing area called model space. In model space, you
draw, view, and edit your model.
– In model space, you draw your model at 1:1 scale
– you decide whether one unit represents one millimeter, one centimeter, one inch, one foot
– Layout tabs access an area called paper space
– Paper space area is set by simply choosing the standard paper sizes. You access the paper
sizes through page setup/ print manager. Modify to change the paper size if necessary.
45
5.3.2 Page Setup
– Is found in the application menu under Print.
– Your page set up determines the size of the layouts which represents paper space
– Use paper space for composing your drawing sheet and defining views.
– When you create a layout, you can choose to apply the information from an existing
template
– All the geometry of your drawing is contained in layouts.
– Model space geometry is contained on a single layout named Model
– You cannot rename the model space layout
– Paper space geometry is also contained on layouts
– You can have many different paper space layouts in your drawing, each representing a
different configuration to print.
– You can change the name of the paper space layouts.
– Layout settings control the final plotted output.
– These settings affect the paper size, plot scale, plot area, plot origin, and the plot device
name
– Understanding how to use layout settings ensures that the layout is plotted as expected
5.4 Modeling in 3D
5.4.1 Solid modeling

Command: Solview
– Creates orthographic views, layers, and layout viewports automatically for 3D solids.
– It is active in layout view
– Page layout can be set in the application menu. Go to print
– SOLVIEW must be run on a layout view.
Command:Soldraw
• Generates profiles and sections in layout viewports created with SOLVIEW.
– Select viewports to draw ...
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– Select objects: Select the viewports to be drawn
– From soldraw, you can go on to plot the layout
Command:vports
– Allows to create viewports and assign them names eg front, isometric
– These views can be placed in the layout view when they need to be plotted
Command: mview
– Creates and controls layout viewports.
– Specify the first corner and the second corner of a rectangular viewport.
– It works in layout view
Practical 1
The flange
Practical 2
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The bolt
• Draw a 3 dimensional bolt. Pitch for threads is 5mm, Number of turns is ten,
• Thread height is 50
5.4.2 Wireframe modeling

 Choose isometric view, NE or SE …
 Switch to ortho mode on where necessary
 Use absolute or relative coordinates to draw curves and lines. Use coordinates x, y, r, ∅
and z are used.
 You can create wireframe models by positioning any 2D planar object anywhere in 3D
space, using the following methods:
 Use the XEDGES command to create wireframe geometry from regions, 3D solids,
surfaces, and meshes. XEDGES extracts all the edges on the selected objects or
48
subobjects. The extracted edges form a duplicate wireframe composed of 2D objects such
as lines, circles, and 3D polylines.
 Enter 3D coordinates that define the X, Y, and Z location of the object.
 Set the default workplane (the XY plane of the UCS) on which to draw the object.
 Move or copy the object to its proper 3D location after you create it.
Practical 3
Roofed Structure
 For all columns use 100x50 I section

 For trusses use 100 x 50 Channel section
5.4.3 Surface Modeling

 Create procedural and NURBS surfaces using the following methods:
– Create surfaces from other surfaces. Blend, patch, extend, fillet, and offset
surfaces to create new surfaces (SURFBLEND, SURFPATCH, SURFEXTEND,
SURFFILLET and SURFOFFSET).
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– Convert objects into procedural surfaces. Convert existing solids (including
composite objects), surfaces, and meshes into procedural surfaces
(CONVTOSURFACE).
– Convert procedural surfaces into NURBS surfaces. Some objects cannot be

converted directly to NURBS (for example, mesh objects). In that case, convert
the object to a procedural surface and then convert it to a NURBS surface.
(CONVTONURBS).
– Create surfaces from profiles. Create surfaces from profile shapes composed of
lines and curves with EXTRUDE, LOFT, PLANESURF, REVOLVE,
SURFNETWORK, and SWEEP.
– PLANESURF command creates Planar surfaces from multiple closed objects
– SURFNETWORK command Creates non-planar surfaces in the space between

edge subobjects, splines and other 2D and 3D curves
– Use SURFBLEND to create a new surface between existing surfaces and solids.
When you blend surfaces together, specify the surface continuity and bulge
magnitude for the start and end edges
– Use SURFPATCH to create a surface inside a closed curve (such as a closed

spline) that is another surface’s edge.
– Create a parallel surface a specified distance from the original surface.
– With SURFOFFSET specify the offset distance
– Creating Nurbs Surface

 At the Command prompt, enter convtonurbs (if it is not already enabled).
 Click Surface tab Create panel Loft.At the Command prompt, enter loft.
 Select the cross section profiles and press Enter. Select them in the order in which you
want the new 3D object to pass through them.
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 After the loft operation, the original objects are deleted or retained, depending on the
setting of the DELOBJ system variable.
 Associative Surface
 Associativity allows you to:
 Reshape the generating profiles to automatically reshape the surface.
 Work with a group of surfaces as if they were one object. Just as reshaping one face of a
solid box adjusts the entire primitive, reshaping one surface or edge in a group of
associated surfaces adjusts the entire group.
 Use geometric constraints on the 2D profiles of a surface.
 Assign mathematical expressions to derive properties of surfaces, such as height and

radius. For example, specify that the height of an extruded surface be equal to one half
the length of another object.
 As you add more objects
 At the Command prompt, enter surfaceassociativity.
 You can also create surfaces by blending, patching, offsetting, filleting, and extending
other surfaces.
 Use the SURFSCULPT command to convert a group of surfaces that enclose a water
tight region to a 3D solid.
In this illustration below, the same profile creates a solid (left), a procedural surface (middle),
and a NURBS surface (right).
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Surface Editing
Surface trimming
 At the Command prompt, enter surftrim.

 Select the surface and press Enter.
 Select the cutting curves and press Enter.
 Select the surface areas to remove and press Enter. The selected areas are removed.
Extend Surface
 Select a surface.
 Right-click and select Properties.
 In the Properties palette, under Geometry, change the desired settings.
Fillet surface
 At the Command prompt, enter surffillet.
 Select the first and second surfaces. The fillet surface is created and the originating are
surfaces automatically trimmed if necessary.
Exercise
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Analysis of Surfaces
 Zebra Analysis - Analyzes surface continuity by projecting parallel lines onto the model.
 Click Surface tab Analysis panel Zebra. At the Command prompt, enter analysiszebra.
 Select a surface and press Enter.
 The zebra stripes display.
Curvature Analysis - Evaluates areas of high and low surface curvature by displaying a color
gradient
 Click Surface tab Analysis panel Curvature.At the Command prompt, enter
analysiscurvature.
 Select a surface and press Enter.
 The curvature coloring display.
Draft Analysis - Evaluates whether a model has adequate draft between a part and its mold.
 Click Surface tab Analysis panel Draft.At the Command prompt, enter analysisdraft.
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 Select a model and press Enter.
 The draft analysis colors display.
5.4.4 Mesh modeling

 You can create mesh objects using the following methods:
 Create mesh primitives. Create standard shapes, such as boxes, cones, cylinders,
pyramids, spheres, wedges, and tori (MESH).
 Create mesh from other objects. Create ruled, tabulated, revolved, or edge-defined mesh
objects, whose boundaries are interpolated from other objects or points (RULESURF,
TABSURF, REVSURF, EDGESURF).
 create mesh using the 3DMESH, PFACE, and 3DFACE commands
Edge surface
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 Convert from other object types. Convert existing solid or surface models, including
composite models, to mesh objects (MESHSMOOTH). You can also convert the
legacy style of mesh to the new mesh object type
 You can use the MESHSMOOTH command to convert certain objects to mesh.
Convert 3D solids, surfaces, and legacy mesh object
 create mesh using the 3DMESH, PFACE, and 3DFACE commands
 Mesh objects do not have the mass and volume properties of 3D solids. However,
they do offer unique capabilities that enable you to design less angular, more rounded
models. Mesh objects are easier to mold and reshape than their solid and surface
counterparts.
 A mesh model consists of vertices, edges, and faces that use polygonal representation
(including triangles and quads) to define a 3D shape.
 Unlike solid models, mesh has no mass properties
 For example you can apply creases, splits, and increasing levels of smoothness. You can
drag mesh sub-objects (faces, edges, and vertices) to deform the object.
 Split or merge faces. Divide an existing face into separate components along a specified
path. Merge two or more faces to create a single face (MESHSPLIT, MESHMERGE).
 Collapse vertices. Alter the mesh model by collapsing the vertices of adjacent faces to a
single point (MESHCOLLAPSE.
 Spin edges. Spin the shared edge of adjacent triangular faces to alter the shapes and
orientation of the faces (MESHSPIN).
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 Extrude a face. Extend a specified face by extruding it into 3D space. Unlike 3D solid
extrusion, a mesh extrusion does not create a separate object (MESHEXTRUDE).
 Repair holes. Close a gap between faces by selecting the surrounding edges. Holes in
mesh objects can prevent you from converting a mesh object to a solid object
(MESHCAP).
a) Convert existing objects to 3D solids.

 You can use several methods to convert objects in your drawing to 3D solids:
 Convert surfaces and objects with Thickness to 3D Solids
 Convert a group of surfaces to a 3D solid
 Convert mesh to 3D solids
 Thicken surfaces to convert them to 3D solids
5.5 Other 3D commands

 When you use the SLICE command to slice a 3D solid, you can define the cutting plane
in several ways. For example, you can specify three points, an axis, a surface, or a planar
object to act as a cutting plane. You can retain one or both halves of the sliced object.
 Use the INTERFERE command to check for areas of interference within a set of 3D solid
or surface models. You can compare two sets of objects or check all 3D solids and
surfaces in a drawing.
 Use the thickness property to give objects a 3D appearance.
 The 3D thickness of an object is the distance that object is extended, or thickened, above
or below its location in space. Positive thickness extrudes upward in the positive Z
direction; negative thickness extrudes downward (negative Z). Zero (0) thickness means
that there is no 3D thickening of the object.
 The THICKEN command adds volume to a surface object, converting it to a 3D solid.
 Command:solidedit
 Edit options include face, body, edge
 This command can be used to offset, extrude, rotate, taper and color faces.
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5.6 3D Solid Practical questions
A B
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E
F
G
H
I J
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L
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURE (CAM)

Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM): is a system which uses computers to assist
manufacture mainly involving Numeric Controlled (NC), Computer Numeric Control (CNC)
and Direct Numeric control (DNC) machine tools. The interaction between the CAD and CAM
is provided in the data base, which contains the complete stored information generated by the
drawing procedure to enable the manufacturing process of a designed component.
In order to develop a numeric control part program to drive the CNC machine tool for the
manufacture of a component, a sequence of operations is drawn up and the locations for
particular machining operations are indicated by the cursor on the drawing displayed on the
screen.
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In general, the CAM software translates all relevant information from the database to produce
the part program, which is then issued to the machine tool in order to manufacture the
component. Very complex component contours can only be successfully machined by Numeric
Control machines.
6.1 Numerical Control (NC) Machines

Numerical is defined as the expression of something by numbers.
Control is defined as the exercise of directing, guiding or restraining power over something. By
combining the two definitions we find that Numerical Control consists of directing ,guiding or
restraining power over something by the use of numbers and hence the name Numerical
Controlled Machine tools. In NC, the numbers form a program of instructions designed for a
particular job. When the job changes, the program of instructions changes.
Numerical Control (NC) refers to the automation of machine tools that are operated by
abstractly programmed commands encoded on a storage medium as opposed to controlled via
hand-wheels or levers and mechanically automated via cams.
Evolution of CNC Machines
The first NC machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s based on existing machines that were
modified with motors that moved the controls to follow points fed into the system on punched
tapes. These early servo-mechanisms were rapidly augmented with analogy and digital
computers, creating the modern Computer Numeric Control (CNC) machine tools that have
revolutionalised the machining processes.
In modern CNC system, end-to-end component design is highly automated using computer aided
design CAD, and computer aided manufacturing CAM programs. The programs produce the
computer file that is interpreted to extract the commands needed to operate a particular machine
via a post-processor, and then loaded into CNC machines for production. Since any particular
component might require the use of a number of different tools, drills, saws etc, Modern
machines often combine multiple tools into a single cell. In other cases, a number of different
machines are used with an external controller and human or robotic operators that move the
component from machine to machine. In either case the complex series of steps needed to
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produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that closely matches that original CAD
design.
6.1.1 Basic Components of NC System

The main components of NC system are:
(a) Program of instructions

(b) MCU - Machine control unit
(c) Machine tool ( processing equipment)
The general relationship among the three components is illustrated in fig below.
Figure 11: General Configuration of NC System

Program of Instructions
It is a detailed set of directions which tell the machine tool what to do and in what sequence. The
part program is written in coded form and contains all the information needed for machining the
component. The part program is fed to the machine control unit through some input medium.
Various types of input media are:
(a) Punched cards

(b) Magnetic tapes and floppy discs
(c) Paper tape.
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Machine Control Unit (MCU)
It consists of the electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program of instructions and
convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool. The elements of this unit are program
reader, signal output channel to the machine tool, feedback channels from the machine tool and
sequence controls to co-ordinate overall operation.
Machine Tool (Processing Equipment)
It is the third basic component of an NC system. It performs the useful work. It consists of the
work table and spindle as well as the motors and controls needed to drive them. Examples of
machine tools are: lathe, drilling press, milling machine, etc.
6.1.2 Applications of NC Machines

The major applications of NC machines are:
(a) For parts, which are complex and it will not be possible to manufacture them very
accurately on conventional machines due to human error involved
(b) For parts which are frequently subjected to design changes.
(c) Repetitive and precision quality parts which are to be produced in low to medium batch
quantity.
(d) In situations where the investment on tooling and fixture inventory will be high if the
parts are made on conventional machine tools.
6.1.3 Advantages of NC Machine Tools

(a) Reduced Inspection Costs - The time spent on inspection and waiting for inspection to
begin is greatly reduced. Normally, it is necessary to inspect the first component only. If there is
any difference in the dimensions of the machined components, the program is checked and
corrected if necessary.
(b) Less Scrap - Since the operator errors are limited, a proven part programme results in an
accurate component. Certain errors like incorrect hole locations are almost eliminated. In general
NC cuts the costs of scrap often by more than 10%.
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(c) Machining Accuracy - A consistent and high degree of accuracy in machining is achieved.
The consistent products lead to better assembly and reduced fitting costs.
(d) Cost of Modification - Production is not stopped, while a modification is introduced, a new
tape is quickly prepared, few, (if any) jigs need to be modified.
(e) Reduction in Tooling Cost - Tooling costs are reduced because of optimum selection of
speeds and feeds for cutting tools.
(f) Transport Costs -The machining centre reduces the number of components of a batch to be
moved from machine to machine, thus reducing transport costs.
(g) Reduction of Lead Time - Lead time is reduced due to short set up time and quick change
over from one job to another.
(h) Flexibility of Component Design - The modifications or changes in component design can
be readily accommodated by reprogramming and altering the concerned instructions.
(i) Elimination of Operator Errors - The machine is controlled by program of instructions

stored in the tape. The program is checked before it goes to the machine. So, no errors will occur
in the job.
6.1.4 Disadvantages of NC Machines

(a) The initial cost of the machine is higher than conventional machine.
(b) Maintenance costs increase owing to the sophistication of the control system.
(c) Control system is costly.
(d) A highly skilled and properly trained part programmer is needed.
6.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

CNC - May be defined as Numerically Controlled system in which a dedicated stored computer
program is used to perform some or all of the basic numerical control functions in accordance
with control programme stored in the read- write memory of the computer.
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With conventional numerical control, the punched tape is cycled through the reader for every
work in the batch.
With CNC, the programme is entered only once and then stored in the computer memory. Thus
the tape reader is used only for loading the part programme.
CNC offers additional flexibility and computational capability.

Figure below shows the general configuration of CNC System.
Figure 12 : General Configuration of CNC System
6.2.1 Functions of CNC

(i) Machine tool control
(ii) In process compensation
(iii)Improved programming and operating features
(iv) Diagnostics
Machine Tool Control
This involves conversion of the part programme instructions into machine tool motions through
the computer interface and servo system.
In Process Compensation
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This involves the dynamic correction of the machine tool motions for changes or errors which
occur during processing. For example:
i. Adjustment for errors sensed by a process inspection probes and gauges.

ii. Offset adjustment of tool radius and lengths.
iii. Recomputation of axis positions.
Improved programme and Operating Features
 Editing of part programming at the machine

 Graphic display of the tool path to verify the tape.
 Manual data input.
Diagnostics
CNC machines are complex and expensive systems. NC machines are often equipped with a
diagnostics capability to assist in maintaining and repairing the system.
6.2.2 Controller Designs in CNC

There are two controller designs in CNC namely (a) Hybrid and (b) Straight CNC
Hybrid CNC
Figure 13 : Hybrid CNC
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In hybrid CNC system, the controller consists of soft-ware computer plus hardware logic
circuits. The hard-ware components perform functions such as feed rate generation and circular
interpolation. The computer performs the remaining control functions.
Straight CNC
The straight CNC system uses a computer to perform all the NC functions. The only hard –ware
elements are those required to interface the computer with the machine tool and operator’s
console. Interpolation, the tool position feedback, and all other functions are performed by
computer software. Accordingly, the computer required in a straight CNC system is more
powerful as compared to the one needed for the Hybrid system.
Figure 14 : Straight CNC System
6.2.3 Advantages of CNC

The various advantages are as follows:
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 The part programme tape and tape readers are used only once to enter the programme
into the computer memory resulting in improved reliability.
 CNC system enables the correcting and optimising (such as speeds, feeds) the tape,
during tape try-out at the site of machine tool.
 Tapes prepared in one unit can be converted into other units.
 Greater flexibility. The control functions can be modified..
 User written programs can be used (MACRO SUB ROUTINES)
 CNC provides at total manufacturing system.
6.3 Direct Numerical Control (DNC)

In DNC, a master computer is used to control more than one machine tool on a time-shared
basis. The part programme is transmitted to the machine tool directly from the computer
memory. The main reasons for coupling several NC machine tools directly to a computer are:
 The reliability of punched tape and magnetic tape readers.

 The technical under utilisation the opportunities available on fast computers.
 The unnecessary increase in the cost of numerical continuous path control system due to
internal interpolators.
The general configuration of the basic DNC system is shown in fig. 5.
6.3.1 DNC System
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Figure 15 : General Configuration of DNC
The system consists of four basic components:
(1) Central computer

(2) Bulk memory which stores the NC part programmes.
(3) Telecommunication lines
(4) Machine tools
The computer recalls the part programme instructions from bulk storage and sends them to the
individual machines as the need arise. It also receives the data back from the machines, this two-
way information flow occurs in real time, which means that each machine’s request for
instructions must be satisfied. Sometimes, depending on the number of machines and the
computational requirements, it is necessary to make use of satellite computers as
DNC with Satellite Mini Computers
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Figure 16: DNC with Satellite mini Computers
These satellites are mini computers and they serve to take some of the burden off the central
computer. Each satellite controls several machines. Groups of part programme instructions are
received from the central computer and stored in buffers. They are then dispensed to the
individual machines as required.
6.3.2 Advantages of DNC

1. DNC leads to elimination of punched tapes and tape readers.
2. The huge memory of DNC computer makes it possible to store several very long part
programmes thus making free, the memory of controller. Further, if same programmes
are required to be run on different identical machines, then these can be input from the
DNC computer. This avoids duplication of input t effort by several operators.
3. Programming software at the DNC computer makes part programming and programme
proving easier and effective. Further, programming of highly complex jobs which need to
be done in higher level language at ATP is facilitated because of post processing facilities
which can be made available at the DNC computer.
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4. Because of management function software, the shop floor running of machines,
inventories of tooling etc. can be handled much better. The management software also
makes it possible to prepare regular manufacturing reports quickly for higher level
decision making.
5. DNC also provides same of the hands on first step essential experience for future
expansions leading to fully automated systems or factories of future.
Questions
i. Define CNC and state its advantages

ii. Define DNC and give its advantages
iii. Distinguish between NC, CNC and DNC.
6.4 Control Systems

Based on feedback control, the NC/CNC machines are classified as:
 Open –Loop Control system

 Closed-Loop Control system
6.4.1 Open-Loop Control System

The electrical motor drives the slides as per the input signal or command. There is no monitoring
of the actual displacement of the machine slides .In the open-loop control system; the control
may indicate a movement of 100 mm whereas the slide may have moved only 99 mm.
In this system the actual displacement of the slide may vary with the change in external
conditions due to the wear of the components of the drive to compensate on mechanism. Since,
there is no provision of feedback in the control system, periodic adjustments are required to
compensate for the changes due to various factors. Open-loop control system is simple and less
costly, but it is not as accurate as closed –loop control system.
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Maintenance of this system is not complicated. On the other hand some systems do not require
the additional closed loop features.
Open-Loop Control System
Figure 17 : Open Loop System
6.4.2 Closed Loop Control System

In a closed loop control system, the displacement of a slide is achieved to a very high degree of
accuracy by using a monitoring device or counter to determine the slide displacement. The
feedback from the monitoring device is then compared with the input information and the slide
position is regulated by the servo mechanism until it agrees with desired position.
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Figure 18 : Closed loop System
Feedback Devices
In closed loop control system, two types of feedback are required:

(i) Velocity Feedback:
Is used to measure and monitor the speed of the drive motor. It is normally provided by a device
called techo-generator. It is simply a voltage generator that gives voltage output which is
proportional to its speed. The output voltage from the techo-generator is used as feedback to
monitor the motor speed.
(ii) Positional Feedback:
It is used to measure and monitor the position or displacement of the machine slide. The position
measuring devices used are either rotary or linear measuring transducers.
Position Control
The following are positional control systems in CNC machine tools:
(i) Point To Point Control System
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In this system, the machine tool performs machining operations at specific points and there is no
machining while the machine table/slide moves from point to the next point. Drilling operations
and spot welding are the examples of this control.
Figure 19 : Point-To -Point System

(ii) Linear Interpolation
Linear interpolation is also called a Straight Line Control System. It is an extension of point to
point control system with position of machining along the straight line as in case of milling and
turning operations.
Figure 20 : Linear Interpolation
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(iii) Circular Interpolation
Circular Interpolation is also called a Continuous Path or Contouring Control System.
The contouring system is a high technology and most versatile control system. The contouring
system generates a continuously controlled motion of the tool and work piece along different
coordinate axis. This control system enables the machining of profiles, contours and curved
surfaces. In contouring system, the movement of several machine slides has to be controlled
simultaneously so that their relative positions and velocities are established at every point and
continuously throughout the operation.
Figure 21: Contouring System
(iv) Rectangular Coordinates
The following are coordinate systems used in CNC machine tools:
Absolute Coordinate System
In the absolute system, the coordinates of a point are always referred with reference to the same
datum. The datum positions in the X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are defined by the
user/programmer before starting the operation on the machine.
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Figure 22 : Absolute System
A major advantage of using this system is that it is very easy to check and correct a programme
written by this method. If a mistake is made in the value of any dimension in a particular block,
it will affect that dimension only and once the error is corrected, there will be no further
problems.
Incremental System
In this system, the coordinates of any point are calculated with reference to the previous point.
It is difficult to check a part programme written in incremental dimension mode.
Figure 23 : Incremental system
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Questions
1. What is Numerical control? List the basic components of numerical control system.
2. How are NC systems classified? Explain.

3. Distinguish between closed loop and open loop systems.
4. Discuss the salient features of point to point, straight line and contouring systems.
5. What are feedback devices used in NC system?
6. What are the advantages of NC machines?
NC PART PROGRAMMING
NC Part Programming is the procedure by which the sequence of processing steps to be
performed on the NC machine is planned and documented. It involves the preparation of a
punched tape or other input media used to transmit the processing instructions to the machine
tool. The part programming methods include: manual part programming, computer assisted part
programming, manual data input, NC programming using CAD/CAM and computer automated
part programming.
The most common input media are manual input using the keyboard, punched tape, magnetic
tape and diskettes.
7.1 Punched Tape Reader

When a punched tape is passed through a punched tape-reader, electric connections are either
closed or opened depending on whether there is a hole punched at a particular track or not. The
coded instructions on the tape are transformed into their electrical analogue which is used to
control the various machine tool functions. There are several techniques used in NC tape- reader
to sense the hole pattern in the tape. These techniques include Photo-electric cells, electrical
contact fingers and vacuum method.
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7.2 NC Words
An NC- word is a collection of characters used to form an instruction. Typical NC-words
include: X-position, Y-Position, Feed rate etc. A collection of NC words is called a block and a
bock of words is a complete NC instruction. The following are the NC words used in the
formation of blocks.
N-Word: Sequence number
The first word in every block is the sequence number. This is used to identify the block. It is
preceded by the word N and is written as N0001, N0002, and N0010 etc. The programme is
executed from the lowest block number to high block number.
G-word: Preparatory Function
The preparatory function word prepares the control unit to execute the instructions accordingly.
It is represented by two digits preceded by G e.g. G00, G71, G03 etc. The preparatory function
enables the controller to interpret the data which follows and it precedes the coordinate words.
For example, G01 is used to prepare the controller for linear interpolation. Some of the
preparatory functions are given below.
Table 1 : Preparatory Functions (G-Codes)
CODE FUNCTION
G00 Rapid Traverse
G001 Liner Interpolation
G002 Circular Interpolation (Clockwise)
G003 Circular Interpolation (anticlockwise)
G004 Dwell
G005 Hold/ Delay
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G70 Dimensioning in inch units
G71 Dimensioning in metric units
G81- G84 Canned Cycles
G90 Absolute dimensioning
G91 Incremental dimensioning
G94 Feed rate mm/min
G95 Federate mm/rev
X, Y and Z- Words: Coordinates
These words give final coordinate positions for X, Y and Z motions. In two axis CNC system
only two coordinate words are used.
7.3 CNC Lathe Axes

The following are the CNC axes:
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Figure 24 : Lathe Machine Tool Axes
Z- axis: Spindle axis
The tool movement towards head stock is taken as (-Z) and movement away from head stock is
taken as (+Z).
X- axis: Tool Travel Perpendicular to Spindle Axis
The tool movement towards the centre is taken as (-X) and tool movement away from the centre
is taken as (+X).
7.4 Milling Machine Tool Axes

The milling machine has always been one of the most versatile machine tools used in industry.
Operations such as milling, contouring, gear cutting, drilling, boring, and reaming are only a few
of the many operations which can be performed on a milling machine. The milling machine can
be programmed on three axes:
• The X axis controls the table movement left or right.
• The Y axis controls the table movement toward or away from the column.
• The Z axis controls the vertical (up or down) movement of the knee or spindle.
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+z
-z
+x
+y
-y
-x
Figure 25 : Milling Machine Tool Axes
F-word: Feed function
It is used to specify the feed rate in the machining operation. The feed rate is expressed in
millimetres per minute (mm/min) or (mm/rev)
S-word: Spindle Speed Function
The spindle speed is specified either in revolutions per minute (rpm) or as meters per minute.
T-Word: Tool Selection Function
The T- word is needed only for machines with programmable tool turret or automatic tool
changer. The T-word in the part programme specifies which tool is to be used in the operation.
M-Word : Miscellaneous Function
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It is used to specify certain miscellaneous or auxiliary functions which do not relate to the
dimensional movements of the machine. The miscellaneous functions may be spindle start,
spindle stop, coolant On / Off etc. The miscellaneous functions are given in the table below:
Table 2 : Miscellaneous Functions (M- Codes)
CODE FUNCTION
M02 Program stop
M03 Spindle start (clockwise)
M04 Spindle start (anti-clockwise)
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant On
M09 Coolant Off
M30 Program Stop and tape rewind
7.5 Tape Formats

Format is the method of sequence and arrangement of words in a block of instructions. There are
3 formats that gained common use. However two of them are rarely used now and it is only the
third one, namely the word address format that has gained wide spread application in industry.
7.5.1 Fixed Block Format

In this format, instructions are always given in the same sequence. All instructions must be given
in every block, including those instructions which remain unchanged from the preceding blocks.
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For example, if some coordinate values (i.e X, Y or Z coordinates) remain constant from one
block to the next block. These values must be specified in the next block also. In this system,
only data is provided in the programme and the identifying address letters are not given, but the
data must be input in a specified sequence and characters within each word must be of the same
length.
7.5.2 Tab Sequential Format

In this format instructions in a block are always given in the same sequence as in case of fixed
block format and each word is separated by the TAB character. If the word remains same in the
succeeding block, the word need not be repeated, but TAB is required to maintain the sequence
of words.
7.5.3 Word Address Format

This is most commonly used format at present. Each data is preceded and identified by its
address letter. For example, X identifies the X- coordinate and F- identifies the feed rate and so
on.
Examples
Two holes are to be drilled in a MS flat plate as shown below using a CNC drilling machine,
with 10 mm diameter drill at 500 rpms and feed rate 200 mm/min. Write three tape formats.
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Y
Figure 26 : MS Flat Plate
Table 3 : Absolute Hole coordinates
HOLE 1 HOLE 2
N-Word 001 002
X-Word 25 75
Y-Word 30 30
F-Word 200 200
S-Word 500 500
Table 4 : Fixed Block Format
N X Y F S
001 25 30 200 500
002 75 30 200 500
Table 5 : TAB Sequential Format
N X Y F S
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001 TAB 25 TAB 30 TAB 200 TAB 500 TAB
002 TAB 75 TAB
Word Address Format
N001 X 25 Y30 F200 S500 EOB
N002 X75 EOB
7.6 Manual Part Programming

In this method the programmer writes the machining instructions on a special form called a part
programming manuscript.
Manuscripts come in various forms, depending on the machine tool and tape format to be used.
The manuscript is a list of relative tools and workplace locations. It also includes other data, such
as preparatory commands, miscellaneous instructions, speed and feed etc. Manual programming
can be divided into two categories: point to point and contouring. Mostly word address format is
used in part programming.
7.7 Writing Part Programme

The starting point in any part programme is to inform the control system about the various step –
up conditions for the machining task to be taken up. The first block of the instructions should
specify the following:
 Programme Number given to each programme.

 Block Number (N- Word)
 Coordinate value- absolute or incremental ( G90 or G91)
 Dimensional units- metric or inch (G70, G71)
 Tool Number if applicable (T-Word)
 Spindle speed (S-word)
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 Feed function (G94 or G95)
The first blocks of programme will look as follows:
 N010 G71 G90 G94 : Metric mode, Absolute system, feed mm/min
 N020 G00 X 50 Z30 : Move in rapid to point P(50,30) - tool post home
position)
 N030 M06 T0202 : Tool number
 N040 M03 F200 S800 : Spindle start Clockwise, at 800 rpms and feed 200
mm/min)
 N050 M08 : Coolant on
 G00 X2 Z2 : ( rapid traverse to the starting position / stand-off position)
The last blocks will look like as follows:
 G00 X50 Z 30 : ( Tool post home position)

 M09 : (Coolant off)
 M05 : (Spindle stop)
 M30 : (End of programme)
7.8 Lathe Operations

In the case of CNC lathe operations, only two axes ( x-axis and z-axis) are involved. The z- axis
is the axis of the spindle and X- axis is the direction of transverse motion of the tool post. To
develop the CNC part programme for lathe operations, the following procedure is adopted:
 Move the cutting tool to a point near the job in the rapid mode (G00)
 Set linear interpolation (G01) and move to the required depth of cut in X-direction.
 Move along The Z-axis to the required length of the job as per drawing
 Set rapid mode (G00) and retract the tool along X-axis.
 Move to start point in (G00) mode.
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Figure 27 : Tool Motions
7.8.1 Tool Offset

Tool offset or compensation is the correction for tool position parallel to a controlled axis.
It is a dimensional value defining the position of the cutting edges of a tool in relation to a given
datum. It can either be on the radius or length. For radius offset the cutter is entered as a diameter
whilst for length compensation the tool length is varied in different directions of the tool
movement.
Tool Length Compensation: Length offset
If the tool is replaced by another tool, say 30mm shorter in length, then the tool movement will
be 30 mm less along the X-axis if the same programmed values are used. So the alternative is to
modify the program every time if the tool is changed. In NC practise, all the tools are measured
in the assembled state and this information is kept up to date. For the tools used, the differences
in length with respect to the pre-setting tool are recorded and is entered and stored with the
associated tool number. Whenever these tools are called into action by programmed instruction
the respective compensation values are activated and automatically taken into account in the tool
motion.
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Figure 28 : Tool Length Compensation
Cutter Radius Compensation: Radius offset
In the profile operations, the tool path is to be calculated for preparing the program, whenever
the cutter size changes, the program would need editing. However, if compensation equal to the
radius of the cutter is entered and stored in the control system, then there will be no need to
change in program. The preparatory functions G40, G41 and G42 are used for the radius
compensation. Figure below shows tool radius offset:
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Figure 29 : Tool Radius Offset
G40 – Compensation off.
G41- This is when the cutter is on the left of the programmed path when looking in the direction
of the tool movement, i.e. the radius compensation is considered to the left of the programmed
profile.
G42 – It is used when the cutter is right of the profile path when looking in the direction of tool
movement.
Examples: Milling and Turning Operations
Question1: Milling
Figure below shows a profile to be milled on milling machine. Assuming that a tool T 2 is to be
loaded and engaged for the machining operation, write a G Code (part program) to mill around
the profile shown. Assume milling depth to be 1mm and point A has coordinates (0, 0)
88
Figure 30 : Milling example Profile to be milled
Table 6: Solution to milling example

SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION NO. G M X Y Z I R F S
Metric Units 10 71
Incremental programming 20 91
Tool Park Position, Spindle start Forward 30 00 03 -50 -50 50 1500
Linear interpolation, coolant on. 40 01 08 0 0 -1
Linear interpolation 50 01 70 0 0 70
CCW Interpolation 60 03 0 60 0 30 70
Linear interpolation 70 01 -20 0 0 70
CW interpolation 80 02 -20 0 0 10
Linear interpolation 90 01 -30 0 0
Linear interpolation 100 01 0 -60 0
Linear interpolation 110 01 0 0 0 70
Tool Park Position 120 00 -50 -50 50
Spindle Stop 130 00 08
89
End Program 140 02
QUESTION 2: Turning Operations
Figure below shows a component of Ǿ50 x 65 mm in length. Billet material is aluminium and is
already faced off.
Figure 31 : Turning example A Component for Turning Operations
(a) Write an operational schedule for machining the component.

Include the headings: Operation Description, Spindle Speed, Tool Feed and Tool Number.
[15]
Table 7: Part programming Operational schedule

OPERATION MACHINE TYPE COMPILED BY DATE 15 FEB
SCHEDULE
OP DESCRIPTION TOOLING TYPE WORK CUTTING FEED SPINDLE
NO AND SIZE HOLDING SPEED RATE SPEED
1
90
2
3
4
5
(b) Write a part program for machining 10 000 such components.

Ensure you include sequence descriptions. Left hand column recommended. [25]
Table 8: Part program listing

PART PROGRAM LISTING
SEQUENCE SEQ G M X Z I K F S
DESCRIPTION NO.
N10
N20
N30
N40
Solutions
Operations sheet
Table 9: Example solution Operation sheet

OPERATION MACHINE TYPE COMPILED BY: DATE :
SCHEDULE
OP DESCRIPTION TOOLING TYPE WORK CUTTING FEED SPINDLE
NO. AND SIZE HOLDING SPEED RATE SPEED
(mm/min) (mm/min) (rpm)
1 Turning Ǿ50 to Cemented Carbide Ǿ50 Collet 300 70 2400
Ǿ20 No.1 Chuck
2 Turning Ǿ50 to Cemented Carbide Ǿ50 Collet 300 70 3200
Ǿ40 No.1 Chuck
91
3 Cutting an Anti – Cemented Carbide Ǿ50 Collet 300 70 3200
clockwise arc R13 No.1 Chuck
4 Cutting a clockwise Cemented Carbide Ǿ50 Collet 300 70 3200
arc, R10 No.1 Chuck
5 Parting Off Parting Off Tool Ǿ50 Collet 80 50 2500
No.11 Chuck
End of program Repeat
Part Program
Table 10: Example part program

PART PROGRAM
SEQUENCE SEQ G M X Z I K F S
DESCRIPTION NO.
Absolute Programming 10 90
Metric Units 20 71
Tool Park Position 30 00 60 10
Rapid To Stand Off 40 00 03 52 02 2500
Position, Spindle Start
Forward
Turning to Ǿ20 x 15 50 81 30 -17 15 70
Rapid To Next Cut 60 00 00 00
Position
Circular Interpolation 70 03 20 -5 13 70
CCW R13
Rapid To Stand Off 80 00 52 0
Position
Turning to Ǿ40 x 10 90 81 10 -35 5 70
Rapid To Next Position of 100 00 20 -15
Cut
Circular Interpolation CW 110 02 40 -25 10 70
R10
Tool Park Position, Stop 120 00 05 60 10
92
Spindle
Tool Change , Parting Off 130 06 11
Tool
Rapid To Stand Off 140 00 03 51 -57 2500
Position For Parting Off
Parting Off 150 01 -1 70
Rapid Clear of Work 160 00 51 -57
Tool Park Position, 170 00 05 60 10
Spindle Stop
End Of Program ,Repeat 180 30 10000
93

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Contents .................................................................................................................................... iii

List of figures .......................................................................................................................... viii

List of tables ...............................................................................................................................x

INTRODUCTION TO AUTO- CAD ..........................................................................................1

1.1 History of Auto-CAD ....................................................................................................1

1.2 The CAD System ..........................................................................................................1

1.2.1 The CPU ................................................................................................................2

1.2.2 Input Devices .........................................................................................................2

1.2.3 Output Devices ......................................................................................................3

1.2.4 Display Devices .....................................................................................................4

1.2.5 Storage Devices .....................................................................................................5

1.3 Applications of Auto-CAD............................................................................................5

1.4 Advantages of Auto- CAD ............................................................................................5

STARTING A NEW DRAWING FROM SCRATCH .................................................................7

2.1 Drawing settings ...........................................................................................................7

2.1.1 Setting Units ..........................................................................................................7

2.1.2 Setting Limits ........................................................................................................8

2.1.3 Setting Grid ...........................................................................................................8

2.1.4 Setting Snap ...........................................................................................................8

2.1.6 Loading Line Types ...............................................................................................9

2.2 Layers ......................................................................................................................... 10

2.2.1 Layers Control Options ........................................................................................ 11

2.2.2 Creating Layers .................................................................................................... 11

2.3 Selecting Commands in Auto-CAD............................................................................. 12

2.4 Setting of Drawing Aids .............................................................................................. 13

2.5 Exiting Auto-CAD ...................................................................................................... 14

2.6 Opening an Existing Drawing ..................................................................................... 14

CAD PRACTICE ONE: 2 D DRAWING .................................................................................. 14

3.1 Cad Entities/Primitives ................................................................................................ 14

3.2 The coordinate system in AutoCAD ............................................................................ 15

3.2.1 Absolute Co-ordinates.......................................................................................... 15

3.2.2 Relative Co-ordinates ........................................................................................... 16

3.2.3 Polar Co-ordinates ............................................................................................... 17

3.2.4 Direct Distance Entry (DDE) ............................................................................... 19

3.3 Drawing straight lines in AutoCAD step by step instructions ...................................... 19

3.4 How to trim a line step by step instructions ................................................................. 20

3.5 How to extend a line ................................................................................................... 21

3.6 Creating a fillet step by step instructions ..................................................................... 21

3.7 Drawing a rectangular Polyline step by step instructions ............................................. 22

3.8 How to draw a circle step by step instruction ............................................................... 27

3.9 Creating and array of objects ....................................................................................... 28

3.9.1 Rectangular array ................................................................................................. 28

3.9.2 Polar array ........................................................................................................... 29

3.10.1 To use a predefined hatch pattern from AutoCAD ................................................ 31

3.10.2 To create User-Defined Hatch Patterns: ............................................................... 33

3.11 Text Creation........................................................................................................... 34

3.11.1 Dtext .................................................................................................................... 35

3.11.2 Mtex .................................................................................................................... 35

3.12 How to pan and zoom drawings ............................................................................... 36

3.12.1 Pan a drawing ...................................................................................................... 36

3.12.2 Zoom a view in a drawing .................................................................................... 36

PRODUCTIVITY TOOLS IN AUTOCAD ............................................................................... 39

4.1 Templates ................................................................................................................... 39

4.2 Cad Standards ............................................................................................................. 39

4.3 Blocks ......................................................................................................................... 40

4.4 Dynamic Blocks .......................................................................................................... 41