NOTES

1
 EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Course Introduction

The school is an organization in which people live and work. Like other organizations,
it has specific goals, tasks, clear division of labour, a structure for coordinating
activity, legal authority invested in certain members and a set of management
procedures. Organization theory or management theory therefore, enables us to
understand certain aspects of schools. There is a lot of knowledge in management
which has relevance for schools. Schools require managers who are trained and
competent in administrative technique. As a prospective school manager you must
be must be able to easily and appropriately transfer the skills and knowledge you
acquire from one situation to another.
Educational administration involves many people. As a school administrator you will
need to work with education officers, the board of governors and even parents. You
must be able to provide leadership, motivate personnel, communicate effectively,
understand the structure of the education ministry and oversee the overall
management of the school organization Evenas a classroom teacher, you will soon
realize that all teachers have management responsibilities. For example, you will be
charged with the responsibility of managing children in the classroom. You will also
frequently, take part in managerial activities of the school such as decisions making.
This course aims to achieve the following objectives;
 To acquaint the learner with the theory and practice of Educational Administration
in Kenyan schools /institutions.
 To enable the students to develop the ability to apply various theories to
fundamental issues, concerns and problems in the practice of educational
management(in general) and school administration(in particular).

2
Table of Contents

Lesson 1: Administration, Educational Administration and Theory:

Understanding the concepts by

Lesson 2: Educational Administration Theories

Lesson 3: Administrative Processes

Lesson 4 : Theories of Motivation

Lesson 5: Leadership Theories

Lesson 6: Communication

Lesson 7: Fundamentals of National Education Administration

Lesson 8: Secondary School Administration

Lesson 9: School Financial Management

3
Lesson 1
ADMINISTRATION, EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND
THEORY: UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPTS

1.1 Introduction
In lesson one of this course, we shall try to understand the meaning of administration
in general and education administration in particular as a preamble to the discussion
on educational administration theories. We shall also study the concept of theory so
as tounderstand the importance of theory in educational administration. This will give
us a basis upon which to understand the nature of schools as organizations.
Organization theory or management theory enables us to understand certain aspects
of schools

1.2 Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to;

�
 Explain the concept of theory
 Define the term administration
 Describe the field of educational administration
 Show the importance of theory in educational administration

4
1.3 Meaning of Administration

'!What is the meaning of the term

‘administration’?

Administration is one of the oldest of all human endeavors. Consider the ancient
Egyptian civilization. More than 2000 years ago, the Egyptians organized vast and
complex enterprises that required planning, detailed coordination and skilled
leadership. The construction of the famous pyramids, which are still a wonder to
behold many centuries later, required skillful administration. Visualize the enormous
amount of resources brought together for the purpose of constructing the pyramids;
without proper administration the task would never have been completed.

Around this same time, the Chinese had highly systematic, large-scale systems that
used manyof the management concepts used today. In the late 16th Century an elite
corps of scholars, who were chosen through competitive examination, rationally
administered the Chinese Civil Service.

The Catholic Church, at one time hundreds of years ago, had a far flung network of
thousandsof clergy who were centrally administered.

The Sumerian priests, who lived during the Sumerian civilization around 3,000 BC,
were in charge of the formal tax system. In order to better control the society's
resources, the priests developed one of the first reporting and auditing procedures.
Therefore, even before administration became established as a discipline in the 20th
century, ithad already been practiced as an art for hundreds of years. Administration
as an art is much older than administration as a science. The earliest forms of
administration accompanied man's first attempts at organized cooperation, but the
rudiments of modern organizational management seem to have evolved from early
military structures.

5
Before we discuss educational administration, let us first define administration in the
more general sense. Administration is the organizing and carrying out of a
programme of activities and functions to achieve desired and specified objectives.
Owens(1998) defines administration simply as the art of getting things done through
others in an organization.

Administration involves getting things done to accomplish defined objectives. The

science of administration is therefore the system of knowledge whereby man may
understand relationships, predict results and influence outcomes, in any situation
where men are organized at work together for a common purpose. The
administrative process is accomplished through the behaviour of administrators in
interaction with others.

Administration is an important activity because it maintains an organization and

directs the activities of staff in their relations towards the accomplishment of the
organization's purposes. No group movement endures without administration to
guide its operations.

NOTE

,... In administration there must be common tasks/mutual

problems whichrequire

administration in the enterprise e.g. in a school, it would be the provision of

services to students (teaching, accounting, cooking for boarders, etc.). There
also must exist some specified objectives/desired goals. In schools, it would
b t ld th t d t i t ibl lf li t iti

1.4 Educational Administration

6
Having defined administration in general, we can now apply it to our area of
concern-education. The question we are seeking to answer therefore, is, how
administration applies to

7
the education setting. Educational administration is an eclectic field. It sources its
ideas froma wide range of disciplines and fields.

Business administration, church administration, military administration etc. and

educational administration have many elements in common. Studies in one type of
administration can be used to improve administrative behaviour in other areas. There
is always much to be learned by a transfer of knowledge from one field of
administration to another.

Whatever the setting, administration deals with or is concerned with mobilizing the
efforts of people towards the achievement of a common goal. However, the
wholesale incorporation of administrative practice from one field to another could be
misleading. To illustrate this point, in the manufacturing sector, the main concern is
the production of goods and this is driven purely by the profit motive. Education on
the other hand, promotes the enrichment of living. To accomplish the objectives in
these two environments will definitely call for different strategies.

Education administration has as its central purpose, the enhancement of teaching

and learning. All the activities of administrators, be they involving the public, the
ministry of education or the staff at school, should ultimately contribute to this end.

Kochhar(1993) defines educational administration as a comprehensive effort to

direct, guide and integrate associated human strivings which are focused towards
achievement of specific educational objectives. It deals with the do-how of
educational principles and objectives. Educational administration deals with
educational institutions - right from the schools and colleges to the ministry. It is
concerned with both human and material resources. The integration of human
elements (students, teachers, parents, and other staff) and the material resources
(money, buildings, equipment) into a whole constitutes educational administration.

8
As an educational administrator you must bear in mind that, fundamentally, the
purpose of educational administration is to create such conditions that will promote
the goal of education.An efficient and sound system of educational administration is
required to manage the students, thousands of teaching and other staff, as well as
the huge sums of money spent on education. School administration must facilitate
education; it exists for the pupil and its efficiency must be measured by the extent
to which it contributes to teaching and learning.The school is the basic unit in the
educational administration hierarchy.

1.5 The Concept OF Theory

Let us now analyze the concept of theory before we study the educational
administration theory proper. Since the study of organization is to a large extent
theoretical in nature, it is inevitable that we consider the nature and function of theory,
especially as it applies to the social sciences.

Theory is an endeavour to understand reality. It can be defined as "a conceptual

scheme or system that is held to explain a group of facts or phenomena, and to
discover and organize new facts. Simply put, theory is the systematically organized
knowledge thought to explain observed phenomena i.e. just as theory explains how
planes fly, or the nature of the solar system, we have theories about organizations
and how they work. The dynamic and progressive nature of knowledge leads to a
creation of new concepts in an attempt to make sense of concepts in use.

A theory is a rational explanation of how something is put together, of how it works,

and why it works that way. (Rational - means that which can be subjected to reason,
that which is sensible, argued out rather than guesswork).Theory is a set of
assumptions or generalizations supported by related philosophical and scientific
principles. Theory explains what is, rather than what ought to be. Theory provides an
internally coherent way of looking at phenomena in a described field, so that
generalizations of the theory can be applied in specific areas. The

9
terms of the application are consistent, inherent in the theory and special to the
specific instance.

1.5.1 Why Study Theory?

You may be asking why we study theory when as an educational administrator you
will be faced with practical and unique challenges. The answer is; we cannot think of
the different ways of organizing human beings in a collective effort without using
theory. When we speak of organizational notions such as hierarchical structure,
leadership, bureaucracy, and motivation, we are already engaged in theoretical
discussion. Discussing educational organization without reference to theory is like
trying to discuss disease prevention without reference to sanitation, nutrition, or
public health.

- Theory is what provides the rationale for what one does. Skeptics may dismiss
theory asonly an ideal state or ideal notion (that ignores practicalities). Theory
is however, crucial in shaping our every day perception and understanding of
common place events.
- Theory provides a basis for thinking systematically about complex problems,
such as understanding the nature of educational organizations.
- Theory is useful because it enables us to describe what is going on,
explain it and predict future events under given circumstances (and therefore
think about ways to exercise control over events).

Thus, with regard to educational administration, theory is important in the following ways;
i) In a school, theory constitutes the basis upon which the headteacher can make references
on issues relating to school management.
ii) Theory provides a mode of analysis of practical events.
iii) Theory guides practical decision-making.

10
Activity

 Select any traditional African community in Kenya or

elsewhere. Make an outline of administrative practices that
were employed in the organization of the community.
 From your experience as a school teacher, or as a student,
show how head teachers work with and through others to
achieve the objectives of the school.
 How do you see the relationship between school
administration and administration in other organizations? Do
school administrators have anything to learn from other types
of administration such as business administration?
 Reflect back to your days as a secondary school student.
Outlinehow the different administrators such as the provincial
director of education, the district education officer and head
teacher contributed to the enhancement of teaching and
learning.
 Make a list of the key personnel involved in educational
administration at the national, provincial, district ,zonal and
school levels in Kenya

11
Summary

In this lesson, we have learnt that administration is an ancient practice. The

discipline of administration however, is relatively new. We have also learnt the
importance of theory in education administration, and stressed that the primary
purpose of education administration is to enhance teaching and learning. We
are now ready to study the educational administration theories. These shall be
.

Further reading

Kochhar, S. K. (1993) Secondary School Administration. New Delhi: Sterling

Olembo, J.O. & Cameron, J. (1986) Practical Primary School

Administration forStudents, Teachers and Heads. London: Edward Arnold
(publishers) ltd.

Owens G.R. (1998) Organizational Behavior in Education. Boston: Allyn and

BaconLtd.

12
Lesson 2
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION THEORIES

2.1 Introduction

We have defined the terms administration and theory. In this lesson, we are going to
describe the major theories about organization that developed mostly in the early
twentieth century. These form the foundation of management thought. We have
already noted that whereas the practice of administration has been with mankind
since the ancient times, the ‘science of administration’ is relatively young. We shall
now attempt to trace the development of administrative theory. These theories apply
as much to fields other than education.

2.2 Objectives

� By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Outline the development of educational administration theory.
 Explain the basic tenets of classical, human relations, and behavioural
theories
 Demonstrate the application of administration theory to secondary
schools inKenya

We shall present three schools of management thought;

 the classical theory, comprising of;
■ scientific management
■ administrative management and
■ bureaucracy
 human relations theory and

13
 behavioural theory.

14
2.3CLASSICAL THEORY (Classical School Of Thought)

The Industrial Revolution gave rise to the need for a more sophisticated approach to
administration. Due to the development of new manufacturing technologies, great
quantities of raw materials and large numbers of workers were concentrated in the
emerging factories.It became increasingly difficult to coordinate all these resources
into a smoothly running process; hence people began to pay more attention to the
problems of management.

Although several people made considerable contribution to the early development of

management thought, three prominent personalities are taken to represent the
classical movement. These are Fredrick W. Taylor, Henry Fayol, and Max Weber.

2.2.1. Scientific Management Theory

By F. W. Taylor

We shall first study the work of Fredrick Taylor who is associated with Scientific
Management. Scientific Management, in general, arose in early 1900s out of a need
to improve manufacturing productivity through more efficient use of physical and
human resources. Factories were experiencing problems in formulating proper
work procedures, establishing job boundaries, and coordinating the flow of
materials. Of the engineers who developed interest in the process of work, Fredrick
Taylor (1856 - 1915) became the most prominent and is referred to as the Father of
scientific management. He developed the scientific approach to management.

Taylor’s ideas were born of his many years' experience at Midvale Steel, Simonds
Rolling Machine and Bethlehem Steel Company. Having dropped out of school, he
worked first as a
15
labourer, then clerk, then machinist and rose through the ranks to become an
engineer afterstudying engineering privately.

Taylor's Philosophy of Work was:

That workers were motivated by the prospect of high material reward: if wages
were closely tied to the volume of work, they would be motivated towards high
output, provided working methods were designed to maximize production

From his technical experience in industry, Taylor noticed that workers were both in
charge of planning and performing their jobs; this he observed, led to waste and
inefficiency. He knew that much higher productivity was possible without
unreasonable effort by workers. He believed that application of scientific methods
could yield higher productivity without expenditure of too much human effort/energy.
To demonstrate his point, he invented the high- speed steel cutting machines. His
basic approach to studying work was to observe the separatefunctions and motions
each worker performed in his job, and from this analysis, re-design thejob in a more
efficient manner -"the best way”. His principal concern was to increase production
efficiency so as to lower costs and raise profits. Higher productivity would inturn
lead to increased pay for workers. Taylor also observed that, many workers simply
worked and produced less rather than more, owing to the fear that they might
overwork themselves out of a job.

His basic principles were:

i) Workers should be given high targets to stretch them to maximum capacity.

Management should specify daily outputs based on detailed job-analysis that
shows the most efficient way to do work.
ii) Work should be done under standard conditions using the most efficient
workingmethods. The work environment should be carefully controlled.

16
iii) Division of labour (job specialization) should be applied to the maximum,
because, through repetition at work, speed and skill would be developed, leading
to high productivity. Duplication of effort should be avoided and workers saved
from time- wasting tasks such as fetching materials, transporting products, and
arranging tools. Eachworker should know his job well and become a specialist in
it (including management). For management, he referred to this as functional
foremanship - the concept holds that each employee should be supervised by
several foremen, each with distinct responsibilities, such as, one for machine
speeds, another for repair, another discipline.
iv) Time-study Principle: All productive effort should be measured by accurate time
study and a standard time established for all work done. It should therefore be
possible to knowhow much time is required to properly accomplish a given task
v) Piece-rate Principle: Pay (wages) should be proportional to output so as to
stimulate effort and encourage cooperation i.e. wage incentives should be an
integral part of each job. The rates should be based on standards determined by
time-study. Time study refersto analyzing a job task to determine the amount of
time required to complete it. Lastly, a worker should be given the highest grade
of work of which they are capable.
vi) Separation of planning from performance principle: Management should take
over from workers, the responsibility of planning work as well as for making the
performance physically possible. Also, everything in the organization should be
done by plan, (daily plans to yearly plans). Planning and scheduling should serve
to put people and materials at right place, right time, and ready to work or in
proper condition for use. There should be a clear division of responsibility
between management and workers.
vii) Management should ensure the proper selection, training and development of
workers, using scientific and systematic methods. Workers should be trained
for specific jobs.
viii) Scientific methods-of-work principle (elimination of rule-of-thumb approaches)
in deciding how each worker should do a job. Management should use the
scientific method rather than intuition and experience to determine work

17
activities, ensure each motion and movement is the most efficient possible. For
example, Taylor's analysis of the process of loading iron onto a flat car resulted
in a 400% increase in tonnage loaded

18
 per worker. Taylor observed worker's movements along with the time needed to
complete a particular movement, and then redesigned the job giving it highly
efficient motions and specific times for each step. This led to the contemporary
time and motion studies.
ix) Establish the discipline whereby management sets the objectives and the
workers cooperate in achieving them. He advocated for the achievement of the
cooperation of human beings, rather than chaotic individualism.
x) Working should always be for maximum output, rather than restricted output.

The above principles, which were developed by Taylor as a result of his studies
on work, were published in "The Principles of Scientific Management," (1911).His
principles formally differentiate roles and responsibilities of workers and managers.
They also mandate a top-down hierarchical relationship between the two groups.

Though his principles aimed at lowering unit cost in factory production, he (and his
followers) claimed they could apply universally. His principles were criticized for
treating men like machines and for ignoring the psychological and personal
aspects of mobilizing human effort. Still, he demonstrated that many jobs could be
done more efficiently and he introduced scientific study into management. His
principles had enormous impact during his time and led to time-and-motion studies,
rigid discipline at work, and strict application of payincentive systems .His work has
had a lasting contribution toward making jobs and their management more efficient
and productive and led others to continue the formulation of management thought.
Activity

 In your own words, explain the phrase ‘treating men like machines’. Use an
examplefrom the school situation to show how a head teacher may ‘treat
men like machines’

19
2.2.2 Administrative Management Theory
By Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925)

Scientific management, with its emphasis on efficient production was quite limited in
scope. Even though efficiency of production was important, of great importance too
were issues related to management of the total organization. The management of
organizations had become more complex than could be handled by scientific
management principles alone. From this situation, emerged Administrative Theory.
Of the several contributors to this theory, Henri Fayol stands out.

While Taylor's ideas were picking momentum and their application became popular, a
French mining engineer, Henri Fayol, (1841 - 1925), was working out some
powerful ideas. Hewrote extensively on management topics. Unlike Taylor who had
a technician's background, Fayol had the background of a top-management executive
(was born in a well to do French family). These different backgrounds are reflected
in their perceptions.

i) Unlike Taylor who concentrated on the worker and studied him as an extension of
factorymachinery, Fayol focused on the manager.
ii) Fayol clearly separated the process of administration from other operations such
asproduction i.e. he made the distinction between operations and managerial
activities.
iii) Fayol emphasized the common elements of the process of administration. Fayol
isconsidered to be the father of Modern Management Theory.

Fayol's book, ‘General and Industrial Administration’ (1916), had a major impact on
the emerging field of management. In it, he described the necessity and possibility of
teaching principles and elements (functions) of management. The now famous
elements are Planning,Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating and Control.

Fayol believed that a trained administrative group was essential to improving

20
operations of the organization, which was becoming increasingly complex. He
asserted that administrative

21
 ability can and should be acquired first at school, then at work. Like Taylor, he
believed the process of production could be analyzed and studied scientifically
.He also focused onincreased efficiency, at the expense of the individual, just like
Taylor.

Fayol established himself as the first organizational theorist with definition of

administration in terms of five functions (elements); that management could be split
into 5 broad areas;

i) Planning (forecasting) –he defined it as looking into the future and deciding
what shallbe done depending on occurrence of certain events.
ii) Organizing: he described this as the process of dividing work into units and
allocating these to people and departments i.e. establishing the structure of
authority, responsibility and tasks.
iii) Commanding: this is the issuing of instructions to ensure targets are met.
iv) Coordination: refers to the unification of effort and it ensures all activities bind
the organization together to achieve a common goal.
v) Controlling: This element entails setting targets, monitoring activity to ensure
targets aremet and taking remedial action to deal with divergence of actual from
target performance. Simply put, it's the evaluation of activities against stated
goals and plans.

Fayol also believed in the universality of certain principles of administration

(management) applicable to any organization. He proposed 14 principles to guide
managers in resolving concrete problems. He emphasized the fact that flexibility and
a sense of proportion were essential to managers who adopted the principles to
particular situations and warned against the rigid dogmatic interpretation of them.
This is unlike Taylor who held firmly to the uniform, emphatic application of principles.

Fayol’s principles of management

22
Fayol believed that success in management results from application of a set of
administrative principles of management. Five of the 14 principles were concerned
with improvement of

23
human relations, one emphasized production efficiency and the other eight were
directedtoward administration of the organization.

Principles Emphasizing Human Relations

These are:-subordination of individual interest to the general interest, equity,
stability oftenure of personal interest, initiative, and esprit de’ corps.

i. Subordination of individual interest to general interest.

Individuals/small groups within the organization should make their needs
secondary tothose of the firm. The firm, in turn, should place its interests second
to those of society.
ii. Equity
Equity is composed of kindliness and justice. It means that there should
be equalapplication of policies and practices to all groups/individuals.

iii. Stability of tenure of personnel

Production workers must have a sense of tenurial security in order to learn
their jobsso that they perform them well. This means that they should have a
level of guaranteedsecurity in their position of work as long as they conform to
expectations of their job They must also have a sense of psychological
security. For the management, security allows them to learn the organization
better.

iv. Initiative
There should be participation in the solution of problems. Ideas and energies
of workers should be tapped in the solution of problems.

v. Esprit de Corps
That in union, there is strength Management must “avoid divide and conquer”
techniques and instead unify all the divergent groups and individuals. There
should be loyalty that unites members of a group, expressed in team work

24
spirit.

25
Principle emphasizing production efficiency

i) Division of work
Proper division of work leads to increased skills, reduction in learning time, and
increased efficiency resulting from not having to change from one task to another.

Principles emphasizing administration

They deal with the direction of day-to-day operations.
i) Authority. Authority is the right to give orders and it comes with responsibility
(the obligation to complete duties). When the manager is granted authority, it comes
with a responsibility. Managers must not abuse authority but rather, work with
integrity.

ii) Discipline
This is the respect shown by all members of the organization towards
policies andrules governing their conduct. Fayol proposed that good discipline
could be achieved by presenting agreement rules e.t.c. to workers as clearly
and fairly possible. Penaltiesand disciplining should be fair and be executed by
competent supervisors.

iii) Unity of command

Orders should originate from one source only. Subordinates should be
assured that only one individual can give them orders.

iv) Unity of direction

Refers to work activities or plan of the group: for one plan, there should be
one director or head. It compliments unity of command.

v) Centralization
Actions that tend to reduce the authority/responsibility of subordinates by

26
placingmore authority in the hands of a superior are considered as leading to
greater degree of

27
 centralization of authority to makes decisions. Those that increase
responsibility and authority at lower levels result in a greater degree of
decentralization of authority in decisions making. There is no absolute level of
centralization recommended.
The desired level depends on the situation (the nature of the firm, the type of
problem an the capabilities of the subordinates

vi) Scalar Chain Principle

Definite lines of authority should be established from the bottom to the top, in
such ways that exact lines of authority relationships between successive
levels of management are clear. When it is necessary for individual in
different sections to work directly with each other, to attain speed of action,
the chain of command should be short-circuited, provided concerned parties
are informed.

vi) Remuneration Principle Rests on the assumption that wages paid should be
based on the concepts of equity and be satisfactory to workers and the
company. In payment of bonuses and profit sharing the mode of payment
should be suited for particular situation.

viii) Order
Means that in addition to the neat arrangement of physical materials, there
should be a device showing the place of every person in the organization and
the relationship of each to the other. An example of such information may be
shown through the organization chart.

28
2.2.3 Bureaucracy

Fayol’s Principles of Management

Human Relations
-Subordination of individual interests - Stability of tenure of personnel
-Equity. - Initiative
- Esprit de’
corps
Production Efficiency
Division of work
Administration
-Authority - Centralization
-Discipline - Scalar chain
-Unity of command - Remuneration
-Unit of direction - Order
During Taylor and Fayol's time, the western society was becoming increasingly
organizational. Giant industrial organizations emerged in the 1900s, engendering a
similar growth in other organizational aspects of life. The simple pre-industrial era
social and political structures began to look inadequate in the industrialized society.
A lot of social, political and economic friction resulted as evidenced in the increasing
sense of conflict between individuals and organizations. There was a lot of labour
unrest, revolution and a rise in communism. In this setting, Max Weber, a German
sociologist produced some useful, durable and brilliant work on administrative
system; the bureaucracy. It has seemed indispensable since then.

Weber saw hope in bureaucracy in the attempt to counter authoritarian industrialists.

He believed that well run bureaucracies would offer a fairer, more impartial, more
predictable, more rational administrative system than organizations subject to the
unpredictability and biases of powerful individuals. He asserted that well-run

29
bureaucracies would be more

30
efficient since bureaucrats are highly trained, technical specialists in a limited
portion of administrative task.

The proposed bureaucratic apparatus would be impersonal, minimizing irrational,

personal and emotional factors, while at the same time, allowing bureaucratic
personnel to work with little friction and confusion. This leads to expert, impartial
and unbiased service to clients.
Bureaucratic organization is characterized by mechanical regimentation
(people/things organized into rigid groups, patterns of doing things), strict discipline,
top-down authority andfollowing of rules.

The bureaucratic model proposed by Weber is an ideal type; an abstract form against
which actual manifestations can be compared. It is rarely found in its pure form but
organizations approximate to this model to some degree.

In an ideal bureaucracy, Weber envisioned characteristics that, in a sense, are

principles of administration. These elements are:

i) Specialization (division of labour) .There should be division of labour based on

specialization.
ii) A well-defined hierarchy of authority.
iii) A system of rules covering rights and duties of employees e.g. school rules,
code ofethics.
iv) A system of procedures for dealing with work situations e.g. schemes of work
v) Impersonality in interpersonal relations i.e. impartiality in relationships at work.
vi) Selection and Promotion based on technical competence.

In a truly bureaucratic organization, goals are determined by those legally

empowered to do so, and the means to achieving these are specified and codified.
They are passed down a

31
hierarchy of competent personnel who ensure impersonal (without favour or
emotional bias) application of rules.

The ideal type of bureaucracy is seen as foolproof, since, if everyone went by the
book, nothing would go wrong. In bureaucracy, there exists anonymity; rights, duties,
power, authorities are not attached to individuals but to the office. When an
individual vacatesofficial position, they cease to wield the authority and power of that
office

Bureaucracy, as described by Weber is not a derogatory term referring to frustrating

red-tape. It was conceived as a rational, goal-directed hierarchy. The bureaucratic
concept was an attempt to minimize the frustrations and irrationality of large
organizations where relationships were based on class privilege. Rules and
procedures allow managers to eliminate the uncertainty of individual differences in
job performance. It thus provides order. Offices or positions of authority must be
organized into a hierarchical structure that defines scope of authority. This influence
dimension gives the mechanisms to establish and hold some form oforder.
Impersonality: superiors should have an impersonal attitude in dealing with each
other and subordinates. The psychological and social distance enables them to make
decisions without the influence of prejudices and preferences. Everyone should be
subject to the same rules and evaluation should be based on expertise and
performance.

Careers: Employment and promotion should be based on qualifications and merit.

The characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy still appeal to many people to date. The
idea that effectiveness can be achieved by emphasis on efficiency, stability and
control has been attractive for many managers. The bureaucratic model, no doubt
holds a lot of relevance to any modern organization. However, there are issues
inherent in the model that have beennoted by critics. Let us now address a few of
these issues;

32
The danger of bureaucratic model is that over-reliance on formal controls and
impersonality suppresses initiative and decision making in middle and lower ranks.

Excessive red tape: Rules provide a limited strategy for achieving coordination.
In somecases, other strategies may be required. Bureaucracy advocates for addition
of more rules to cover all contingencies and this results in too much red-tape. Once
established in a bureaucracy, it is difficult to eliminate ineffectual rules and
procedures, leading to confusion, and frustration.

Inflexibility: Bureaucratic insistence on "one best way" can be rigid even in the face
of rapidly changing internal and external environment.

Dominance of authority: In bureaucracy, authority is so dominant and strong that

many managers are unwilling to give up some of the authority when the situation
warrants. Managers also attempt to acquire as much status, authority and power as
possible ("empire building")

Hoyle (1986) observes that we should make a distinction between bureaucracy as

structureand bureaucracy as style. Some elements of bureaucracy such as hierarchy
are inherent in organizational structure and thus inevitable in schools. But other
elements vary according to administrative style. The number and detail of rules laid
down by the head teacher, for example, will determine the extent to which the school
is perceived to be bureaucratic.

Bureaucratic model became the most widely adopted and successful form of
structuring organization. In spite of criticisms and drawbacks, it remains the more
common ideal of organization, to the extent that some people view it as the defining
concept of organization.

33
Note

.- The bureaucratic model is an abstract ideal. Ideal as used here does not

imply

perfect, but rather a model which organizations apply to various degrees. In

ti ith dl i t i it f

Activity

Try to visualize a school in which none of the described elements of the

bureaucratic model apply in its organization? Outline the problems that would
result from such an unlikely scenario

34
Revision Questions

 What was the major difference in focus between Taylor’s and Fayol’s
theories?
 How did Taylor’s and Fayol’s backgrounds influence their
theoreticalperspectives?
 To what extent would you say each of the classical theories
presented so farapplies to secondary school administration in Kenya?
 Reflect on the administration of schools in Kenya. To what extent do
schoolsmanifest themselves as bureaucracies?
 In what sense does the bureaucratic model provide a rational,
impartial,predictable and fair system of administration?

2.4 HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY

As the study of the problems of organization and administration became established,

the principles of classical theory received more attention as well as challenge from
scholars and practitioners .There soon emerged some opposition to classical
thought. Human Relations constituted the second major approach to administration.
Of the contributors to this approach, Elton Mayo and Mary Parker Follet remains the
most notable.

Human Relations movement replaced focus on structure of the organization with an

emphasis on employee motivation and job satisfaction. It recognizes the human
factor in institutions. Human Relation movement was motivated by the increasing

35
dissatisfaction with scientific

36
management approach for treating employees as mechanistic element in the
productive process. It made great effort therefore to focus on establishing the
relationship between work environment and productivity. The classical approach was
built on the premise that with efficiently designed jobs, the right incentives and
proper use of managerial functions, productivity would increase. This formal,
impersonal approach inevitably met with resistance from workers, hence the
development towards a human relations approach, whose main contention was that
man is A SOCIAL ANIMAL with an affinity for group affiliation.

Note

,... Human Relations Movement stresses that concern for

workers shouldbea priority in administration.

2.3.1 Mary Parker Follet

Mary Follet was born in 1868 in Australia and was a political and social philosopher
who developed a keen interest in the analysis of business and public administration.
She was a philanthropist who dedicated her life to bringing about a better-ordered
society that promotes a satisfying life for the individual. Though initially her ideas
were rooted in classical thought, they matured in such a way that she spanned the
gap between scientific management and human relations. To Follet, the fundamental
problem of any enterprise is the building and maintenance of dynamic yet
harmonious human relations.

Follet viewed the management first, as social process, and secondly, as inextricably
enmeshedin the particular situation. This means that the administrative process is so
closely linked and dependent on the situation that it is hard to separate the two. The

37
administrators’ behaviour and performance is influenced by the environment in which
she /he operates

38
She opposed the top-down flow authority in hierarchy and proposed that not just one
person should give orders; rather, all should seek to take orders from the situation
itself. Management is an ever-changing, dynamic process in response to emerging
situations. This contrasts classical view of prescribed static universal principles of
action.

Her work emphasized the administrative system as both a social and economic
entity. She developed principles of human association and group organization in
industrial situations Follet regarded group coordination and integration as the
important task of administration and sought to identify the factors that lead to
integration of groups. She analyzed the nature of consent and argued that;
democratic groups are based on consent, and the degree of consent of a group
towards a leader constantly changes over time. She suggested that
managementshould consult with the labour force and actively seek its cooperation.

Since situations, rather than people should determine what’s to be done, the primary
task of management is to interpret situations correctly to be able to make objective
decisions. Parker Follet’s work contributed to the opposition against engineering
approach to people at work and her work began the shift from emphasis on work
process an organizational aspect of administration and introduced the elements of
individuals’ development and values. Folletwas the first great proponent (supporter
and advocate) of human relations in administration, but it remained for Elton Mayo
and colleagues to give empirical data to support this view.

2.3.2 Elton Mayo (1880-1949)

Elton was an Australian professor of industrial research, who worked with a team of
Harvard Researchers. Though he was initially a follower of F.W Taylor, through the
findings of his work, he opposed the validity of the scientific management approach.

39
In one of Mayo’s early researches in a textile mill, “The first Inquiry”, the factory was
experiencing high employee turn-over, in spite of the fact that the mill had introduced
financial incentives. It had been assumed that, workers, being ‘economic animals’
were easyto motivate through financial rewards. Yet, workers here still suffered low
morale, fatigue and depression. Mayo’s research introduced rest periods and more
employee participation in decision making, and efficiency/ productivity was improved.

The Western Electric Co. (Chicago) conducted research (1924 – 1927) to determine
effect of lighting and other conditions upon workers and their productivity at the
Hawthorne plant. Surprisingly, production increased whatever the alteration of
physical factors and this, confused the researchers. Mayo and his Harvard
associates were called into the Hawthorne plant, and conducted the now famous and
significant Hawthorne studies between 1927 –1932. True to scientific management
tradition of problem solving through elaborate research, they studied two groups (the
test group and control group). The test group was subjected to variation of physical
conditions such as illumination and noise while the control group maintained the
normal conditions. Again, in both groups, productivity was boosted. Mayo, thus
discovered that, another factor was responsible for the change. The workers in the
two groups knew they were being observed and this enhanced their self-esteem, a
phenomenon now described as the Hawthorne Effect.

They felt special (group pride) and this encouraged cooperative behavior among the
group. It thus emerged that social relationship exerted strong influence on production.
Also, since the groups were given a sympathetic leader who was a member of the
group, better performance was reinforced. The workers reacted not to illumination,
but to the experiment itself and their involvement in it. The Hawthorne effect implies
that they worked in the way they thought the experimenters wanted them to, since
they were the centre of attention.

The experiments demonstrated that economic and mechanistic approaches to

human relations at work were inadequate; that, what goes on inside a worker is more

40
significant for productionthat what goes on outside.

41
What proved more influential to behavior than physical conditions were;
a. Interpersonal relationship within groups
b. Relations between groups and their supervisor
c. The fact that wages were not the dominant motivator for workers.

The workers defended norms and standards established with other people within
and beyond the working group.

Mayo’s study led to the following conclusions;

i. People are social beings, not economic beings.
ii. As social beings, they belong to groups social groups should therefore be
involved in discussing problems and getting solutions
iii. For successful human relations, there should be an able and sincere leader,
who is recognized as such by workers.
iv. The influence of the informal work group has great impact on productivity, and
management should thus strive to turn the informal group into a positive,
productive force. People respond better to work-group pressure than to
management control activities.

The Hawthorne studies impacted significantly on management thought, and led to

classical school teachings and practices being questioned for their dehumanizing
nature. Emphasis thus began to shift from the economic man, to the ‘social man’ for
whom social context of work ranked high. At work, the worker rather than the job
became the focal point for managerial activities.

Summary on the Fundamental Propositions of the Human Relations Movement

i. Amount of work done by a person depends not so much on strength or

physical conditions of work, but rather on social conditions surrounding work

42
 ii. Non-economic rewards such as security and happiness ,can motivate workers
more than wages
iii. Specialization/division of labour is not necessarily efficient. Variety, especially
where initiative and discretion are encouraged, can stimulate interest to the
point of increasedproductivity.
iv. Individuals perceive themselves as members of groups. Norms of behaviour
emanate from standards set by groups which workers belong, not standards
set by managers.
v. Work performance depends not just on the individual, but on the network of
social relationship within organization.
vi. Managers should be sensitive to people and strive to develop human relations
or socialskills for working with employees.

The Human Relations Movement is credited with changing organization style to place
less- emphasis on rigid interpretation of efficiency (as suggested by Taylor) and
suggests instead, greater attention on obtaining cooperation of employees and
helping them to identify more closely with the organization. It replaces focus on
structure of organization with and emphasis on employee motivation and job-
satisfaction.

Activity

Assume you are the headteacher of a secondary school in Kenya.

Describe briefly, how you can improve your administrative conduct in the light
of the phrase” what goes on inside a worker is more important than what
goes on outside’

Implications of Human Relations Theory for School Administration

43
If educational managers understand and recognize the existence of social systems in
the educational environment, they will be better placed to integrate these groups into
the overall operations of the school e.g. groupings could be formalized into clubs
such as debate, journalism, and teacher’s welfare. The groups can then be used to
enhance teaching, learning and cooperation.

Human relations theory enables educational administrators to recognize the human

factor in institution. Employees/students have personal needs and talents.
Recognition of individual potential not only motivates them, but also awakens them
to use available resources toenhance their skills as individuals or groups. To detect
individual talents, the administrator should cultivate an environment which assures
teachers, students and workers that their ideas and contributions are important for
overall organizational efficiency.

Finally educational managers should show concern about conditions of work and
learning environment. When deliberate efforts are made to improve conditions of
work, members will, in turn be motivated.

Revision Questions

 What was the significance of the Hawthorne Effect in Elton Mayo’s study?
 What was the key factor that led to the development of human relations
movement?
 Explain the statement ‘people are social beings ,not economic beings’

44
2.5 BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE MOVEMENT

2.4.1 Introduction
The work of Mayo and others pioneered the movement towards better
understanding of people at work. Later researchers, who were better trained in the
social sciences such as psychology, sociology and anthropology, began investigating
human resources in management with more sophisticated research techniques.
This led to the field of organizational behaviour. Of those who contributed
immensely to this school of thought, we shall study the work of Chester Barnard who
played a pioneering role. Others such as Abraham Maslow, Fredrick Herzberg and
MacGregor have also had a lasting impact on behavioural science movement.
Behavioural science theory developed from human relations studies .It saw the
Human Relations Movement as representing an incomplete view of human behaviour
in work situations.

Behavioural science movement views worker’s motivation in terms of such factors as;
work itself, the nature of incentive system, interpersonal relations, management
style, workers needs and values and work environment. The movement therefore
attempted to provide an integrated approach to management through relating it to
disciplines such as anthropology, sociology and psychology. The Behaviouralists
argued that behaviour of people in organization cannot be explained by human
interactions alone, but also, by other factors such as organizational structure, job
design, technology and management style.

Chester Barnard appears to have been the first to relate administration to the
behavioural sciences. According to Barnard, people form organisations in order to
achieve goals they could not achieve working alone. His major point was that, an
organization can only operate efficiently and survive when both the organisation’s
goals and those of the individuals working in it are kept in balance. He gave the three
basic elements of organization as;

45
a) System of cooperation
b) common purpose

46
 c) emphasis on efficiency and effectiveness

Barnard also studied the areas of motivation, decision-making, communication and

objectives. For example, he proposed that worker cooperation and motivation were
related to the balance between inducement and contributions. Inducements are the
sum totals of rewards (financial and non-financial) employees receive in exchange
for their efforts (contributions). He also introduced what later became the
acceptance theory of authority; that employees will determine whether an order is
legitimate and whether or not to accept or reject it. This means that if an order
agrees with how they view the goals of the organization, and their own interests, they
will accept it.

Barnard points out that in each formal organization, there are informal organizations.
Informal organization involves the interactions of people without a specific joint
purpose. It is not guided by the official organizational patterns of relationship. Such
interactions however, do change the experience, knowledge, attitudes and emotions
of people. He also asserted that individual satisfaction greatly affects organizational
achievement.

Several other scholars made significant contribution towards behavioural science

movement, the most notable being Douglas Macgregor, with his theory X and Y,
Fredrick Herzberg and Abraham Maslow. The work of these theorists is presented in
detailed form in the lesson on motivation theories.

Activity

47
Consider the relationships among members of staff in a school. Describe the
type of informal organizations that may be formed in the school organization.
How do these differ from the formal organization?

48
Revision Questions

• In what way did the behaviouralists view the Human Relations Theory as
deficient?
• Make a list of the inducements given to and contributions made by staff in
schools inthe context of Chester Barnards’ analysis of cooperation and
motivation
D fi d h b h i l h l h h ll f d

Summary

In this lesson, we have traced the development of what we have for the
purpose of thiscourse called educational administration theory. The number of
personalities we have presented are by no means exhaustive; rather, these are
considered to be representativeof the development of the theories. Our lesson
began with classical theory which placed emphasis on form and structure of
the organization and work .Taylor was mostly concerned with the organization
of the work process for efficiency. Fayol was primarily concerned with
increasing efficiency among the executives (top management).He was a
pioneer in clearly identifying management in a coherent form. Weber’s
bureaucratic model was designed to provide a fairer, impartial and rational
approach to management. Secondly, we studied the human relations theory
which advocates work humanization. The theory criticizes classical theory for
ignoring the human aspect of work. The last school of thought studied was
the behavioural movement which attempts to provide a more comprehensive

49
Further Reading

Hoyle Eric (1986). The Politics of School Management. London: Hodder and
Stoughton
Koontz, H.; O’Donnnel, C. and Weihrich, H. (1981). Management. Tokyo:
McGraw-Hill co.
Owen, G. Roberts. (1998). Organizational Behaviour in Education. Boston:
Allynand Bacon Ltd
Szilagyi, A.D. (1984) Management and Performance. Dallas: Scott,
Foresman andCo.

50
Lesson 3

ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESSES

3.1 Introduction
In our last lesson, we studied the educational administration theories. The next
question you might be asking is; what are the functions of the administrator? This
question was addressed by Fayol in early 20th century. As early as 1916, Fayol dealt
with what he called the elements of management – Planning, Organizing,
Commanding, Coordinating and Controlling. The administrative process is a
conceptualization intended as a useful guide to the administrator that suggests how
the educational administrator would behave if they want their activity to result to the
best attainment of objectives.

3.2 Objectives

�
 At the end of this lesson, you should be able to list the elements of the
administrativeprocess.
 Define each element of the administrative process.
 Demonstrate the application of the elements of the administrative process
to schooladministration in Kenya.

3.3 Components of the Administrative Process ( POSDCoRB)

To Fayol’s list that constituted the administrative processes, he attached special

meaning toeach element. Since then, numerous other variations of the list have
51
been suggested. The

52
better known of these variations is that of Gullick and Urwick (1935). Gullick’s
taxonomy, better known or memorized in educational administration as POSDCoRB,
was for long seen to be the ultimate in administrative thought. POSDCoRB is an
abbreviation coined from the first letter of each word in the list.

P-Planning
O-
OrganizingS
-Staffing
D-Directing
C-
CoordinatingR
-Reporting
B-Budgeting

Fayol’s treatment of the administrative functions shown above had a major impact
on subsequent formulations of the administrative process (such as
Gullick’s).When discussingthe process of administration; it is convenient to describe
each function of the process separately. This however, does not mean that
administrative processes are a series of discrete functions; they may be performed
simultaneously. Gullick’s POSDCoRB stands for activities necessary to the proper
functioning of the administrative process and he acknowledged it asan adaptation
of Fayol’s functional analysis.

3.3.1 Planning
According to Gullick, it is the working out in broad outline the things that need to be
done and the methods for doing them to accomplish organization’s objectives. It is
one of the most important administrative functions because it sets the pattern for
other activities to follow. It encompasses four elements,

53
 i. Evaluating environmental forces and organizational resources- this enables us
to know where we stand know the problems we need to solve, understand
dangers of the situation and the expected results.
ii. Establishing goals (both for enterprise and individuals )
iii. Developing strategies and plans
iv. Formulating decision-making processes

Planning is generally accorded primacy since logically it is the first function

that is performed. The results of planning are plans that serve as guide for the
actions of members of staff. Some plans are developed to serve a given project,
for example, building a new plant, or school hall .Some become relatively
permanent in nature and are called standing plans, for example, schemes of work,
policies, procedure and methods.

In its simplest form, planning is an activity that can be executed by any member
of the organisation. A teacher may plan their individual dairy for his or her work
schedule. Planning involves setting missions and objectives and the actions for
achieving them. It involves decision-making and choosing future courses of
action from alternatives. Planning bridges the gap between where we are and
where we want to be in future. It thus involves introduction of new things and
workable implementation strategy. Although the future cannot always be
accurately predicted, unless there is planning, actions will be aimless and left to
chance. Plans enable people to know their purposes and objectives,their tasks
and the guidelines to follow.

3.2.2Organising
People working together have roles to play .Role implies that people have definite
purpose or objectives. Staff in organization will work effectively if they know the
part they are to play in any team operation and how their roles relate to one
another. To design and maintain these systems of role is the basic managerial
function of organizing.

54
Organizing involves:
i. Identifying and classifying the activities

55
 ii. Grouping the activities (departmentation)
iii. Assigning each group to a manager (supervisor)

Organizing therefore, involves establishing an internal structure of roles for

people to fill in an organization. It ensures that all tasks are assigned

Gullick defines organizing as the establishment of the formal structure of

authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined and coordinated
for the defined objective. It is the establishing of the formal structure of authority
through which work is performed, assigned and coordinated .Organizing involves
laying out the program of the enterprise and assigning responsibilities and
functions to members of staff. Organizing in may be seen as establishing order,
function and design. That is, after plans have been developed, the emphasis
moves to designing and developing an organization that can implement the plans.

3.3.3Staffing
This refers to hiring and training members of staff and maintaining favourable
working conditions. It is the whole personnel function of bringing and training
staff after which, ensuring that the conditions of work in which they operate are
favourable.

Staffing may also be defined as the filling and keeping filled the positions in the
organization structure. It involves identifying work force requirements,
inventorying the people available, recruiting, selecting, placing, promoting,
planning their career, compensating and training (staff development). In Kenya,
Teachers’ Service Commisionis responsible for much of this role.

Note

.- Staffing function involves more than just hiring staff

56
3.3.4Directing

It is sometimes referred to as commanding or simulating. It is the continued

supervision of workers and their work, making decisions and leading the
enterprise. This function is performed at all levels of authority and in all
departments of the enterprise. After plans have been formulated and issues of
staffing resolved, the next logical step becomesdirecting the employees towards
attaining the stated goals. The essential function ofdirecting is to get employees
to perform towards achieving the goals. It involves motivating and influencing
employees.

3.3.5Coordinating

In any organization efforts are made in different ways. Employees working for similar
interestmay interpret them differently. It becomes important to reconcile differences
in approach, effort or interest and to harmonize individual goals to contribute to
organizational goals. Coordinating therefore is interrelating the parts of the total
enterprise into a harmonious whole and avoiding conflict and duplications, which
interfere with theentire enterprise.

Teachers at the different levels of the school coordinate to ensure smooth transition
from one class to the next. This could be for the purpose of content sequencing .Also,
teachers teaching different streams need to coordinate to ensure their activities are
in sync. Teachers in different departments may need to coordinate to avoid
duplication.

Coordination is necessary for integrating specialized and diverse functions into one
whole. It assists individual staff members to work together in a team relationship. An
often used way ofcoordination is having one person responsible for knowing what all
others in the group are doing, so that he/she relates activities of each person to that
of others. The person charged with coordination must:

57
 i. Know the relations among people
ii. Understand allocation of tasks
iii. Know the division of labour necessary to achievement

3.3.6Reporting

This entails keeping all members of staff informed of what goes on so that they
may be ableto perform their part or role in a harmonious and coordinated way. This
involves keeping the subordinates and their superiors informed through records,
research, inspection and memo. The head teacher is responsible to educational
authorities and society for whatever is done at the institution. It is important
therefore that records are kept and reports sent to concerned parties.

3.3.7Budgeting

Budgeting refers to fiscal planning, accounting control and maintaining the financial
stability of the enterprise. Budgeting involves preparing formal statements of future
expenditure, revenues and expected profits to control the use of the organization’s
financial resources. Budgeting is a detailed administrative practice used to ensure
goals, plans and policies are met. They set a standard for output (production). By
specifying resources to be used, budgeting helps successful implementation of
strategies. Budgeting leads to efficient use of resources, preserves resources, and
establishes a mechanism for analysis. It is concerned with all that goes on in the
enterprise in the form of fiscal planning, accounting and control.

Note.

,... There are other formulations of the administrative process. All these

are variations
of Fayol’s classification of the elements of management. POSDCoRB is one of the

58
Activity

 Make a list of the staffing activities that are conducted by the Teachers’ Service
Commission in Kenya. What is the head teacher’s role as school administrator in
the staffing function?
 Briefly describe some of the problems that would be experienced in a school in
the absence of proper coordination.

Revision questions

Why is the planning function considered to be important for all the other functions of

the administrative process?

 ‘The administrative processes are not a series of discrete functions’. Explain why this is
so.
 Why is budgeting more than just a mere statement of what the organization intends to
spend?
 Make a list o all the people that you would be required to report to regularly as a
headteacher ofa secondary school in Kenya?
 In what way is coordinating the establishment of order, function and design?
 List five examples of the planning process in the school.
 What is the key role of directing?
Gi l f it ti h th h l d i i t t f th

59
Further Reading

Koontz,H., O’Donnel, C., Weihrich, H. Management. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Co.

Szilagyi, A.D. (1984) Management and Performance. Dallas: Scott,

Foresman andCo.

Olembo, J.O. & Cameron, J. (1986) Practical Primary School

Administration forStudents, Teachers and Heads. London: Edward Arnold
publishers (ltd).

60
 LESSON 4:

4.1 : THE MOTIVATION PROCESS

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological/psychological deficiency or

need thatactivates behaviour or drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.

Motivation consists of needs which set up drives. The drives in turn help in acquiring goals.

Note:
❖ Drives/motives are action oriented and help goal accomplishment. They are

personal andinternal

❖ Incentives are found at the end of the motivation cycle. They alleviate a need and

therebyreduce the drive (motive).

❖ Incentives are external to a person.

Example: Need: (water through cells in body deprives

Drive: feel thirsty

Incentive: cells acquire water.

Note:

a) Motive is a Drive or expression of a person's needs - hence are personal and internal.

b) Incentives are external and are made part of the work environment by

management inorder to encourage workers to perform tasks.

61
4.2 FRUSTRATION

This is the blocking/thwarting of goal attainment. This can lead to:

a) Aggression: -

This is where goal attainment has been blocked and an individual result to hostile

behaviour. This may be directed against the object/person who he/she feels is

the course of frustration.

b) Rationalization:

This is making excuses for the inability to accomplish a

goal e.g.:"It was my bosses fault"……..

c) Regression:

This is a situation whereby an individual adopts childish/primitive behaviour after

failingto accomplish a given task.

e.g. a person who cannot start his car can proceed to kicking it.

d) Fixation:

A person exhibits the same behaviour pattern over and over again although

experience hasshown that it can accomplish nothing.

e.g. a person who has been punished severely over a certain behaviour may

lead tofixation.

e) Resignation:

62
 Occurs after prolonged frustration when an individual loses hope for

accomplishing hisgoal in a particular situation and decide to withdraw from

reality.

Activity:

Discuss the various types of frustrations likely to be shown by teachers in schools.

4.2 DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION:

Comes from the Latin word "movers" implying "to move" Thus:

Motivation is referred to as a process of arousing movement in the organism.

1. Definitions:

Motivation refers to "all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of

action towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no

movement towards those goals"

2. Atkinson:

Defines motivation as "the arousal of tendency to act to produce one or more effects".

3. Maslow:

Motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex and that it is an

almost universal characteristics of particularly every organismic state of affairs.

FUNCTIONS OF MOTIVATION

1. Motives/Drives energies and sustain behaviour

- These motives arouse him/her for action.

2. Motives direct and regulate behaviour

63
 -The motivated behavioiur moves in a specific direction. The behaviour of the

organismis purposeful and persistent.

3. Behaviour is selective:

-Tender motivated condition, the behaviour of the organism does not move

haphazardway. It is directed toward a selective goal which the individual sets for

himself/herself.

Example:

A student who is motivated to secure high grades in the examination,

concentrates on hisstudies by selecting appropriate means to reach his/her goal.

4.3 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. MASLOW'S THEORY OF MOTIVATION:

Developed by Abraham Maslow [1908 -

1970].

- Maslow believed that man can work out a better world for mankind as

well as forhimself.

- He examined the traditional approach of pain avoidance and pleasure

seeking andtension reduction as the major sources of motivating

behaviour

- He argues that needs are arranged in a hierarchy; and that as one general type of need

is satisfied, another higher order need will emerge and become operative.

- He categorized needs into two divisions:-

64
i) Deficit needs:-

Include needs such as hunger and thirst. Once these needs are satisfied, an

individualstrives to satisfy higher needs e.g. safety needs, etc.

65
 ii) Growth needs:-

This is the "Self actualization need"

Maslow's needs hierarchy can be represented as:-

Self
Actualization
Self Esteem

Belonging and Love

NeedsSafety Needs

Physiological needs e.g

Food, water, shelter, sex,
etc

i) Physiological Needs:

These are the most potent needs (i.e. powerful needs)

When these needs are deprived for a long period, all other needs fail to

appear, andthus one is motivated to do something e.g.:

 A boy who is deprived of food will be motivated to do something to get food

 In order to motivate our children to complete their school assignments,

we sometimes deprive them of their own privileges like pocket money,

66
freedom toetc.

67
ii) Safety Needs:

When psychological needs are successfully fulfilled, then safety needs

becomedominant. This category of needs is mainly concerned with

maintaining order and

security.

e.g. boarding of money, purchase of buildings, land and other investments

make onesfuture secure.

In schools: Formation of welfare groups, cooperative societies etc.

iii) Belongingness and Love Needs:

 These are needs of making intimate relationship with other

members of thesociety, being an accepted member of an

organization.

 These needs are dependent on the fulfilment and satisfaction of previous

categoriesof needs.

Note:

In schools, we have clubs, societies, associations as a an attempt to fulfill this need.

iv) The Esteem Need:

This category of needs can be split into two:-

a) Self-esteem, self respect, self regard and self-valuation.

b) Relating to respect from others: reputation, status, social success and fame.

68
Examples of needs in this category are:-

69
  feeling of achievement, competent,

 achieving high standard of excellence in performance

 need to feel superior to others e.g. by purchasing of items as good

and costlyclothes.

Note:

Failure to gratify self-esteem need can produce personality disturbance

in theindividual - i.e. inferiority complex; one becomes a misfit in the society.

In school: creating favourable conditions to enable a worker perform well.

- recognising individual performance.

v) Self Actualization:

 This is the highest in the hierarchy

 This need means "to fulfill one's individual nature in all aspects, being

what onecan be"

 People can be motivated towards self-actualization only when their

lower orderneeds have been satisfied.

 Self actualizing person wants to be and must be free from restraints from society.

 For self-actualization, one should enjoy his job. He should feel satisfied

in hissocial relation in family, social and in his job.

Note: Characteristics of Self-Actualization

 Demonstrate an efficient perception of reality and acceptance

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  They accept themselves and others

 They appreciate "basic goods of life"

 Identify with making

 Sense of humour

 Democratic in outlook, etc.

In Schools:

1. Recommending individuals to high positions of responsibilities

2. Allowing members to participate in seminars or workshops

3. Give challenging work to give opportunities for personal growth and advancement.

Activity:

Discuss how a headteacher can satisfy the various levels of needs to his/her staff.

2. HERTZBERG'S THEORY

Sometimes referred to as:

 "Hertzberg's motivation - Hygiene Theory"

 "The motivation - hygiene [M.H.] theory"

 "The motivation-maintenance Theory"

 "The two factor Theory"

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This is a theory of external motivation because the manager or leader controls the factos

which produce job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

A study was done to determine factors in the job which were present when the

employees felt exceptionally happy or unhappy with their jobs. From the interviews

with employees, a two factor hypothesis were developed:-

i) The factors that were present when job satisfaction was produced were

separate anddistinct from the factors that led to job dissatisfaction.

ii) The opposite of job satisfaction is no job satisfaction not job dissatisfaction

From interviews conducted during the study, it was discovered that:-

 Reports of feeling happy were not brought about by the absence of factors that cause

dissatisfaction, but instead by the presence of the factors classified as "satisfiers",

"motivators" or "intrinsic factors"

Factors that lead to satisfaction include: [satisfiers/motivators/intrinsic factors]

i) achievement

ii) recognition

iii) characteristics of work itself

iv) responsibility

v) advancement

Note:

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1. When these factors fall below an acceptable level, they contribute very little to

jobdissatisfaction but do prevent job satisfaction.

2. Feelings of unhappiness were not brought about by the absence of the satisfier

factors, butby the absence of "dissatisfiers", "maintenance" or "extrinsic" factors.

 Hertzberg called these factors "hygiene" factors.

Hygiene factors describe the employee's relationship to the context or

environment inwhich he performs his work.

Note: [IMPORTANT TO NOTE]

Satisfiers relate to what an employee does, dissatisfiers to the environment in

which hedoes it.

Examples of dissatisfiers are:

i) Company policy and administration

ii) Technical supervision

iii) Salary

iv) Interpersonal relations with the supervisor

v) Working conditions

 When hygiene factors fall below what employee considers an acceptable level, he

becamedissatisfied. At or above the acceptable level, dissatisfaction is removed.

This lead to a neutral state.

 Hygiene factors help man avoid unpleasantness whereas the motivator

factors makepeople happy with their jobs.

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3. McGREGOR'S THEORY:

 In this theory, McGregory tries to look at the interaction between the individual and the

organization.

 He therefore, developed two theories, commonly referred to as McGregor's

theory X andY.

McGregor's Theory X

1. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.

2. Because of the human characteristics of dislike of work, most people must be

coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get them to put

forth adequate efforttoward the achievement of organizational objectives.

3. The average human being prefer to be directed, wishes to avoid

responsibility, hasrelatively little ambition, wants security above all.

 These assumptions listed above hold that most people dislike work and responsibility and

prefer to be directed; and that people are motivated not by the desire to do a good job, but

simply by financial incentives.

 Hence, people must be coerced to achieve organisational goals.

McGregor's Theory Y:

Assumptions:-

1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.

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2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of

bringing aboveeffort toward organisational objectives

3. Commitment to objectives is a good function o the rewards associated

with theirachievement.

4. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept

but to seekresponsibility.

5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and

creativityin the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly

distributed in the population.

6. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the

averagehuman being are only partially utilized.

 Thus theory Y is an establishment of an environment in which employees can

best achievetheir own goals by committing themselves to the organization's

objectives.

 Thus employees have to exercise a large degree of internal motivation.

Note:

 With theory Y, heavy emphasis on internal motivational implies that all employees

will bemotivated by self esteem and self-actualization needs while on the job -

thus calling for self-control.

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Each manager must remember that each employee is unique and should be

understand atreated as such. External motivation should be flexible enough to

accommodate each unique

person in the organization.

Techniques suggested by McGregory in order to develop self control:

1. Decentralization and delegation:

-In order to free people free "too close control"

2. Job enlargement:

-So that workers jobs are made more challenging and interesting

3. Participate Management:

- To give employees some voice in decisions.

4. Management by objectives

- Here subordinates set goals jointly with their superiors and then are

measured on theaccomplishment of these goals.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF MCGREGOR'S THEORIES

THEORY X:

Advantages:

1. No delays in decision-making.

2. Employees do not absent themselves from work unnecessarily

Disadvantages:

1. Administrator as a negative attitude towards workers.

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2. There exists in the organization rigid rules

3. Assumes workers are immature, irresponsible and need external controls

and closesupervision.

4. Feelings/morale of people are secondary and emphasis is on efficient performance.

5. There exists poor interpersonal relations between administration and other workers.

6. Emphasis is on centralization of authority. No consultation over decisions

7. There is low work output due to threat, external controls and negative attitudes.

THEORY Y:

Advantages:

1. Employees are motivated and committed, thus high work output.

2. There exists positive attitude by administrator towards workers.

3. Administrator assumes creativity is widely distributed in people and not just

to a fewselected.

4. No rigid rules and regulations. Employees are left to self-direct and self-control.

5. There is decentralization of authority.

6. There exists good interpersonal relations between administrator and other workers.

7. Administrator assumes workers are not passive to original needs but an

unsupportiveenvironment makes them so.

Disadvantages:

1. Too many consultations may lead to delays in decision-making

2. Administrator may be viewed as weak due to many consultations/persuasions.

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Activity:

a) Does motivation originate from sources external or internal to a person? Explain.

b) If you were a worker, would you prefer to be motivated from within or

by theorganization?

c) If you were a headteacher, would you prefer that your employees be self-

motivated, orwould you want the responsibility for motivating them?

Lesson 5

78
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
5.1 Introduction
The study of leadership is an interesting but complex endeavor as there is many
variables surrounding it. It is also broad, as many theories have been proposed in an
attempt to understand this phenomenon. This lesson discusses only some of the
aspects and theories associated with leadership, as it is impossible to study all the
theories that have been proposedby various writers in this module.

5.2. Objectives

�
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 define the term leadership
 identify various types of leadership
 define the term authority and power and identify the various types of
authority andpower
 identify the various approaches of leadership
 describe the leadership styles (namely, autocratic/authoritarian,
democratic/participativeand leissez feire leadership styles.)
 Identify the strengths/advantages and weaknesses/disadvantages of using the
autocratic,democratic and leissez feire styles of leadership.

5.3. Definition of Leadership

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There are various definitions of the term leadership proposed by numerous writers of
educational and general administration. Hoy & Miskel (1987:270-271) have stated
some of these definitions as follows:

► To lead is to engage in an act that initiates a structure-in-interaction as part of the

process of solving a mutual problem – John K. Hemphill
► Leadership is power based predominantly on personal characteristics usually
normative in nature – Amitai Etzioni
► The leader is the individual in the group given the task of directing and
coordinating task- relevant group activities – Fred F. Fiedler
► Leadership is a particular type of power relationship characterized by a group
member’s perception that another group member has the right to prescribe
behaviour patterns for the former regarding his activity as a group member –
Kenneth F. Janda
► The essence of organizational leadership is the influential increment over the
routine directives of the organization – Daniel Katz and Robert L. Khan
► Leadership is the initiation of a new structure or procedure for accomplishing an
organization’s goals and objectives or for changing an organization’s goals and
objectives
– James Lipman
► Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an organized group
toward goad setting and goal achievement – Ralph M. Stogdill.
► Leadership takes place in groups of two or more people and most frequently
involve influencing group member behaviour as it relates to the pursuit of group
goals – Robert J. House and Mary L. Baetz.

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Note

81
 Study all the definitions of leadership stated above as well as others proposed by

other writers in other books and references and isolate all the attributes and variables
that you think are important in conceptualising the meaning of leadership. Then state
your own definition of leadership and show why your definition is preferable to any
other two definitions stated above.

Activity

.- It is notable from all the various definitions stated above that there are many

variables and dimensions to be considered in any attempt to conceptualise the meaning of

the term leadership. However, we can simply define leadership as:

“the ability to persuade others or the art or process of influencing people in a group
towards the realization of organizational goals” .

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Components of leadership

Three major components have been identified by Knezevich (1975) and Katz and
Khan in Hoy and Miskel (1987). Knezevich (1975: 81), for instance notes that
leadership is:

(1) an attribute of personality (symbolic leadership); (2) a status,

title, orposition recognised in a formal organizational chart (formal
leadership); and
(3) a function or role performed in an organized group (functional leadership).

This implies that it must be taken into account that leadership is exercised by the
people occupying formal positions as well as others who wield a lot of influence and
power, yet they do not occupy formal leadership positions. Leadership also implies
the existence of followersfor without followers, there would not be any leadership.

Katz and Khan in Hoy and Miskel (1987:271) on the other hand in an attempt to
describe the nature and meaning of leadership have also identified three major
components of the concept. These are namely: (1) an attribute of an office or
position; (2) a characteristic of a person; and
(3) a category of actual behavior.

5.4. TYPES OF LEADERSHIP

From the various components of leadership noted above, three types of leadership
have been isolated by Knezevich (1975), that is:

► Formal leadership
► Symbolic leadership
► Functional leadership

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5.4.1. Formal Leadership

84
The leader in a formal organisation is the person who occupies a formal leadership
position. Knezevich (1975:83) observes that:

The individual occupying a given status in the organisation or holding a

specific title of office or placed in a certain position in the hierarchy or
granted special authority in the formal chart of organisation is
automatically considereda leader. This recognition may disappear when
he vacates status, title, positionor office.

Head teachers, Deputy head teachers and Heads of Departments in primary and
secondary schools therefore occupy formal leadership positions.

5.4.2. Symbolic Leadership

Many writers (especially the early writers) have conceived leadership as an attribute
ofpersonality. According Knezevich (1975:82) this view of leadership postulates that,

‘leaders are born not made,’ that is, some have it, some don’t. The
leader stimulates and unifies the activities of others along certain paths
because of the way he looks and his personality. This is charismatic
approach to leadership and bears a strong kinship to trait psychology.

Knezevich further contends that the ‘romantic concept of the leader endowed with
almost magical attributes can be traced to a longing for security’. (p.82). This has led
to the leader being idealized,

With almost ‘unlimited powers’ and none of the faults and

shortcomings foundin ordinary humans. He becomes the “father image”
or the “security symbol.”

Hence, such a leader is seen as being stronger, more intelligent, more cultured, more
impressive than the average person.

5.4.3. Functional Leadership

85
Leadership can also be viewed in terms of the functions one is performing or is
expected to perform in the group. In other words, the criteria for leadership is based
on:

What the leader does to help the group define its goals, achieve its
objectives, or maintain its strength as a body. Unless a person can fulfil
one or more of these group functions, he is not a functional leader no
matter how charming his personality or how impressive the title of his
position.

Functional leadership is therefore an attempt to conceptualize leadership in terms of

the functions the leader is performing rather than considering (i) his or her personal
attributes and characteristics or (ii) the position one is occupying in the organization.
Hence, Knezevich (1975) notes that, ‘leadership [now] emerges as a group
phenomenon, a function essential in organized groups’.

5.5. POWER AND AUTHORITY

Two distinct elements that are closely associated with leadership are ‘authority and
power’. The section below discusses the meaning and nature of these two concepts,
that is, ‘authority’ and ‘power’ with the aim of making a clear distinction between
them.

5.5.1. Authority
Authority is necessary in every organisation as it ensures that tasks are carried out
and that as a result the organisational objectives are achieved which otherwise be
impossible.

Definition of Authority

Authority can be defined as:

86
 i. “The right to commit resources in particular courses of organizational action.”
ii. “The probability that certain specific commands (or all commands) from
a givensource will be obeyed by a given group of persons.

87
iii. “The right conferred on an individual to make decisions and ensure that
thesedecisions are followed.”

It is important to note that authority unlike power does not involve the use of force.

Types of Authority
Having defined what is authority, we now need to establish the various types of
authority that have been identified by various authors. These are:

 Formal authority
 Charismatic authority
 Traditional authority
 Legal authority
 Functional authority
 Acceptance theory of authority

a) Formal authority

Formal authority emanates from one’s legal position in the organisation. The person
in this formal leadership position has authority to issue commands and directives to
other employees in accordance to the rules and regulations. It is also expected that
when one joins anorganisation, then he or she is expected to obey his superior within
certain acceptable limits. (see Hoy and Miskel, 1987). Formal authority usually flows
from those in leadership positions to those in lower positions. The head teacher of
a school has, has for instance, formal authority by virtue of occupying the position of
a head teacher. Other teachers, support staff and pupils are expected to obey his
directives under certain acceptable limits. It is, however important to note that
teachers, support staff and pupils are not expected to agree to head teachers
demands if these demands are unacceptable e.g. having sexual relations or cleaning

88
the head teacher’s home or compound during night hours.

89
b) Charismatic authority

This type of authority emanates from the leaders personal qualities and
characteristics e.g physical attributes such as strength or beauty, knowledge, ability,
skill, status, age, sex, etc. Hoy and Miskel (1987:109) note that:

Charismatic authority tends to be nonrational, affective, or emotional

and rests heavily on the leader’s personal qualities and characteristics.
The authority of the charismatic leader results primarily from the
leader’s overwhelming personal appeal, and typically a common value
orientation emerges within the group to produce an intense normative
commitment to and identification with the person.

One of the teachers in the school may be able to wield a lot of power over the other
teachers or the students due to being extremely knowledgeable on any subject,
intelligent and eloquent.Others may simply agree and want to be identified with him
because they perceive him as having ‘a mystique’ or ‘an magical aura’ that they
themselves do not possess.

c) Traditional authority

The traditionally sanctioned position of authority is obeyed and the person currently
occupying the position inherits the authority. Hence this authority emanates from
traditions, beliefs, culture. As Hoy and Miskel (1987:110) observe:
Traditional authority is anchored in an established belief in the sanctity
of the status of those exercising authority in the past. Obedience is
owed to the traditionally sanctioned position of authority, and the
person who occupies the position inherits the authority established by
custom.

In traditional African societies, medicine men, those performing circumcision rites

and midwives were, for instance, obeyed without any questioning.

d) Legal authority (laws statutes, decrees, constitution court decision)

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The source of this authority is the law and can only be changed by formally correct
procedures. Obedience is to the laws that specify to whom and to the extent of
compliance.In a school situation, there are laws that dictate how the school should
function e.g. in the absence of the head teacher. The deputy head teacher, for
instance, assumes the role of the head teacher and is answerable to higher
educational authorities for events occurring in the school during the absence of the
head teacher.

e) Functional authority

Functional authority is one which is limited to the function one is playing at a given
time or situation. This authority emanates from one’s competence or technical skills.
During an emergency, such as when a road accident occurs, any doctor in the crowd
will have authority over others due to his expertise on medical matters. The teacher
who takes pupils for a schooltour has overall authority during the trip. He can make
all decisions such as involving the police in case of an emergency (e.g. if a pupil goes
missing) yet in normal school time, he has no authority to call the police. Instead, the
head teacher (or the deputy during the head’s absence) is the only one who has such
authority. A technician also has authority over others due to his technical knowledge
and skills. Others follow his directives as he has more knowledge and competence
than they have e.g. he is the only one who can repair faulty school machines
such as, computers, televisions etc. and make them to start working again.

f) Acceptance Theory of Authority

Authority emanates from the subordinates that is, if they accept the authority then it
exists but if they do not accept it then the superior has no authority. Subordinates will
accept order or decision if it is within their zones of acceptance but will reject order
or decision if it is not within ‘zones of acceptance’. The challenge to the leader or
administrator is to gain the acceptance of his / her subordinates.

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5.5.2.Power
Power is closely related to authority. Without power there is no organization and no
order. Mostly, power is used when authority has been abused.

Definition
Power can be defined as the capacity or ability to make things happen in order to get
results. Power can also be said to be the ability to employ sanctions or force or to
give rewards in an effort to have something or make others do something.

(i) Legitimate power

The authority which one posses by virtue of holding a given position in the
organisation means that he has the legitimate right to expect obedience from those
under his authority. Hence, such a person has legal power that emanates from his or
her leadership position in the organization. The leader has a legitimate right to ask
others to perform certain duties or activities e.g. a head teacher has the right and
power to ask a teacher to teach another class other than his or her usual one. He or
she can ask for an explanation from a teacher or a pupil who has been absenting
himself from school. This power therefore depends on one’s official position not
relationship with subordinates.

(ii) Expert Power

The knowledge, skills, expertise, that a person possess gives him ‘expert power’ over
others who require it or want to benefit from it e.g. the secretary may have ‘expert
power’ over her boss if the boss does not have computer knowledge and skills
and has to rely on her toretrieve information for him from there computer. A head
teacher may therefore havelegitimate power over his subordinates but due to lack of
knowledge and expertise he may become powerless to act in certain
circumstances. A leader should therefore have both
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legitimate and expert power to be able to influence his subordinate towards the
achievementof the organisational goals.

(iii) Reward or Remunerative Power

This is the type of power that results on one because one can issue rewards,
materials, resources, salaries, fridge benefits etc. One is therefore able to induce
others to comply with what one wants

(iv) Referent Power

This power is possessed by the person having personal qualities and reputation
which others want to identify with e.g. physical attraction, eloquence, powerful
position in organization, intelligence etc. Those attracted to such a person with
charismatic personality also have a desire to become more like him or her.

(v) Coercive Power

This power is primarily based on use of forceful means to make others obey. The
holder of this power has ability to conflict punishment or negative consequences or
another person. He may do so through physical means e.g. corporal punishment.
Physical strength, verbal facilityor ability to grant or withhold emotional support are
examples of coercive power. In a school situation, detentions, suspensions,
expulsion corporal punishment are some of the methods that can make students
comply with orders, rules, directives, policies etc. On the other hand, threats of being
demoted, transferred, being sacked are some of the forceful means that can beused
on staff to make them comply with the head teachers or Board of Governors
demands
e.g. agreeing to teach on Saturdays or holidays. Withholding, controlling of material resources
e.g. vehicle, residing in an institutional house, using school computers etc are also
forms of coercive power.
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Note

-
One is therefore said to have power over others when he or she has the
capacity to reward or withhold resources, compensation, promotion, etc from
others. Head teachers and others who hold leadership positions should
therefore ensure that theyhave both legitimate as well as expert and referent
power so that they can have a greater influence over their subordinates. They
should therefore keep abreast of new knowledge and developments in the
field of education. They should be willing to learn.

5.6. APPROACHES/THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

This section below discusses three approaches of leadership, that is, the Trait
approach theory,situational theory and contingency theories that have been proposed
by various writers in an attempt to identify the determinants or variables that
influences successful leaders.

5.6.1. Trait Approach Theory

Some of definitions of leadership have tended to stress the personal characteristics
or traits of the leader while others stress the situation and still others concentrate on
the leaders behaviour. The Trait Approach Theory, for instance, attempts to
identify any distinctivephysical or psychological characteristics of the individual that
relate or explain the behaviour of leaders.

94
Great Man Theory

The Great man theory posits that some people are born to be leaders. This in
essence, means that, if certain inborn traits were identifiable in leaders, then we
would believe as Aristotle did that “from the hour of birth, some are marked out for
subjection, others for rule”. This theory therefore implies that some were born to be
leaders and others were born to be followers.

Traits
Several traits have been proposed by writers as being identifiable in leaders and not
non- leaders. Robbins (2003), for instance, quotes Kirk Patrick and Locke (1991) as
having identified six traits. These are:

 ambition and energy,

 the desire to lead,
 honesty and integrity,
 self-confidence,
 intelligence,
 and job-relevant knowledge.

Stogdill in Hoy & Miskel also summarises some of the personal factors (noted by
various writers) associated with the Trait approach theory of leadership. These are:

1. Capacity (intelligence, alertness, verbal facility, originality, judgement).

2. Achievement (scholarship, knowledge, athletic (sic) accomplishment).
3. Responsibility (dependability, initiative persistence, aggressiveness, self –
confidence,desire to excel).
4. Participation (activity, sociability, co-operation, adaptability, humour).
5. Status (socio-economic position, popularity) ( p. 272)

It is important to note that the earlier trait studies were trying to isolate unique traits
that coulddifferentiate leaders from non-leaders. The earlier studies discouraged
95
many for lack of

96
successful researchers. Never the less, the studies have continued as industrial
psychologists were still interested in improving the selection of managers. However,
the emphasis now was a search for the traits on that led to leader effectiveness
rather than focusing or comparing the traits of leaders and non leaders (Yuki in Hoy &
Miskel 1987: 272). Hence the trait studies now tend to focus on ‘the relationship
between traits and leadership effectiveness of administrators. (Hoy & Miskel 1987:
273). The traits that were identified by these later studies were more consistent.

Stogdill isolated more traits in the second type of studies that direct on traits leading
to leader effectiveness and he concluded that these were:

■ A strong drive for responsibility and task completion

■ Vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals
■ Venture soreness and originality
■ Drive to exercise initiative in social situations
■ Self-confidence and sense of personal identity.
■ Willingness to accept consequences of decision and action
■ Readiness to tolerate frustration and delay
■ Ability to influence other person’s behavior.
■ Capacity to structure interaction systems to the purpose at hand
(Stogdill in Hoy & Miskel 1987: 272).

Limitations of Trait Theory

Robbins (2003) identifies four limitation of Traits Approach theory namely:

 There are no universal traits that predict about leadership in all situations.

97
 The predicted traits are in ‘weak’ situations rather than ‘strong’ situations i.e in
strong situations leaders have little opportunity to express/ display interest
dispositional tendencies.
 The course and effect are not separated by evidence provided e.g. ‘does self-
confidence create leadership, or does success as leader build self-confidence? P.
315).
 Traits tend to predict the appearance of leadership rather than ‘ distinguish
between effective and ineffective leaders i.e. an individual may exhibit traits
associated with leadership by others but yet he may unsuccessful as leader e.g.
fail to achieve set goals.

5.6.2. Situational Approach

The intense debate and questionable findings of the trait approach made researchers
to focus on analysing situational variables as at times findings were contrary and
inconsistent for many of the traits tentatively isolated as crucial in one study were
found to be unimportant in others. Thus in some groups, effective leaders were
assertive and aggressive, in others, mild mannered and restrained; in some quick
and decisive, in others, reflective and diplomatic. (Hoy & Miskel,1987:272).

The failure to get consistent results in studies relating to leadership led to

researchers to focus on situational variables. In other words, the leaders’ traits were
therefore no longer considered to be the only determining factors of leadership for
situational variables also proved to be critical in determining the leader that was
chosen. Some of the situational variables or determinants of leadership that have
been postulated include:

1. Structural properties of the organization (size, hierarchical structure, formalization).

2. Organizational climate (openness, participation, group atmosphere).
3. Role characteristics (position, power, type and defiantly of task, procedural roles).
4. Subordinate characteristics (knowledge and experience, tolerance for

98
ambiguity,responsibility, and power). (Hoy & Miskel 1987 :273)

99
Situational approach and theories hence postulate that the leaders’ effectiveness
depends on the situation at hand for under condition a, style x would be
appropriate, whereas style ywould be more suitable for condition b, and style z for
condition c. (Pg 319-322). Hence according to the situational approach or theories
‘leaders were made by the situation’, and were ‘not born to lead and others to follow’.

5.6.3. Contingency theories

The most current theories or models of the study of leadership involve a contingency
approach. According to this approach, it is necessary to specify the conditions or
situational variables that moderate the relationship between leader traits or
behaviors and performance criterion. Fiedler’s contingency model and House’s Path
Goal exemplify contingency theories.

Fiedler contingency model

According to Fiedler contingency model ‘effective group performance depends on the

proper match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives
control to the leader. (Pg.320).

According to Fiedler the situation in which the leader operates is the first key variable
in the model and can be characterised by 3 factors namely:

i) Leader-member Relations e.g. degree of confidence, trust, respect followers have

ii) Task structure – degree which task/assignment is clear to leader and subordinates
iii) Position power – amount of power attached to the leaders position.

The second variable in the model is the leader. He suggests 2 basic leader orientation namely:

i) Relationship oriented – more lenient, people oriented style

ii) Task oriented – concerned with accomplishment of task.

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House’s Path-Goal Theory

Path-Goal theory is another contingency theory (or approach to leadership). It was

developed by House and refined in the 1970’s. The model integrates concepts of
leader behavior and situational favorableness (with a unique definition of
effectiveness).

The theory is called Path-Goal because it explains how leaders influence their
subordinates’ perception of work goals, personal goals and paths to goal attainment.
Leaders are effective when they enhance acceptance, satisfaction and motivation
levels of their subordinates.

5.7. STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

The method or style used by a leader greatly influences his effectiveness as a leader
as well as the extent to which organisational goals are achieved. It is therefore
important that leaders gain knowledge of the various leadership styles that have
been used by leaders in various organisation so that they can know the
strengths/advantages and the weaknesses/disadvantages of using a given
leadership style. This section therefore examines the nature and the characteristics
of three leadership styles, namely, authoritarian, democratic and the leissez feire
styles of leadership.

Types of Leadership styles

101
L L

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 Autocratic leadership style Democratic leadership style

Leissez Feire leadership style

N.B. The above figure portrays the relationship between the leader and the subordinates. Autocratic
leader issues orders to subordinate, Democratic leader allows all people to give ideas while Leissez
Feire leader only provides leadership when called upon to do so.

Source: Lewis B. Sappington and C.G Brawne in William Lazer and Engene J. Kelly eds in Herbert G. Hikes
D.C. Ray Gullet ‘Organization’ Theory and Behaviour McGraw-Hill, Inc. Auckland, 1981 p. 303

5.7.1. Autocratic/Authoritarian Style of Leadership

Autocratic leadership is also known as authoritarian leadership. An autocratic leader
more often than not has absolute power and as a result he tends to be dictatorial.
The autocratic leader wields a lot of power over the subordinates for he is in a
position to use ‘rewards, praise, or fear of criticism or punishment.’ ( see Hikes &
Gullet, 1981:301).

Characteristics of an Autocratic Leader

As D’Souza (1989) has noted about the characteristics of authoritarian-style leaders, they:

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 1. are generally strong-willed, domineering, and to some extent, aggressive.
2. must have their own way, which for them, seems the only way.
3. look upon subordinates more as functionaries than as persons, and the best
subordinates, in their estimation, follow directions without questions
4. ordinarily are not ready to listen to views and suggestions of others (although
may pretend to), if they are different opinions.
5. do not encourage equal relationships (i.e. adult to adult) with underlings. As a
rule they do not allow themselves to get close to employees. They do not like
to see employees get close to one another, for such cliques, as authoritarian
leaders perceive them, might endanger their authority.
6. have business-like and task-oriented attitudes. The job comes first.
7. generally blame poor results on the inability of others to carry out instructions
correctly.

Characteristics of an Organisation with autocratic Leadership

An organisation where authoritarian/autocratic style of leadership is being used one
thereforetends to find that:

(i) Power and authority is centralised on the leader

(ii) The leader tends to be dictatorial, that is, he issues orders and instructions to

the employees and expects them to obey without any questioning. Violation of

orders is heavily punished.

(iii) The leader sets policy, structures, interprets, modifies tasks as he wishes.

(iv) The leader does not consult his followers on important matters e.g. policies,

rules, definition of tasks, structure.

(v) The leader makes decisions without any consultations.

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(vi) Rules are very harsh.

(vii) Employees are closely supervised controlled and directed.

(viii) The flow of communication tends to flow from the top to bottom.

(ix) There is little consideration for employees needs and interests e.g. when

issuingresponsibility.

Advantages of Autocratic style

 Decisions are made without any delays as leader does not consult or consider the
employees opinions needs, desires, interest.
 Work is accomplished quickly because employee is expected to perform work
without questioning. Employees are also dealt with harshly when they fail to
perform work as expected.
 This type of leadership is suitable for uncommitted workers e.g. those who
neglect their work, come to school drunk are frequently absent from work.

Disadvantages
 Creates low jobs morale. Workers feel frustrated and demoralized as the leader
has littleregard for their interests and needs
 Workers are expected to give unquestionable support to leader and whether
they agreewith him or not. Failure to support the leader results in punishment.
 Leaders tend to over control and direct employees even when it is not
necessary. Thismay lead to feelings of dissatisfaction and they may even rebel
against the leader.

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 The leader also set policies regulations, structure etc. He also sets and modifies
tasks without consulting others in the organization for school. This may result in
harsh rules, policies and working conditions.
 Decisions may be poor as leader may not consult others even though he may lack
information, expertise, knowledge on the matter (e.g. buying of computer
hardware)
 This may result in a high turn over (transfers) of staff and as a result it may be
difficult to achieve organizational objectiveness. In a school situation students
may fail to learn well due to frequent transfers and turnover of staff leading to
failure in national examinations.

5.7.2. Democratic/ participative style

Democratic leadership is also known as participative leadership. In a democratic
organization all members are involved in decision making and all other matters
concerning the organisation and as a result the leader receives more cooperation
from employees in the achievement of organisational goals. D’Souza (1989)
summarises the characteristics of democratic leaders as being:

1. They are generally concerned with maintaining group effectiveness as with

completing the task to be done.
2. They encourage members in their groups to express their ideas and feelings,
becausethey believe that such a climate leads to greater creativity and
commitment.
3. If they encounter resistance or conflicts, they allow them to surface and they
seek thehelp of these groups in removing the resistance or resolving the
conflicts.
4. They encourage joint decision-making as well as shared goal-setting.
5. They rarely set policies without explaining the reasons, and proposing them
to theirgroups, when they can, for suggestions and criticism.

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6. They believe that responsibility for getting a job done depends as much on
the groupas upon themselves. They try to have this attitude shared by all
group members.

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 7. They allow group members a good deal of freedom in their work, once they
have shown their ability to do it.
8. Thy keep looking for better ways to do things, and are open to change when
convinced that such changes seem called for and would lead to greater
effectiveness.
9. They believe in the effectiveness of group work. They also believe that groups
of concerned individuals working together have greater potential than when
those same members work as individuals.

(D’Souza, 1989:49-50).

Characteristics of an Organisation with Democratic Leadership

An organisation where democratic leadership is being exercised has the following identifiable
characteristics:

(i) A democratic leader is chosen through popular election or is appointed

because of ability and qualifications.

(ii) The peoples’ basic needs, rights and freedoms are guaranteed and respected

by the organisation. The leader is therefore able to obtain workers co-

operation in achieving of organisational goals.

(iii) The democratic leader recognises the fact his followers are capable of making

good decisions and suggestions based on the followers training and

experiences. Hence he allows workers to participate in decision making. It is

therefore assumed that workers will support decisions that they have helped

to make and that consequently this will lead to the achievement of

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organisational goals.

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(iv) Ideas are exchanged between a democratic leader and his workers and also

between the workers themselves. A democratic organisation is more likely to

be better organised and more effectively run than an autocratic one for ideas

are contributed by many people and not just a selected few.

(v) In democratic style of leadership, power and authority are decentralised unlike

with autocratic leadership style. In other words, power and authority is derived

from both the governor and the governed.

(vi) Followers are consulted on important matters concerning decisions, policies,

rules, and structure, definition of tasks and all other important matters. They

are also generally informed about their working conditions.

(vii) There is a good interpersonal relation between leader and workers. The

morale is highand there is job satisfaction. Workers do not also over depend

on the leader.

(viii) Decisions on organisational matters are reached after necessary

consultations and communications with various section / people in

organisation.

Advantages of Democratic leadership style

 Job morale is high.
 There is commitment and team effort towards achievement of organisational goals.
 Employees are allowed to participate in decision making and their ideas are
appreciatedand considered in all matters.

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 Interpersonal relations between the leader and other workers is good.
 Communication is good

111
 There is delegation of authority.

Disadvantages / Limitations
 Employees with weak self-motivation tendencies may relax
 Decisions may be delayed due to too many consultations.
 Production may be low if there are too many considerations e.g. if teachers
requests to teach his preferred subject and not one which the school authorities
would prefer
 Students may fail examination if weak teachers are not controlled and directed to
some extent e.g. if teachers are not closely supervised by ensuring schemes of
work and lesson plans are well written
 However there may be low productivity or poor decisions may be made of when
everyone’s wishes is taken into account

5.7.3. Leissez Feire style of leadership.

This leadership is also referred to as free rein, meaning ‘free’ style of leadership. In

this type of style, the leader does not provide external motivation as is the case with

autocratic or democratic leadership styles but instead workers are left to ‘motivate

themselves based on their needs, wants, and desires. They are given a goal and left

mostly up to their own to achieve it, using their ingenuity.’ (see Hicks & Gullet,

1975:303).

Characteristics of an Organisation with a Leissez Feire Leader

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 the leader has very little authority and power over the workers and he tends to be
very tolerant
 there are very few rules or regulations and there is no code of conduct for employees.
 the leader assumes the role of group member rather than that of a leader, that is,
the employees see him/her as being on the same organizational level and
consequently he has very little influence on them.
 the leader does not provide external motivation but instead workers are left to
motivate themselves according to their ability, needs, interests, desires etc.
 employees tend to work independently of the leader and there are also very few
committed workers. At best, the leader only assigns tasks and then leaves
employees to accomplish work on their own.
 accomplishment of goals work depends on individual effort expertise and knowledge.

Advantages of the Leissez Feire style

 it increases the workers independence, expression and makes them function as
membersof a group
 makes employees (especially those at the self actualisation level) to be creative
for theyare allowed to work independently without unnecessary controls

Disadvantages
 lack of a strong leader can result in lack of direction and control and can easily
result inchaos
 workers can easily become frustrated, insecure, demoralised etc. due to lack of
guidancefrom the leader
 organisational goals may never be achieved

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Summary
This lesson has discussed the concepts of authority, power as well as leadership. In
as far as leadership is concerned, meaning of the term leadership has been examined.
The three approaches to leadership, that is, trait, situational and contingency
approaches or theories, which attempt to explain the determinants or variables that
are considered in identifying who becomes the leader in organisational setups have
been described. The leadership styles, that is, autocratic, democratic and lesseiz
feirre have also been discussed in an attempt to understand more about leadership
behavior and its consequences.

Revision Questions

 Define the terms authority and power

 Differentiate between any two types of authority
 What is acceptance theory of authority?
 Differentiate between any two types of power.
 Do you agree (or disagree) with the trait approach theories explanation that traits
determine aleader? Give reasons for your answer.
 In your opinion, which of the three approaches of leadership, best explains the
determinants ofeffective leadership?

Bibliography

114
Hicks H.G. & Gullett C.R. (1981) Organisations: Theory and Behavior. McGraw-Hill,
Inc.Aukland.

Hoy W & Miskel (1987) Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York.

Bennett R. (2nd edition) (1994). Organizational Behaviout. Longman Group, UK Limited,

UK.

D’Souza A. (1989). Leadership: Trilogy on Leadership and Effective Management.

Paulines PublicationsAfrica, Nairobi.

Koontz H & Weihrich H. Essentials of Management (5th edition) (1990) Tata

McGraw-HillNew Delhi.

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Lesson 6

COMMUNICATION

6.1. Introduction
The importance of communication in each and every organisation cannot be
emphasised. No organisation can achieve its objectives without it and in fact an
organisation whose communication in ineffective is bound to collapse sooner or later.
Any serious study of educational would indeed be incomplete if due consideration is
not given to communication. This lesson therefore examines some of the important
aspects of communication.

6.2. Objectives

�
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
 Define the term ‘communication
 Describe the process of communication
 Describe the various ways in which communication flows in an organisation
 Identify the various types (ways) of communication as well as their advantages
anddisadvantages
 Identify the barriers to effective communication

6.3. Definition

It is important that we first define what is communication so that we may

understand thisimportant concept better.
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► Communication is the transfer of information and knowledge from one person to
another, This is accomplished in the communication process in which the source
encodes a thought into a message which is transmitted through a channel to a
receiver who decodes the message. (Hicks and Gullett 1981).
► Communication is the means by which people are linked together in an
organization to achieve a common purpose. (Chester Bernard in Koontz &
Weihrich, 1990).
► Communication means a mutual exchange of information and understanding by
any effective means. --- Unless the flow goes both ways, no real communication
takes place. (D’Souza, 1989).

Note

.- For our purposes, the definition of Hoy & Miskel (19??:358) will

suffice. They define communication in a school situation as “the sharing of

messages, ideas, or attitudes --- among administrators, teachers, students
parents, and other interestedconstituencies. --- communication must also be
meaningful. Communication does not take place unless the receiver
correctly or accurately interprets the information being transmitted.”

6.4. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

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The communication process according to David K Berlo’s communication model
in Hicksand Gullett (1981) involves the following elements:

(i) The source

(ii) Encode
(iii) Message.
(iv) Channel.
(v) Decoder- Receiver
(vi) Feed back
(vii) Noise

The model of the communication process and the elements involved in the
process arediscussed in the section below.

Model of the Communication Process

Noise Noise Noise Noise Noise Noise

Source Encode Message Chard Decode Receive

Feedbac

Noise

Source: David K. Berlo in Hicks H.G. & Gullett C.R. (1981:322) Organisations: Theory and Behavior.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Aukland.

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Source

The source or sender is the originator of the process of communication. A

newspaper, magazine or a journal can also be sources. One initiates the message
when he/she has a thought, need, idea or information he wishes to transmit to
another person or persons.

Encode

To be able to transmit mental perceptions or thoughts, the source encodes ideas,

that is, organises the ideas into a code or set of symbols such as words, pictures etc.
Language is the most popular code that is used to express mental perceptions.

Message

The ideas/ purpose is expressed as message. The message is therefore a physical

product such as spoken words, printed words in e.g. a letter, a graphic drawing, a
facial expression, a body movement, a gesture etc.

Channel

The channel is the medium used to relay or transmit the message from the source to
the receiver. The most commonly used channels involve use of sight and sound.
Letters, television, radio, telegram, memo, telephone, fax machine, newspapers, face
to face conversations etc.

Decoder-Receiver

The receiver decodes the message from the source. That is, he /she decodes the
message and attaches a certain meaning (which is an exact or an approximation of
message the source wished to convey). The message is more successfully
transmitted when the source and the receiver have common things or experiences
than otherwise.

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Feed back

Feed back is the response that enables the source to determine or evaluate whether
or not the message was received and understood as he/she had intended. Feedback
also enables a two- way communication process to take place.

Two-way communication is a reciprocal process; each participant

initiates and receives messages. Each is a source or receiver
temporarily, with the roles shifting as messages are passed. Unlike one-
way communication, two-way communication requires channels that
form a continuos loop in a two-way exchanges, or mutual feedback.
This means that each participant initiates messages and that each
message affects the next one. (Hoy & Miskel, 1987:364).

If he/she finds that message was received incorrectly, he is able to correct it by using
the samemeans or another different one. In a classroom situation, the teachers use
examination performance to get a feedback on individual or group performance.

Noise

Noise is also an element of the communication process. Noise is anything that

distracts or interferes or reduces the accuracy or fidelity of the message. Noise can
occur in any point or element of the communication process. The source may
perceive an event incorrectly e.g. cause of an accident, the encoding process can be
erroneous and thus end up conveying the wrong information, e.g. when the wrong
date is written, when the channel such as thetelephone is noisy because it is faulty.
When the receiver decodes the message incorrectly or distorts its meaning, then he
interferes with the fidelity of the message and this is termed as noise.

6.5. FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

It is significant to note that there is both formal and informal communication in
organisations and that both these types of communication are equally important.
Hence both formal and informal systems of communication should be established
for:

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 A school is a community. The professional
collaboration,the teamwork on which success if
founded, is built on trust and common purposes.
These crucial professional
relationships are formed as much through the informal exchanges
of experience, advice and encouragement as through formal interchanges
andcommunication. (p.161)

School administrators should therefore not ignore nor take informal communication
to be unimportant.

6.5.1. Formal Communication

Formal communication is any official information that is passed on through the
chains of command of the organization. Most of formal communication is vertical,
that is, both ‘upwards’ and ‘downwards’ communication (although it can also be
passed horizontally). ‘Downwards’ communication is from those in managerial
positions to other employees in lower positions whilst ‘upwards’, that is, from those
in lower ranks to those in upper ranks. The information that is formally passed from
the superiors to subordinates includes instructions, organisational objectives,
policies, specification of employees’ tasks and expectations etc. The information
from surbordinates to superiors that can be communicated formally includes reports
of work done, decisions made e.g. in a departmental meeting, student performance
reports etc. He

6.6. FLOW OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS.

Formal communication in organisations either flows vertically or laterally. Vertical
communication can flow in the downwards and upwards directions [ see Simpons
(1959) in Robbins(2003)]. Lateral (horizontal) communication on the other hand,
flows across (sideways) the organisation e.g. between various departments in the
school.

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 Downwards
 Upwards

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 Horizontal

Downwards Communication

In ‘downwards communication’, information and instructions is passed downwards

fromthose in management positions to those in lower ranks or positions. Robert Katz
& Daniel L. Kahn in Hoy & Miskel (1987: 372), have identified five types of ‘downward’
communication,that is, from the superior to the subordinates, as being:

(i) instruction about specific tasks,

(ii) a rationale about why the task needs to be done and how it relates to other tasks,
(iii) information about organizational procedures and practices,
(iv) feedback about the individual’s performance level, and
(v) information about the need for individual commitment to the organization’s goals.

This information is passed down through memos, directions, policies, and programs
of action (Hoy & Miskel 1987). In school situations, for example, information can be
passed down from officials from the Ministry of Education headquarters, TSC
officials or provincial or district education officers through the chain of command to
school personnel e.g. communication regarding promotion/ demotion from T.S.C is
passed to teachers through the head teachers. Hence communication moves
“downwards” from T.S.C or Ministry of education (headquarters) to head teachers
and then to the teachers concerned. In the school, the head teacher can also
communicate ‘downwards’ to either teaching staff or other support staff members in
lower positions/ ranks through the deputy head teacher and then to the head of
department and then to the staff member concerned.

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Upwards Communication

This type of communication flows from members of staff in the lower position/ranks
to those in the senior management positions e.g. communication of an impending
strike may be passedfrom pupils through teachers, through deputy head to the head
teacher and finally to the Board of Governors. Many schools tend to emphasis
‘downward’ communication while ‘upward’ communication is not stressed at all.

But the systems must be equally effective in passing information

‘upwards’. The structures should allow for systematic consultation with
everyone and a genuine staff involvement in decision–making. All must
feel that their voice can be heard and that it counts. (p 162)

Note

-
Upward communication is a means by which surbordinates are
made accountable to superiors. Such communication is often
viewed as an instrument of administrative control;
subordinates have a tendency to emphasize positive
information, withhold negative data, and communicate what
they think the “boss wants to hear.” Both accuracy and
frequency of upward communication are impacted by the
combined characteristics of surbordinates, superordinates, the
messages themselves, and the organization. The informal
channel can assist administrators to assess the accuracy of
formal upward communication. Hoy & Miskel (1987:372)

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Horizontal (Sideways) Communication.

Horizontal occurs between members of equal ranks or positions e.g. between

different heads of department. This type of communication is essential e.g. heads of
department can give guidelines, expectations of the department from teachers e.g.
deadlines on marking of exams to their respective members of staff. This means that
the guidelines, expectations are not different but similar in formal communication.

The major purpose of horizontal communication is coordinating

educational activities on the same level. For example, principals
communicate so that their activities or curriculum emphases will be
similar in different schools. But coordination through the transfer of
written information often fails. Consequently, written messages
frequently are supplemented by conferences of peers in hopes that a
more personal informal exchange of ideas will facilitate efforts at
coordination. (Hoy & Miskel 1987:372).

Horizontal communication is therefore as important as downwards and upwards

communication in that activities in the organisation are coordinated in such a way
thatduplication of tasks is not only avoided but this type of communication helps to
maximise the achievement of the set goals.

6.4.2. Informal Communication

Informal communication is all communication in an organisation that is unofficial. It
can either enhance or undermine formal communication. It is carried out between all
the members of the organisation, that is, between those in managerial positions,
those in managerial and other positions, between members of equal status etc.

Built around social relationships among the school members, informal

channels develop for such simple reasons as common office areas,
similar duties, shared coffee breaks and carpools, and friendships. (Hoy
& Miskel 1967:370).

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Sometimes, this type of communication emanates from lack of open formal channels
of communication in the organisation. Emerson and Goddard (1993) note that
informal communication is a matter of culture and that:

If a school is open in its thinking, is receptive to new ideas, is

positively critical in its search for improvement, then an atmosphere is
engendered in which discussion is promoted and debate becomes free
flowing. If, on the other hand, a school is closed in its thinking, if new
ideas emanate only from the top down and proposals from elsewhere
are seen as subversive, then communication becomes secretive and
censured, carried on in critical butcoded language. (p. 162)

Informal communication “can [also] be used as a means of transferring information

to staff unofficially or informally. It can sometimes be a “calculated leak”. (Rust, 1985:
53) e.g the head e.g. can through informal conversations with teachers and pupils,
gauge the feelings of staff towards an intended replacement of a popular but difficult
deputy head teacher with one of the other teachers. This will enable the head teacher
to know whether teachers and pupils are likely to welcome the change or not. As
Rust (1985) suggests, the person in the management position e.g. T.S.C. or head
teacher should withdraw the proposal if he/she finds out that most of the school
personnel are strongly opposed to the intended replacement. Thus will save him from
future “embarrassment” or “losing of face” when members of the school use violent
physical means to oppose the intended replacement.

Grapevine Communication

Grapevine communication is informal (unofficial) communication and practically

exists among all members especially cliques, gangs, groups that have something in
common. It alsooccurs in all types of organisations regardless of where they are to
be found. It flows in form of ‘Facts, opinion, attitudes, suspicions, gossip, rumours,
and even directives [that] flow freely through the grapevine.’ (see Hoy & Miskel,
1987: 370). However ‘a large proportion of grapevine consists of gossip, rumours,
speculation, inaccurate or partial information.’ (D’souza 1989:134). It thrives in
places and times such as, the staff room, carpools, during

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gatherings such as open days, games/sports time, parties or even during school
tours. As Bennett (1994) notes:

A grapevine is an unofficial, loose collection of communication

passages that circumvent and sometimes even replace orthodox
communication procedures. Grapevine are common where employees
know each other well and exchange information casually without the
knowledge or permission of higher authority (Bennett 1994:182).

This form of communication can be very helpful or very destructive to the

organisation. It can be of great use in that it can inform school leaders of the things
that are informally taking place in the school e.g. an impeding strike by the students.
This type of information is helpful to school authorities in that they can take
necessary measures to prevent the strike. However, grapevine communication can
be destructive, full of distortions, inaccurate, incomplete etc. Rumors, gossip,
scandals about the head teacher or one of the teachers can, for instance, that the
head teacher or one of the teachers has an illicit relationship with a student can be
very ruinous. The head teacher or teacher concerned may become so demoralised
such that he does not perform his work well. Such a head teacher or teacher could
even face harsh disciplinary measures from T.S.C. such as being demoted, being
transferred to a school in a harsh environment due to such unfounded or untrue
rumors.

6.7. WAYS OF COMMUNICATION

There are three basic ways or methods of communication, which are, written, oral
and non- verbal methods, which are used all over the world by people. However,
electronic communication, which uses a combination of written and oral methods via
electronic devices is increasingly becoming a more attractive mode of
communication. This section will therefore briefly discuss these four methods,
namely:

 Written communication
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 Oral communication
 Non verbal communication

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 Electronic Communication (Multi-media)

6.7.1. Written Communication

Written language is one of the most important and frequently used mode of communication in
organisations. As noted by Robbins (2003):

Written communications include memos, letters, electronic mail, fax

transmissions, organizational periodicals, notices placed on bulletin
boards, or any other device that is transmitted via written words or
symbols.”
(Robbins 2003:287).

Some of the ways that written communication can be improved include:

 Use simple words.

 Use short and familiar words.
 Use personal pronouns (such as “you”) when ever appropriate.
 Give illustrations and examples, use charts etc.
 Use short sentences and paragraphs.
 Use active verbs such as “The manager plans …”
 Avoid unnecessary words. (Koontz & Weihrich (1990:381).

Advantages
 Written communication is tangible and verifiable.
 Record of the communication are available
 Message can be stored indefinitely.
 The message can be used as a reference.
 Is suitable for complex and lengthy communication
 Writer is more logical, clear and careful in written communication etc. verbal.
 (Robbins 2003)

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Disadvantages
 Written communication is time consuming.
 Feedback is not immediate
 May be misinterpreted (for unlike in oral communication it is impossible to
immediatelyclarify message or information)

6.7.2. Oral communication

This type of communication is through word of mouth. During face to face encounter
of two or more people. In a school situation information is passed on orally to others
during class hours assembly, meeting (such as staff meeting, various committees
meeting e.g. B.O.G. or PTA or general parents meeting) and during informal meetings
e.g. open days, during parties, games etc.

Advantages
 Information reaches the audience immediately.
 Information, ideas, message are passed a very fast and feedback is given immediately.
 In case of meetings with the superior subordinates, pupils’, teachers or support
staff areable to understand or gauge the importance of the information being
portrayed.

Disadvantages
 Unfamiliar words/language insulting can lead to a misunderstanding.
 Meeting can be costly in terms of money and time e.g. if parents have to travel
from far toattend a meeting in school.
 Words / insults cannot be undone after they have been spoken.

6.7.3. Non-Verbal Communication

There are two forms of non-verbal communication, that physical or symbolic language.

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Physical signs
This includes, traffic lights or traffic signs showing that the road is slippery, posters
on political messages (or slogans) or advertisements of products. Physical signs in
the school, may, for example, say, “Do not step on grass, ‘Danger’ or ‘Silence’
depending on the message that needs to be conveyed. These are made to instruct,
warn or caution one.

Body language/movement

It is possible to communicate through body movements. A dance for example can

convey the dancer’s intended meaning. Body language includes, facial expressions,

posture, eye movements, signs such as waving, handshake etc. Facial expression

such as, look of horror, sadness, anger, happiness can easily be read or recognized

from the face of the person conveying message or from the one receiving it.

Actions
As the saying goes ‘actions speak louder than words’. An act of kindness shows
concern even though the one doing the action may not say anything. Likewise the
receiver easily understands an act of cruelty and this clearly portrays the message
that ‘one ought to be cautious with the one doing the action as he or she is not a
friend’. Hence both actions i.e. that of kindness and that of cruelty relay hidden
messages even though the words may not have been spoken.

Silence
Silence is a subtle (but powerful) form of communication e.g. the presence of the
head teachermay make a noisy class to keep quiet even if the head teacher does not
verbally tell class anything. His silence can, for example, indicate the seriousness of
their behavior. However, silence can be misunderstood and this can lead to dire
consequences.

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6.7.4. Electronic Communication
Electronic communication is a powerful means of communication, which has
revolusionalisedevery sector of the society all over the world. Schools cannot afford
to ignore this medium of communication, as it is a fast and efficient means of
communication between members of the school that is, pupils, teachers’ and support
staff. It is also a powerful way of communicating with other people and agents
outside the school, such as parents, members of the Board of Governors, book
suppliers, other schools and ministry of education officials, business people,
administrative personnel, politicians etc.

However, it is important to note that communication (as a management task) means

more than simple typing and sending letters or memos or e-mail etc. It involves a
more complex process where perhaps a head uses the information processed and
retrieved through e-mail or letters tomake management decisions. Information about
a member of staff can be retrieved (e.g. disciplinary letters) to see whether patterns
of misconduct (e.g. causes or any behavior preceding absenteeism) over the years
can be made. This may be done with the aim of determining the reasons for behavior
as well as for determining the course of action to be taken.

E-mail

The use of electronic mail allows people to communicate with each other from
anywhere in the world. Through e-mail, one can send vital information, which is
received immediately, by the one who is meant to receive it. The other party can
respond response to the matter within seconds.
Using electronic mail, it becomes possible for a group of individuals
to carryon an intensive discussion or share ideas even though they may
be in different places at different times. (Kearsley 1990:37).

It is possible to attach files (or any information) to the e-mail being sent. It is
essential for schools to enable their staff members to have access to e-mail
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services in a convenient and

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regular way. As Beecharry & Schneider (1996) have observed ‘--- it would be
inappropriateto distribute intercampus mail over a LAN but not have staff access to
that mail in either one’sprivate office or a centralized departmental office.’ (Beecharry
& Schneider in Journal of Information Technology for Development (IDRC) Canada
March 1996, volume 7, p11).

Mobile Phones

Mobile phones are also known as cell phones, cellular telephones or simply as
mobilehandsets. Mobile phones work by transmitting radio waves to cellular towers.
Each cellular tower cover (and receive mobile phone signals) distances ranging
between 1.5 km to 56 km. Mobile phones have become very popular in recent years.
In the UK alone about 24 million people use them. (eBuyGuru.com, Internet, 29th, July,
2003). Mobile phones are also gainingwide usage in almost all parts of Kenya. Whilst
schools may not afford to use mobile phones officially, many members of the school
find them a convenient way of communicating official messages as well as private
ones.

Merits of using mobile phones

 Mobile phones can be used in almost all the regions of Kenya (except a few
where these services are still not available). This includes rural areas where there
are no fixedtelephone lines.
 The network has an answering service that stores messages for the user when
the mobile phone is switched off or out of range.
 Mobile phones enable one to get assistance incase of emergencies
 One can send typed messages very cheaply through the text messaging service
(SMS) available with mobile phones

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Internet

The Internet is a world-wide collection of interconnected networks. It is not owned by

one central organisation. Different people/agents from all over the world contribute
the information available on the Internet. This therefore means that no agent or
organisation owns the Internet. It is also important to note that some of the
information available on the Internet can be accessed freely but one would need to
subscribe for others. However to gain access to some of the information in some
sites, the school needs to go through an Internet service provider. A fee is paid for
this service. One can get information through the Internet by:
 By establishing a connection with at least one information server using its URL
(Uniform Resource Locator).
 Using a search engine, such as, Yahoo. ‘surfing’ the www, that is, wandering from
information server to another information server.

The Internet provides people throughout the world with access to information at a
faster rate than was possible before. The Internet is presently growing at more than 1
billion pages every six months. Through the Internet, schools have access to
information than was possible before on different topics of educational interest.
Schools can also develop a web-site where they can process and store information
which they think is of interest to other people. The information that may be placed on
a school’s web site include information that might be of Internet to future students,
parents or the school’s community. Schools can also carryout projects of educational
interests over the Internet jointly with other schools.

Teleconferencing

In a general sense,

most people think of a teleconference as a group of people

interacting with each other by means of audio and video media with
moving or still pictures. --
- Full-motion video is frequently used to hold meetings among
managers. Not only do they hear each other, but they can also see each
135
other'’ expressions or discuss some visual display. This kind of
communication is, rather expensive,

136
 and audio in combination with still video may be used instead. This
method of communicating may be useful for showing charts or
illustrations during atechnical discussion.

Advantages

 Saves travel expenses and time

 Can be held when necessary (no long term planning for no travelling)
 Communication can be carried out more frequently between e.g. head quarters
and remotestations

6.8. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

This section discusses some of these barriers to effective communication. Firstly,
barriers to effective use of electronic communication are discussed and then barriers
of effective communication are examined.

6.8.1. Barriers to Use of Electronic Communication

This section examines the barriers that hinder use electronic communication.

Barriers/ Disadvantages associated with use of Mobile Phones

 Mobile phones are expensive to purchase and use. Ones needs either access to
electrical (or battery) power to charge the phone. Hence, they are beyond the
reach of the average citizen.
 Frequent network problems and congestion due to too many users.
 They are attractive to thieves, as there is a ready market where they can be sold.

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 Accidents have occurred as a result of people using mobile phones while driving.
This divided attention is likely to make one not to be observant of other motorists.
It is important for motorists to stop the car while using the mobile phone.
 The actual location of the one calling help through a mobile phone is difficult to
trace unless he is able to state the actual location.
 Sometimes mobile calls come when one is in a public place and one is required to
talk private things in public.
 There are health worries associated with use of mobile phones which allegedly
can cause cancer through the emission of microwaves radiation while using the
mobile phone close to the head.

Barriers and Disadvantages of using the Internet

 Using the Internet is expensive in terms of money spent on telephone and

electricity. The school also has to pay the Internet service provider.
 Electricity blackouts or interruptions also limit use of computers in general and
theInternet in particular.
 Students have access to web site containing information that schools and
parents do not want the pupils’ to gain access to, for example, pornography,
prostitution, drugs and soon.
 Confidential information may be viewed by other people and may be used
destructive purposes.
 Virus may also wipe out important computerised data and records.

Teleconferenci

ng

Disadvantages

 Faulty equipment (due to new and unfamiliarity with equipment)

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 Face to face meetings are more beneficial than teleconferencing

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6.8.2. Barriers to General Communication
The barriers to effective communication are many and those discussed below are
just examples of these barriers.

Unclarified Assumptions

There are sometimes unclarified assumptions underlying the message that hinder
effective the message from being effectively communicated. The head teacher may
assume, for instance that accommodation will be provided to those attending an in-
service course because it has been provided in the past. Yet, it may turn out that the
accommodation is not to be provided this time. This may result in some members of
staff failing to attend the seminar for they may not have planned and kept aside
money for accommodation.

Semantic Distortion

The source or receiver may affect the communication process. Semantic distortion
(whether intentional or unintentional) may hinder effective communication. Verbiage
can hinder or make it difficult to pick out significant points and different meanings
can be drawn to the same message. Some words may also give the wrong
unintended meaning e.g. the head teacher may announce that teachers who fail to
complete the syllabus of the subjects they are teaching will be taken to have failed in
their work. Teachers, may from then onwards, aim to complete the syllabus without
taking into account whether the pupils understand or not. In other words, they will
teach hurriedly to complete the syllabus instead of teaching at a pace, which each
and every pupil can understand.

Poorly Written and Expressed Messages

The writer of the message may fail to communicate effectively by use of ‘poorly

140
chosen words, omissions, lack of coherence, poor organisation of ideas, awkward
sentence structure,

141
platitudes, unnecessary jargon, and a failure to clarify the implications of the
message’. (Koontz & Weihrich, 1990:376). It is therefore imperative for the writer to
ensure that his or her message is written in a clear language, which the recipient of
the message will easily understand. One can do this by choosing the right style,
vocabulary, layout, length etc in- order to make his or her message comprehensible.

Poor Transmission of the Message

The medium being used to communicate the message maybe faulty. The telephone
maybe producing other noises within it and this may prevent one from hearing the
message clearly orcorrectly.

Poor Retention of the Message

The message may be communicated less accurately (or even fail to be

communicated) when only one person is used. As noted by Koontz & Weihrich 1990:

In a series of transmissions from one person to the next, the message

becomes less and less accurate. Poor retention of information is
another serious problem. Thus the necessity of repeating the message
and using severalchannels is rather obvious. Consequently, companies
often use more than one channel to communicate the same message.
(p. 376)

In a school situation, the head teacher or even the teachers should not use the
children to orally pass messages to parents but it is important that they write
important messages to the parents.

Unsuitable messages

The message may not be suitable for the intended audience e.g. very young children
in the lower classes (in a school situation) may not understand information relating
to sexual matters whereas older children in upper classes can easily understand it.
Hence this type of message is unsuitable for young children.

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Recipients Poor Listening Skills and Assumptions

The recipient of the message may hinder communication by failing to listen to the
message properly. He or she, may for instance, read a letter half way and assume
that he or she knows the rest of the content of the message. As a result, he or she
may fail to read an important partof the message and this may distort the message,
sometimes with disastrous results.

Information overload

The person in the position of authority may receive so much information that much
of it ends up being disregarded. The other employees may also be given with too
much information by their superiors that they are unable to take in all the
requirements.

Lack of opportunities for communication

Staff members in the lower positions in the organisation may not have an opportunity
to communicate with their superiors especially when the chain of command is long.
The middle managers may also choose not to pass to senior managers the
messages given by junior staff.

The Reference Group one Belongs

The reference group (ethnic or religious group, neighbors, etc.) that one belongs to
influences the way he or she interprets the received communication. One may fail to
take the advise of another person from another religious group simply because this
religious group is looked down upon by his own religious group.

Stereotyping

Attributing a person with certain characteristics simply because he belongs to a

certain group, class, ethnic group (e.g. rich or poor, white or black person) is
stereotyping. Presupposing that members of an ethnic group have a bad temper or

143
they are mean etc means that anybody belonging to this ethnic group will be taken to
have a bad temper or to be mean. Stereotyping can therefore interfere with
communication in that one will judge someone on the basis of his

144
or her culture, group etc. In other words, one will assume that the receiver of the
message will behave in a certain way or he or she behaved in a certain way because
he or she belongsto a certain ethnic group.

Halo Effect

This is the assumption that because one possesses a certain characteristic then he
possesses certain other characteristics. So while with stereotyping a person is taken
as having all the characteristics assumed for his group, with halo effect, one’s total
set of characteristics is judged on the basis of the trait that has been observed in him.
(see Bennett, 1994). Further, Hicks & Gullett (1981:330) point out that ‘The halo effect
is the result of two-valued thinking. In this situation, we see things only as
dichotomies – good and bad, right and wrong, white and black, and so forth.’ As a
result, we tend to agree with a person we admire and disagree with a person that we
dislike.

Physical limitations
The environment where the communication is taking place can also act as a barrier
to effective communication. It is difficult, for instance, to communication in a noisy
environment such as, a market or a bus station.

6.9. Ways of Ensuring that Communication is Effective

It is important for school administrators as well as other members in the
organisation to learn how to communicate effectively so that the overall objectives of
the organisation (or the objective of what is being communicated) can be achieved.
Firstly, the features that are necessary for effective communication to take place
should be taken into account. Secondly the barriers mentioned above should be
removed or minimised.

6.9.1. Features of Good Communication

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A number of features are essential in order for communication to be effective.
Emerson & Goddard (1993) have noted the following features as being vital in good
communication.

 Clarity of purpose
 Clarity of message
 Clarity of outcome
 Appropriate in form

(i) Clarity of purpose

All the people involved in the communication process should be awake of its
purpose so asnot to cause confusion and ill feelings. It is, important, for example, for
the receipt of the communication or message top know whether it is advice or
instruction. Then and only then will they know what is the best cause of action to take.

(ii) Clarity of message

Emerson & Goddard further not that the message should be explicit and easily
understood.Hence
 The recipient must complete the information or ideas being put across
 Information should be in a logical and concise form.
 Structure should be coherent and incidly ideas expressed intelligibly
 Ambiguity should be avoided

(iii) Clarity of outcome

If the intension of the communication in a given outcome, the action to be taken

should be clear, that is unambiguous. “ The participants should be clear as to the
purpose of the action, what is to be done, how it is to be done, who will do it and by
when.
( Emerson & Goddard, 1993 :163)
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(iv) Appropriate in form

Communication can either be written or oral. One should choose which form of
communication is most appropriate. In other words, some messages are best
relayed orally such as, the death of a relative. This is to done in order to prepare the
recipient of the message as well as to ensure that the support that might be needed
e.g. the presence of a close and trusted friend or relative is available.

Summary
Communication is indeed a vital element in any organisation. School administrators
must learn how to communicate effectively as the success of the school to some
extent depends on good communication. This implies that they should ensure that
communication flows in various directions and that various types of communication
are used. They should also gain an understanding of the factors that enhance
effective communication as well as those that hinder it with a view of either
eliminating or at least minimising the impendiments.

Activity

147
 List the various ways that a head teacher of either secondary or primary
school canimprove communication in his or her school.
 What are some of the problems that might occur in a school due to lack of
effectivecommunication?

148
Questions

 What is communication?
 Illustrate using a diagram the process of communication and describe each of the
elementsinvolved in the process.
 Explain the various directions that communication can flow in an organisation.
Show why is it important for school administrators to ensure that communication
flows from all directions and not from ‘in top positions downwards to those below
in subordinates positions’
 Four major types of communication that can be identified. Describe each of
them in detail showing their various uses.
 What are some of the factors that may hinder effective communication in
schools? How can these barriers be removed?

149
Bibliography

Hicks H.G. & Gullett C.R. (1981) Organisations: Theory and Behavior. McGraw-Hill,
Inc.Aukland.

Hoy W & Miskel (1987) Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York.

Bennett R. (2nd edition) (1994). Organizational Behaviout. Longman Group, UK Limited,

UK.

Koontz H & Weihrich H. Essentials of Management (5th edition) (1990) Tata

McGraw-HillNew Delhi.

150
Lesson Seven

FUNDAMENTALS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION

Objectives:

�
 To discuss the meaning of education policy
 To review important education policies since 1963
 To scrutinize and understand the basic legal framework of our education system.
 To understand the significance of Education Act
 To discuss the current structure and organization of the Ministry of Education
Scienceand Technology.
 To discuss the functions of the Statutory Bodies as for example the TSC the KIE
and theKNEC.

Student Outcome with Regard to the Fundamental of the National Education

Administration.
 The students shall be expected to know of education policy, be able to define
education policy and articulate the important role of policy in providing methods
of problem solvingand guideline.
 The students should be able to understand the development of education policies
since 1963.

151
 Students shall understand the basic legal framework guiding and protecting the
interests ofan institution.
 The students shall understand the Kenya Education Act.
 The students shall be able to understand the organizational structure of the
Ministry ofEducation.
 The students shall be able to understand the various statutory bodies, their
functions andbenefits to the education system.

7.1 Fundamentals of National Educational Administration

The Fundamentals of National Educational Administration is a crucial area in which

we investigate the nature of service delivery of education in Kenya. In this section

legal framework, the organizational structures and infrastructure that guides the

education sector. And finally, developed are the policies to provide and guide it in the

management of education in Kenya.

7.2 Meaning of Education Policy

Many countries are facing challenges in the provision of education. These challenges
are brought on by various factors, such as globalization, increased population,
international conventions such as rights of special people and guarantees to
education. Others include economic difficulties that many developing nations are
facing which reduce their capacity to meet economic responsibilities. The
geopolitical and in country political ecology creates another challenge that
governments must address. In order to meet these challenges and determine their
priorities, the government has developed several policies.

7.3 Functions of Policy

152
 Policy is a vehicle through which the government expresses and maintains control.

153
 Policy guides in the administration and formation of rules and regulations of practice.

 Policy provides consistency, maintain standards, stability and assurance in institutions

 Policies, written, published and disseminated inform the public and reduce uncertainty.

7.4What is Policy?
Many scholars have defined policy as:

 A statement of those objectives that guide the actions of a substantial portion of

the total organization (Hoy & Miskel 19:320).

 A policy is a general statement of intent to act in a particular manner when

confrontedwith a given situation or to achieve a given result at some future point

in time (Knezevich 19…321).

7.5 Policies in Education since 1963

Since 1963 when Kenya attained independence, several challenges have faced the

government. Consequently, the education provision in this country has not been

static and has been addressed by the government through concerted efforts of policy

formulation.

The following instruments have been the government’s way of responding to the

myriad of needs that resulted from education provision.

i. The KANU manifesto, 1963 –

The KANU manifesto was the ruling party’s commitment and hence the

government’scommitment to provide universal free primary education.

154
This instrument is a good example of how politics influence education

governance, and hence policies that guide its service provision. It is not therefore

possible to divorce politics from education entirely.

ii. The Kenya Education Commission (1964) (The Ominde Report).

This laid the foundation of the pattern of education in independent Kenya by-

 Abolishing segregation of schools along racial levies.

 Establishment of a standardized national curriculum.

 Recommended the management of public primary schools by local authorities.

iii. The Sessional Paper No.10 of 1965.

Recognizes the role of education as the principal means of producing domestic

skilled manpower and equalizing economic opportunities among all citizens.

iv. The National Committee on Education Objectives and Policies of 1976

(Gachathi Report).

Emphasized on practical oriented subjects through-.

 Introduction of the 9-4-2-3 system of education.

 Promotion of teachers (primary cycle on merit).

 Training teachers in guidance and counseling.

155
 v. The Presidential Working Party on the Establishment of a Second

University1981 (Mackay Report).

Recommended

 Restructuring of the education system 8-4-4

 Diversified school curriculum with emphasis on pre-vocational and

technicalskills.

 Establishment of a second national university that would lay emphasis

ontechnology.

vi. The Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for

the NextDecade and Beyond, 1988 (The Kamunge Report) recommended:

This intended to reduce government budgetary allocation to education. Other costs

shifted to parents and the community in areas of school uniforms, facilities, meals

and transport. It is instructive to note that this policy was actually a response to a

World Bank Report just released entitled “Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies

for Adjustment, Revitalization and Expansion” (World Bank, 1988)

Kamunge Report also advised on the streamline of provision & management of TVET

under one authority. It further recommended the strengthening & improving Teachers

Advisory Centres (TACs)

vii. Commitment to Education for All (EFA) as discussed by the UNESCO World

Conference at Jomtien, Thailand 1990).

156
viii. National Task Force on Gender and Education (1995).

“In particular girl-mothers were to be allowed back to school.”

ix. The Master Plan on Education and Training, 1997-2010 (1988)

This document was a response to the country’s aspirations to be

industrialized by the 2010. It was further to provide direction in the financing and

governance of education and training. Other emerging issues to address were high

drop out rates, regional disparities, and gender disparities

x. Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET) The Koech

Report 1998.

The appointment of the Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of

Kenya produced the TIQET report, which recommended strongly a review of the 8.4.4

education initiative.

7.6 Legal Framework on Education System

Education Act. Chapter 212 of the Kenyan Laws (1968).

This is an Act of Parliament that provides for the regulations and progressive
development ofeducation in the country. Some of the legal issues addressed are: -
- Registration of schools

- Management of schools e.g. school committees and BOG

157
 - Discipline of pupils and teachers

- School inspection and supervision

- Education standards regulations

- The legal status of K.I.E.

Other examples of acts are-

(i) Board of Adult Education Act (1965).

This established a board, which would coordinate adult education activities in the country.

(ii) The Teachers’ Service Commission Act (1967)

This established a single employee and unified terms of service for teachers in public schools.

(iii) The University of Nairobi Act (1970)

This act established university of Nairobi as the first national university providing

for itscontrol, government and administration.

(iv) The National Council for Science and Technology Act (1978)

Established a body to coordinate research in Science and Technology and to

advice thegovernment on relevant policy matters.

(v) The Kenya National Examinations Council Act (1980)

(vi) The Kenya Literature Bureau Act (1980)

(vii) Moi University Act (1984)

(viii) The Universities Act (1985) established the Commission for Higher Education.

(ix) Kenyatta University Act (1985)

(x) Egerton University (1987)

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Other laws that a school manager needs to know are regulation and legal notices governing

 Student discipline

 Teachers terms and conditions of service

 Education curriculum development; implementation and evaluation

includingexaminations.

 School inspectors and Educational standards

 School audit and financial management

 Laws of contract

 Contract formulation, tendering and procurement practices

 International laws and conventions pertaining to education such as Education

For All(Jomtien 1990, Thailand) Universal Primary Education (Dakar, Senegal

2000).

The head teacher must make necessary arrangements to acquaint themselves with

laws and statutes that govern their practices. Such knowledge will give confidence,

stability and offer proper guidelines to their clients. It is worth noting too, that the

Kenya Staff Institute provides in-service courses from time to time for heads of

school as need arises

12
NOTE:

.- The National conference on Education held in Nairobi discussed at length

the Legal Framework of Education. What became quite obvious are the many laws
and legal notices that education provision falls under. It became evident too that
there needs to be a unified approach to education under one legal body. Such a
system would govern education provision
at all sectors and all providers without prejudice. It concluded that because of the
multiplicity and multi level responsible agents provided, various services to education,
enforcing practicesuniformly and equally has been fairly difficult.

ACTIVITY:

Catalogue the policy documents that are used in guiding school management in

your school.

QUESTION:

How effective are the above in guiding the school head teacher?
How conversant is the school head teacher with the policy
document?

124
6.6 Structures and Organization of the Ministry of Education Science and

Technology ( seeappendix I )

The Ministry of Education Science and Technology operates under a hierarchical

structure. The Minister of Education whose duties are provided for by the

Education Act, Cap 211 ofKenyan Laws, heads the Ministry of Education Science and

Technology.

The minister’s duties:

 Including promoting education for all Kenyans as per the National Plan for

Economic and Social Development.

 Developing institutions for the promotion of education in

Kenya andsecuring cooperation of all public bodies concerned

with education.

The ministry is organized through several hierarchical bureaus to address education

needs in the country. The following is the descriptions of the various departments in

the ministry of education.

The Permanent Secretary- the overall executive head of the ministry of

education.Duties include: -
 Formulating and implementing government policies on education.

 Controlling the implementation of government policies on matters related

toparastatal bodies and institutions involved in education.

 Liaises with statutory bodies like the TSC, KIE, JKF, KNEC, KLB, among others.

125
There are four main divisions responsible to the Permanent Secretary

Ministry ofEducation, they are:

126
 o Finance

o Administration

o Planning and Development

o Directorate of Education

The Finance Division

– Headed by Deputy Secretary and is concerned with the budget and

disbursement of theministry.

The Administration Division

–Headed by Deputy Secretary who deals with daily operations of ministry.

Planning & Development Division

-Headed by Deputy Secretary who plans for various development programmes in

theMinistry.

The Directorate of Education; Functions and Divisions

Functions:

The Director of Education heads this division and is the chief professional

officer of theministries

Functions of the Directorate include:

127
► Formulating policy directional and management of professional functions relating

toeducation.

► Developing and implementing projects and programmes.

► Developing curricula for schools and colleges

► Inspecting schools & teachers

► Initiating training programmes

► Running examinations etc.

Because of the varied responsibilities in the Directorate of Education, there are

several departments each managed by a Senior Deputy Director of Education.

Specifically responsibilities correspond to the levels of education; the Primary,

Secondary, University, the Inspectorate, and Field and Other Services. We shall now

look at each of the responsibilities individually.

Departments of the Directorate of Education:

There are several departments under the aegis of the Director of Education that are

headed by the Senior Deputy Directors. These departments are those in charge of the

Primary, Secondary, the University, the Inspectorate, the Field and other Services.

Each of the Senior Deputy Directors is charged with matters pertaining to the area

they are charged with and responsible to the Director of Education. We shall now

proceed to look at some of the key areas in detail.

128
The Inspectorate
The Inspectorate is headed by the Chief Inspector of Schools (CIS), and is

responsible to theDirector of Education.

It is charged with the

► Establishment, maintenance and improvement of standards of education in

Kenyanschools and colleges.

► As a custodian of education standards in the country.

► The inspectorate plays the role of a supervisor as well as advisor through

qualityassurance and quality development respectively.

As supervisor – assumes that procedures are followed, maintained and that the

National Goalsare used to guide individual schools in developing their own.

As advisor – it plays the professional role of working closely with the classroom

teachers forpurposes of achieving the required educational standards.

It is therefore able to set standards monitor their achievement and share this

knowledge through feedback and monitoring. Such information can also be used by

the Inspectorate to improve on their services.

129
NOTE

-
The current and only ever-published handbook for Inspectors is heavy on Pre Primary
and Primary Schools. Although in some places it refers to secondary schools, there is
no direct mention to this sector in the index. The Inspectorate supposedly also
covers quality assuranceand quality development of institutions, no mention of what
institutions are referred to here. However, it is a good start and there is room for

7.6.1 Field Other Services (FOS)

The Deputy Director of Education heads this section called Field and other Services.

It is thelink department of the ministry headquarters to the programmes in the

provinces.

The FOS responsibilities are wide ranging and in particular: -

► Links the headquarters to the field services in the provinces, districts and zones.

► HIV/AIDS policy implementation

► School feeding programme

► Guidance and counseling

► Appointments and renewal of District Education Boards

► School Health and Nutritional matters

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► Coordinator Headquarters Resource Center

► Rights of the child

7.7 The Statutory Bodies

The statutory bodies are created through Acts of Parliament and provide services to

the Ministry of Education.

i) The Teachers Service Commission (TSC)

The Teacher Service Commission was created through the Act of Parliament in 1967
and revised in 1968 to provide a single employer and unified terms of service for
teachers inpublic schools. This single most driving force behind the creation of the
TSC was the Kenya National Union of Teachers that agitated for better term of
service and remuneration of teachers. The two bodies signed a memorandum of
understanding for each to recognize the others existence for purposes of promoting
teacher welfare under a unified force.
In particular, the TSC was –

► To provide teachers with uniform terms and conditions of service.

► To ensure that schools and colleges are adequately staffed
► Concentration was manageable so long as schools were few.

ii) The Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT)

KNUT came into being after along struggle of teachers serving under various
disparate terms of service and job insecurity. The government, after several teacher
strikes across the country, finally yielded to the pressure for a union to represent
teachers serving in public schools.
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Other statutory bodies are the Kenya Institute of Education, Kenya National
Examinations Council, Kenya Education Staff Institute, Kenya Institute of Special
Education, and The JomoKenyatta Foundations, among others.

iii) The Kenya National Examinations Council Act 1980

Earlier, Oversees Cambridge Examinations Syndicate set examinations. In 19780, the
KNEC was formed to set, administer, mark and award all public examinations in
Kenya. Specifically, the examinations offered are the KCPE, KCSE, The Primary
Teacher Examinations, The Technical Examinations and the Polytechnics.

iv) The Kenya Institute of Education.

The Kenya Institute of education was formed as a result of a conference held jointly

by the East African Universities in 1964. The major role was played by KIE is the

development of curriculum in Kenya. Others functions are revising existing course

content, coordination of programmes particularly teacher education.

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Lesson 8

SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

Objectives:

�
 To have an overview of secondary education development since 1963.
 To review the objectives of secondary schools
 To discuss the various types of secondary schools
 To scrutinize the roles of the BOG, PTA and the Head Teacher.
 The study the roles of the Head Teacher, Departmental Head, Student Leaders
in schooladministration.

Student Outcomes:

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 The students should be able to understand the various constraints in terms
of limitedfinancial resources, infrastructure and the human resource factors.
 To review and understand basic and fundamental need of the staff, students
and theimplementation process according to the current administrative practice.
 The students will understand the roles of the key people charged with the
responsibility tobring development and prosperity to the community.
 The students will understand the role of the head teacher as the most important
factor inthe capacity building of the human resource.

An Overview of the development of secondary school since 1963.

The country has experienced rapid growth of secondary education since

independence in both number of schools and in enrollment. For instance, at

independence, there were 151 secondary schools with an enrolment of 31,200

students and 1602.

1997 there were approximately 3028 public secondary schools with about 687,473

students and a staff of about 40,000 teachers.

Today: -

Until 1989, the schools were categorized into 4

types.IMaintained schools –

These were government boarding and day schools that were fully maintained

by thegovernment.

The government through the TSC and the BOG paid for the teacher and support staff.

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 This category of school had the best facilities, and often the best national

examination results.

II Assisted schools

This category consisted of schools initially started through Harambee efforts

after independence.

The communities because of the high demand for education developed and

funded secondary schools.

This category realized the highest growth in all categories.

III Unaided Harambee Schools

This category was developed and fully maintained by the community. The

communitycollected funds through fees; harambee and auctions, which in turn

used to hireteachers support staff, buy material and provisions and construct

physical structures. Because of poor facilities, and poor management, the

examinations results were often poor in this category of school.

IV Unaided Private Schools

This category was established by entrepreneurs whose main objective to

make a profit out of the fees paid by the pupils. They were concentrated in the

urban centres.

The exam results often were poorest of all the categories.

Today there are two types of schools; the public school, and the private school.
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The private secondary schools are those that are developed by individuals and

private organizations. They are equipped and staffed entirely by funds from

individuals, school fees and private organizations.

There are two types of private schools the commercial and religious schools.

The public schools on the other hand are equipped, staffed and managed by the

government through TSC, BOG, and PTA.

The BOG provides funds through levies to hire extra teachers and support staff.

The PTA,through levies provides more funds for development projects.

Cost sharing policy gave legal leeway to BOG and PTA to collect funds from

parents toprovide the school with required staff and physical structures.

Students expect to be disciplined and knowledgeable in whatever field to benefit

themselvesand nation as a whole.

8.2 Objectives of Secondary School Education

1. To promote experience, growth of the whole person through integrated

development of mental, physical and emotive (moral, spiritual, and aesthetic)

attributes and abilities,beyond the primary experience.

2. To promote communication skills, numeracy, scientific concepts and skills

(reasoning, problem solving, creating, technological applications of science etc.)

and social skills including services to others and society.

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3. To increase knowledge on economic production and its relationship with the

socialcontext and the natural environment.

4. To promote social equity through provision of education to all Kenyans,

including thosefrom disadvantaged communities and households, girl child and

the handicapped.

5. To strengthen the foundation laid down in primary school for formal education

andtraining, the world of work and life long learning.

ACTIVITY:

Study the objectives above and determine the relationship to

the school mission.

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QUESTION:

Does the school have a school mission?

Do the departmental heads know the school mission and how it should guide
them in theirmanagement practices?

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8.3. The Role BOG/PTA in the Management of Secondary Education
Management of secondary school is an aspect of the Ministry of Education
structural endeavor to manage units within the system. It is assumed that there are
several rungs in the management of education. The Ministry headquarters is in the
upper rung, the Provincial levelthe middle, and the School management in the lower
rung in the management of secondary schools.

The Education Act CAP 211, Sec. 6(b) gives authority to the Minister for Education

appointthe Board of Governors to manage secondary schools.

The minister may, the Act states

(a) establish one a board of governors for two or more schools or

(b) establish boards of governors for two or more schools by means of the same order.

According to the Education Act Cap. 211 of the Kenyan Laws, the constitution and

functionsof the Board of Governors are as follows:

(a) That the board shall exercise the duty of management of the school(s)

subject tothe Act, the TSC Act, Cap 212, and any regulations under this Act.

(b) The membership of the board according to the Act shall not be less

than fivepersons, including board representatives of the communities

served by the school.

-persons representing any regulatory body, which was the founder of

theschool.

- persons or representatives of the bodies or organizations that, in the

opinionof the minister, should be included.

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The Master Plan on Education and Training (MPET) (1997-2010) on the other hand

made the following proposal, that the BOG membership comprise 15 representatives

drawn from various groups as follows.

6 – parents

association2 –

sponsors

1 – District Education Board

1 – Local women’s

organization1 – Local co-

operative society

1 – Old students

association2 – Co-opted

members

Head teacher as secretary designate to the BOG.

The proposed BOG constitution or membership would capture different stakeholders

interest. However, until the proposal is accepted and implemented, the real impact

and depth of representation will not be known. There are many emergent issues in

education so that an informed and educated mind must be adopted to give them

adequate consideration andeventual support to the education system.

Functions of the BOG

(i) Overall responsibility for planning developing and managing the school,

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 includingbudgeting, mobilizing; managing and accounting for school resources.
(ii) Collaborating with DEB in the Management of teaching force, e.g. with repaid
to staffestablishment, appointments and discipline and grievance procedures.

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(iii) Recruitment and management of non-teaching staff.
(iv) Local development of the schools curriculum including out of class
activities anddevelopment of student’s social values and beliefs.

PTA – established in 1998 through Presidential Directive to create a forum for the
involvement of parents, teachers and community to participate in institutional
development and growth. They are responsible for raising funds for facilities such as
classrooms, teacher’s houses, and offices, providing as necessary learning resources.
They are not however adequately represented in the BOG body, the concerned body
that spends they money made by PTA. Some schools have fallen victim to
misappropriation of funds and both parents and even students have demonstrated
this luck of faith through strikes.

The Role of the School Sponsors and Education Managers.

The role of the sponsor, often faith based is very crucial in the management of the
school. It is imperative that person appointed to head the school is indeed of high
integrity, a graduate and represents the sponsor’s values adequately.

The sponsor ensures that the school manages high moral values, and life styles that
serve as role models for students. The country is reeling under rampant use of drugs
and other substances that are influencing student values and behaviour, HIV/AIDs is
another rampant epidemic of epic properties that is affecting the students, teachers
and the families subsequently the education programme is greatly undermined.

The role of the sponsor is vital in providing both the spiritually and moral values to
guide the school managers. The sponsor needs to ensure that the staff is TSC
registered, to fully realize the partnership between the government and the
stakeholder in Education development.

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7.4 Role of the Head teacher

The head teacher is an employee of the Teachers Service Commission in charge of

the day-to- day activities of the school. In particular the chief responsibility is t

creating an enabling atmosphere for learning, teaching, and optimizing of all the

resources. The processes that create the conversion activities to professionalism are

embedded in the management principles of planning, organizing, directing,

supervising, communicating, budgeting and evaluating. Each process must be

followed diligently in accordance with the procedure provided by the ministry of

education. Since the school curriculum is set centrally, the head teacher role

effectively becomes that of the implementer.

Secondary school education is a unique level between that of dependent pre-teen and

the young adults. This predominantly adolescent group of between 15-18 years is

also rambunctious and needs a proactive, anticipatory and precautionary

administration. This is a head teacher that purposes to achieve the schools' aims and

objectives and strives to develop basic skills that are technical, human and

conceptual.

In respect to the age of the adolescent students in secondary school, the head

teacher should create an environment that is positive and takes cognizance of the

social development of the

Examine the current constitution and functions of the BOG in your secondary

school or one you are acquainted with.

(i) Compare the set up of the constitution and functions of
age cohort. Developing a positive school climate should always be the driving force

of the school administrator. While administration builds into practice and strategy the

understanding of the early adolescent development, it will create a school that is

purposeful. The student’s total person must be considered in terms of their social

and psychological makeup and how such would impact on the academic

performance. The first consideration should not thereforebe academic performance,

but the student and how connected they are to their environment. As stipulated by

the motivation theories of Maslow and Herzberg, it is prudent to balance the

environmental factors with the motivation variables in order to achieve an

environmentconducive to learning. While considering the students, the teachers and

the support staff must not be left behind. Motivating and working at meeting the

human resource at their point of need should be one of the primary strategies of

management. Without this resource the use of the other resources may not amount

to much.

School management as an eclectic field

The head teacher’s role is informed and enriched by knowledge from different fields,
such as psychology, sociology, anthropology and economics. A well-read head
teacher who consults widely and collaborates with relevant sectors enhances
productivity as the chief executive of the school. In addition, the head teacher
interacts with various members of the community, the parents, the business sector
and the religious leaders among others and therefore he or she needs to posses a
wide worldview. The head teacher from this perspective provides a window into the
school for all the stakeholders. The school management informed from many fields
is therefore said to be an eclectic field of study.

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7.4.1Functions of the head teacher
Specifically the head teacher carries the following responsibilities:

-Management School Facilities

-Personnel Management (staff)

-Collective Bargaining

-School Laws

-Instructional Services

-Public Relations

- Pupil Personnel Services

-Discipline

-Health Programmes

-Educational Management Information System (EMIS)

i) Management school facilities

School facilities represent huge investments and symbolize the community’s beliefs

andvalues with regard to education. In other words, the kinds of structures, plans

for buildings,the money spent and the total ambiance created, all contribute to form

the communities value system. It is believed that a crowded compound, caged up

dormitories that are poorly ventilated and congested, dirty classrooms are among,

coupled with poor or no staff roomsjust exacerbate the image of the school and its

products. On the other hand the aesthetics or care with the school is designed and

facilities provided for all the school programmes is

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testimony of the values of the community. Such values translate in the conduct of the

pupils and staff that manifest either in good or bad conduct.

In this area, therefore, the administration must plan and manage. Planning is a critical

aspect, as it must comply with the needs of the school and fiscal capacity of the

patrons. Often times projects seem to be planned with out concern for how the funds

will be acquired other than parent levies. This sometimes leads to expensive projects

that are not relevant to the curriculum specifically, and sometimes they never get

completed. The parents in this case cannot source enough money to complete the

projects.

Those projects that meet the needs of the curriculum must however be adequately

managed. This means that repairs must be carried out as soon as they are required.

Proper painting and general aesthetics should be maintained. Fences, roofs, gutters,

drainage walls, over grown trees etc must be regularly maintained, repaired, removed

or replaced so as not to cause unnecessary expensive repairs.

Other school facilities are vehicles, land and learning resource, for proper utilization,

the vehicles must be regularly inspected and adequately insured. The land title must

be secured and fenced to protect it from marauders. Books are another expensive

resource that is substantive to the business of the school. They need proper

cataloguing, and storage. A spacious and adequately furnished library would

encourage students to respect and use the books properly. Reading should be

encouraged as an activity that is not only necessary to pass exams, but as life skill..
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ii) Collective Bargaining
Because the head teachers will increasingly engage in matters regarding unionizable

staff such as KNUT, KUPPET, KHUDEIHIA, etc, collective bargaining becomes an

essential skill to acquire. This is a process of negotiating wages and other working

conditions collectively between employers and trade unions, it enables the conditions

of employees to be agreed as a whole group instead of individually. [G.A Cole (1996:

pg. x)

iii) School Laws

The schools are subject to a myriad of laws and regulations. New laws are enacted

and others adjusted continuously. It is prudent therefore for the head teacher to

keep abreast within all the laws and regulations governing them. Such knowledge

would provide stability and confidence with the head teacher and their institution.

Such policies as those related to gender, Education for All, and Cost Sharing impact

on service delivery. Further ramifications are seen in the kind of facilities, human and

fiscal resources the school can acquire in order to meet the school needs.

In-service programmes run by KESI provide competencies in areas that the head

teacher feels deficient in. Such competencies in areas such as school laws etc are

often provide by periodical seminars etc.

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(iv) Instructional Leadership
Facets of instructional leadership are:

(a) Improvement of teachers and learning by providing in-service on a continued

basis. This exercise will provide a forum for teachers to share their successes,

and their failures. This is an opportunity too for teachers to get affirmation and

gain more competencies. This exercise will also help teachers feeling challenged

on the job or those experiencingburnout.

New teachers need to be oriented to their new schools and environment. Head

teachers can use school’s best teachers as mentors for the new teachers. A

mentor would be someone who would work with a novice teacher as a colleague

and not as a junior who does not know anything. It is not the time to show off, but

a time for colleaquel support. A mentor is objective in a professional way. A

mentor is also some one comfortable with himself or herself.

The success of this kind of programme can fully come from maintaining a

professional approach.

(b) Developing supervisory strategies

Supervisory strategies that integrate collaborative style of leadership will succeed

and bring people together. The best recipe is one that views supervisor as

someone with super vision. This means someone with expertise more superior

than the teacher being supervised. This superiority should not be confused with

haughtiness and coerciveness and provide. Rather it should be guided by the

desire by the supervisor to be professional,

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 principled, collaborative, enhancing, collegial and actualizing super vision should

besimply that, better vision.

(c) Maintaining School System

Such strategies as maintenance of school programmes as laid out in the

timetable are absolutely essential. The timetable is an instrument that reflects a

carefully thought out curriculum. When the timetable is strictly adhered by the

teacher coming to class on time,well prepared and staying through the duration of

the lesson, students will surely learn. Timetabling also is a device for aims and

objectives of education programmes.

(d) Improving Curriculum and Library material

This aspect entails a sufficient collection and varied textbooks. Professional

reference material and current journals will enhance teacher preparation. A good

library would be stocked with relevant books that both provide interest with

variety and accommodative vocabulary.

(e) Evaluation of students

Progressive CATS, and examinations should reflect real time and learning by

students. Continuous assessment tests should be just that, to determine the

student’s progress and help develop that student. External examinations and

tests should only be used sparingly as this will not measure actual interaction

between teaching and pupils.

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(f) Role Model

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A head teacher is a role model and so therefore their professional and academic

integrity should appeal to teachers, parents and pupils. Communication occurs at

many, levels, such as in dress, activities, language and behavior. Wrong messages

can be inadvertently conveyed easily. Head teachers therefore must demonstrate the

kinds of values they profess to hold. As the public, donors and government is

spending a lot of money in schools, the head teacher must cultivate a winning image

for the school.

(g) Recruitment of staff and pupils through Teacher’s Service Commission (TSC)

annual returns. These returns are absolutely imperative as they have implications

to the school plan. The element of returns implies auditing of the past school

years education programme. It is a process that entails evaluation of

programmes to the degree to which schools’ set goals were achieved. The

degree to which the staff resources facilitated andif there was a shortage or over

supply of teachers. The teacher pupil ratio, another factor pertinent to the

exercise will be used by the TSC to determine the deployment of teachers and

other resource persons as may be required.

This is again an activity that requires the head teacher to work closely with the

teaching staff to evaluate needs as they relate to staff resources.

(v) Public Relations (PR)

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Public relations is about creating a relationship between the public and the school. It

is a strategy taken by school administration with the help of the staff to create

and meet the

149
expectations of the public. The public through the taxes paid which constitute a

majority ofthe fund that supports schools expects the school to be accountable.

The school on the other hand through public relations creates an image of itself as

well as publicize its educational programmes. This also serves to sell their

programmes for purposes of soliciting more support financially from both public and

private philanthropists. Another very important role of public relations is the

integration of the family and the community to the school programmes. This will

further enhance the schools image and build confidence among the major

stakeholders, the parents and the pupils.

A public relation however is built on a proper plan that entails priorities of

activities, the target groups as well as timeliness of release of information to the

media. This is a first line of interaction between the school and the

community/public at large. It must therefore be skillfully and professionally managed.

The head teacher is the head of the school’s Public Relations team and must lead

through action. The stature, mannerism and structures ofcommunication reflect the

management style of the head teacher.

The head teacher is a member of a teaching body of a school and therefore needs to

work as a member of a team and not a lone ranger. PR is about human relations.

Knowing about human relations and what makes them relate to their environment is

one of the guiding tenets of human relations (PR).

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Proper management of school is dependent on the formula that balances the internal

with the external environments of the school.

(vi) Management of school finances

The head teacher is the schools accounting officer. The management of the school
finances entails skills that the head teacher must take time to acquire. As much as
most schools have accounting officers and clerks, the head teacher must understand
process of financial management.

Once again financial management like other functions of the head teacher is based

on properly audited school programmes and resources of the previous year.

Finances are a critical interactive component in the school programmes. A healthy

account does not make effective school programmes but the conversion of the funds

into resources such as staff, teaching aid and classrooms.

School financial management will be covered in more detail in the last topic of this series.

(vii) Conflict Management:

Institutional violence is threatening the very purposes and essence of education and

schooling in Kenya today. Going by the current reports in the media on the level and

intensity of violence in high schools, this topic is seen as imperative and a must for

all school managers. It is important for school administrators to be trained in the

principles of management and resolutions of conflict in order to safe our schools

and life from further deterioration. A critical component of conflict that is in the

vocabulary of most school stakeholders is discipline.

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Discipline.
A skill that is a must for the head teacher and one more to incorporate into their

many functions is discipline. Here we refer to discipline of staff, pupils, managers,

and technology, all as a combined force and for the school purpose. Discipline,

according to the Starehe Boys Center founder Geoffrey Griffin endows the pupils.

“With such habits as self respect proper pride in his/her integrity that will

observe norms of good conduct when not under supervision” (School

mastery, 1994)

Discipline in our schools especially in the secondary schools has been amplified
recently through frequent schools strikes and riots. This current image portrays an
indisciplined situation that raises a host of questions as to the nature of school
management.

Several scholars have defined discipline: -

> as means to internal controls over ones own behaviour

>as means to correct behaviour by exerting external controls

The definitions above draw attention to two types of discipline, one as a process that

emanates from within the individual and the other from the external environment.

When we talk of discipline in regards Kenyan Secondary Schools, it is more often

observed as if the student is entirely to blame. The students in turn often sight

external forces, but within school, as cause of the turbulence.

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The second definition of discipline implies an external influence. In our secondary

school situations, the daily newspapers have often reported student grievances as

being attributed to heavy-handed head teacher practice, food problems and misuse

of funds unfair treatment of students, among others.

In cases where students have rioted in schools and caused mayhem indisciplined

behaviour manifestations may be observed and attributed to both external and

internal properties. It is therefore incumbent upon the head teachers to cultivate

learning to encompass cognitive, affective and the psychomotor domains. By doing

so the total student is addressed. On the other hand the structures that govern the

teaching and learning should be designed to facilitate and lead to a symbiotic

relationships of all resources; that are the students, teachers, administration and the

kind of rules that govern their relations.

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NOTE

-
RECENT CASES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL RIOTS

East African Standard July 16th 2004 pg. 40 col. 2

 ‘School burned in orgy of violence. They attacked the school deputy head and
burnt his car and other property costing damage estimated at above 15 million
shilling’
 State House Girls stage a walkout at 5 am protesting the high handedness
and discrimination of the poor students by the head teacher and her deputy

Daily Nation, Thursday July 15th, 2004 pg.18, col. 1

 ‘Alert issued on indiscipline in high schools’. This is case of heightened
state of indiscipline in schools within Nakuru District where four schools in the
last two weeks have staged violent strikes causing very serious damage to
property.

(viii) Personnel Services

The staff, both teaching and non-teaching are an important resource. This is a

resource that must be managed and developed for the good of the school. The head

teacher is the chief personnel officer in a school responsible for all aspects relating

to staff. Specific functions of the personnel officer according to Whitehead p.279 is

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as follows

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■ The recruitment of staff – this will be determined by the returns given to the

TSC as this will reflect the status of staff in relation to school programmes.

The strength and weaknesses of the teaching staff in particular will be relayed

in the staff returns. The non-teaching staff will be conveyed in the report of

returns to the BOG as employersof this category of staff.

■ The training and development again as above a frequent audit and evaluation

of all school programmes reveal the areas of need. Staff development

enhances professional as well as personal competencies of the staff. This is a

planned item within school programmes.

■ The description of jobs, and the devising of methods of payment and

promotion from grade to grade. The teaching staff is often paid by the TSC in

public schools. However it is relevant to heads of private schools.

■ Job description on the other hand is a basic element to all positions in the

school. Such would provide a basis for agreement between the staff and the

school management. It would also provide a basis for job evaluation that is

understood by both parties. Upon satisfactory performance, a basis for

promotion can be determined.

■ The provision of welfare facilities and the devising of pension schemes.

Beyond the basic salary fringe benefits are a motivational factor that makes a

difference to workers.

■ The preparation of contracts of employment and the drawing up of

redundancy schemes where appropriate at one time or another the head

teacher is involved in the preparation of contracts of employees.

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■ Dismissal of employees

157
 For employees out of fairness to the institution and the staff, detailed

understanding ofthe grounds for dismissal must be spelt out.

All the above functions of the personnel officer who is the head teacher will give

stability to a school and the staff. The certainty and competence of staff to work

within certain parameters will foster the school programmes.

(ix) Pupil Personnel Services

This item entails orientation and admission of new students, testing programs,

health programmes, guidance and counseling and social work.

Orientation and Admission of New Students

The head teacher has the full responsibility for orientation and admission of new

students to a school. This an area that has not been given much regard ad yet all new

students are recent arrivals from the primary school whose set up is different from

high school. The new students must adjust to the new situation because there are

new programmes, new teachers, and new facilities. Some students may have come

from a rural setting to an urban setting, and others from urban to the rural setting.

There are also the national, provincial, districts, private or public categories of

schools. All the categories of schools present different and peculiar situations that a

new student must come to terms with. A proper orientation programme wouldground

the students on the school philosophy, history and policies that will guide them

through the duration of the student life in the school.

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Student Activities.

Secondary schools are for adolescent students so proper activities must be designed

specifically for them for self-discovery. These activities must be well thought out to

promote individual social and community growth. Students achieve self-discovery

through peer-group relations as they interact with one another. Adolescent stage is

full of fear of failing and looking like a full, therefore designing programmes that

allow for failure and affirmation is important. The student’s confirmation as a

member of the school and a member of a class is another reason for proper activities

being developed to address these issues.

Tests

Testing programs are often carried out through continuous assessment tests and

end of term examinations. These two instruments should be carried out to measure

real classroom learning that was guided by the teacher concerned. And how well the

materials have been taught. Externally set instruments or tests may not reflect the

actual learning in the specific school. Such a test may include topics not yet covered.

In such a case students may not do well and therefore get discouraged. Care must be

taken therefore to develop students through tests and examinations.

Health programmes

Setting up a modest health unit in a school is important especially in remote boarding

schools. An arrangement may also be made with a close by public dispensary to

manage the school health programmes. In areas prone to malaria, such an

159
arrangement would provide rapid

160
response. Communicable diseases in a boarding school would be managed best too

when a government dispensary relates well with a school. A Rapid Response unit

would ensure that the school is guarded against epidemic. Nutrition should be

regarded is a health issue thatmust be exercised in a school to provide a balanced

diet. Nutritional imbalances or deficiencies of certain elements and vitamins may

cause delinquent behaviour (Lazarides 1997: p.232). As reports of riots and violent

strikes abound in the print and electronic media, one wonders how much could have

been avoided through proper nutritional management.

Menu planning must be carefully done to also coincide with availability of certain

foods that are currently in season. Such plan would also help cut down on food

expenses and bring variety to the diet. Food purchasing and record keeping in the

cafeteria are chief functions for cateress.

Testing students for hearing and sight problems are a health issue that schools head

teachers should take seriously. Sometimes students may not be aware that they

have partial disabilitiesthat affect their learning. Failure to attend to these needs may

also be cause for student indiscipline.

Other skills such as basic First Aid need to be amalgamated into daily routines to

include fire drills and cardiac pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), shock treatment, burns

and others that service institutions like St Johns Ambulance can provide.

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Guidance and counseling

This is an area that the government has encouraged teachers to be skilled. Providing

time for teachers or hiring those trained in guidance and counseling is another head

teacher’s responsibility. Because the society’s values, beliefs and mores have

changed cases forguidance and counseling are on the rise. Social work is a corollary

of the above concerns that the modern life style has brought to our midst. HIV/AIDs,

broken homes, divorce or abandonment are real issues that the school heads are left

to deal with everyday. Consequences of these situations are manifested in student

class performance, or behaviour problems or both of them.

Interventions must therefore be developed that are developmental and not punitive.

Sometimes issue may be amplified and end up causing more problems while if dealt

with in a low-key manner would cause less problems.

Gifted and talented students

There are many remedial programmes in schools for poor performers, but few or
none exist for the exceptionally gifted or talented student. Care must be taken to
identify and provide for this category of child. This is the child who can drop out of
school because there is nothing to challenge them. This category of child may also
get into trouble easily as they may challenge the teacher through their inquisitive
nature. The teacher on the other hand, may misconstrue this to mean rudeness or
overbearing and punish the student.

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ACTIVITY:

Prepare an orientation programme for new students to your high school paying
specialattention to your social economic setup and geographical location.

QUESTION:

Why should the head teacher be custodian of school orientation programme?

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(x) Educational Management Information System (EMIS)

This is an area that is neither understood nor used well in our schools. Schools
generate a lot of data regarding student bio-data, their performance, staff records,
property and events at the school. But few schools would access such information at
a moments notice because there is no proper record keeping system that would
catalogue, serialize and store them safely. A systems clerk should be employed or a
teacher trained to carry out this important exercise. A good history of the school
could be an asset that rallies old students around the school for purposes of
development among other interest. Proper record keeping would also provide a basis
upon which good auditing can be carried out, that would then provide background for
improvement. Current teacher and student records however should be kept under
lock and key and ensured by the head teacher of their safety. Records of school
ownership, log books, insurance certificates and payment of bills should also be kept
safely.

Activity

Compare the role of the head teacher as

indicated

Here with that of the head teacher in your current institution

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Question

The school management is described as an

field of study. Justify the

Role of the Teacher

Teaching is an honourable profession that has been written about by countless

researchers. For instance, research on effective schools has concluded that many

factors interacting contribute greatly to the school success. Among the many

factors identified is the “culture” of the school. The teacher is one of the main

orchestrators of the school “culture” by the kind of conditions they create in the

classroom and the school in general. These conditions must create interest and

curiosity for students to know and to learn. The teachers on the other hand, through

their dispositions that are either learnt or inherent in them support the students.

Teachers have been described as mentors and

describers.As a mentor

- is a person who has authority to criticize as well as be constructive.

- they command as well as reflect

- develops a building relationships with the students

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 - a person who can have interest in students learning, knowing

and makestudents feel valued.

As an explainer,

- the teacher explains and creates an environment that is not

boring butenhancing for the pupil.

- a teacher who does not settle for routine and takes time to

learn howstudents learn and think.

- teachers who create high expectations for success in their schools.

Teacher’s role centers on integrity, humour, communication, learning and

organizationprecepts of their activity.

Activity

Design activities to enhance the school culture.

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Question

What do we mean by the term school culture?

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Bibliography

Alder, Mortimore, J. (1982) The Paideia Proposal. New York: Macmillan Publishing
Company. Beare, Hedley, Brian J. Caldwell and Ross H. Millikan (1989) Creating An
Excellent School.London; Routledge.
Busher, Hugh and Rene Saran (1995) Managing Teachers as Professionals in School.
London;Kogan Page.
Cole, G. A. (1996) Management Practice: A Theory of Practice. London; London
Publication.Government of Kenya, The Education Act CAP 211 of the Kenyan Laws.
Griffin, Geoffrey (1994) School Mastery. Nairobi; Lectern Publications Ltd.
Hoy, Way K. and Cecil G. Miskel (1987) Educational Administration. New York; McGraw-
Hill,Inc.
Knezevich, J. Stephen (1962) Administration of Public Education. New York; Harper &
Row,Publishers.
Kyungu, Sammy P.M 1/3/200…. “Effective Management of Schools” – unpublished
speech givenat Catholic Education secretariat annual Conference at Amani
Centre, Thika Road
Lazarides, Linda (1997) The Nutritional Health Bible, London: Thorsons.
Ministry of Education (1987) Education in Kenya. Nairobi; Jomo Kenyatta
Foundation.Reform Agenda For Education Sector in Kenya (2003).
Republic of Kenya (200) Handbook for Inspection of Educational Institutions, Nairobi.
Teachers Service Commission (2002). Operational Manual on Teacher Management
Nairobi; JomoKenyatta Foundation.

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 SCHOOL FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION

LESSON 1: FINANCING OF SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

Sources of School Funds

a) Fees from parents/pupils
b) Grants from the government
c) House and furniture rents.
d) Electricity and water charges recovered from staff
e) Activity fund
f) Building fund
g) School farm and other income generating activities
h) Sale of old and obsolete equipment

Once this money has been collected, it is important that is has to be used
appropriately tomeet the school financial needs.

Managing School Finances

This will be appropriately done if the head teacher/administrator prepares a budget.

Budget
Defn: "This is a statement of income and expenditure for a school calendar year"

Note:
Budgeting is a process of preparing a statement of income and expenditure for
a schoolcalendar year.

There are four (4) steps involved during the budgeting process.

1. Preparation of the budget

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This involves the preparation of three plans namely:-

2. The Education plan/Programme

This is derived from the educational policies which are stipulated by the Ministry of
Education. This will then give the needs of the school. These needs are arranged per
vote- head.

3. The Expenditure Plan

This is where the educational plans are converted into costs.

4. The Income Plan/Financing Plans

This is where the expected revenue/funds/income for the school during the year is determined.

❖ Preparation of the budget documents is done 3 - 4 months before the ensuing year
❖ The head teacher should involve all departmental heads and Accounts
clerk/bursar duringthe preparation phase.
❖ There is need to balance the educational plans along with the expenditure
plans andFinancing/Income plans.
❖ The initial budget is a tentative budget until it is officially approved by the
Ministry ofEducation.

Presentation, considered and Adoption of the budget

The budget document and an interpretative document are first presented to the
Board of Governors [BOG] and the Parents Association [PA] for discussion and
approval. Once approved, it is then taken to the Ministry of Education for final
ratification.

Note: Interpretative document is one that explains the increase or decrease of the
amount assigned to a given vote-head compared to the previous year.

A vote if amount of money assigned to a given expenditure/vote-head.

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A vote-head is an item of expenditure e.g. Repair, Maintenance, and
Improvement[R.M.I.], Local Travel and Transport [L.T. & T].

Administration of the Budget

[Implementation of the Budget]

This is where the budget is put into effect. Administration of the budget involves:

Budget control - This is when the expenditure if as per the budget. This will ensure
that all programmes are taken care of.

Work Plans - enables the administrator/head teacher have a clear picture of who will
procure what and when, in accordance with the budget estimates.

Implementation of work plans - During the administration of the budget, there may
be over- estimates or under-estimates in the various vote-heads. During such
instances, Virement has to be done from the Permanent Secretary or B.O.G.

Note:
Virement -This is transfer of money from one vote head to another.

Appraisal/Evaluation of the Budget Document.

This is assessing the budget document to determine its effectiveness. Appraisal

should be done in terms of the purpose for which it was designed. Appraisal of the
budget can be in terms of:-

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❖ Extent to which the organization meets its objectives
❖ Provision of accurate and systematic estimate and balance of receipts a expenditure.
❖ The budget as an important document for financial accounting.

LESSON 2: FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING

This is concerned with the maintenance of records in which financial transactions of
an educational organization are summarized. This ensures effective operation in the
organization.

Definition:
This is the process of recording, classifying and summarizing financial
transactions of aneducational organization and interpreting the results of these
transactions.

Objectives of Financial Accounting

1. Ensures that the financial resources are used for the intended purposes
2. Determines the degree of honesty and integrity of the accounting officers
3. Ensures proper business management with other organizations
4. Ensures authorities a quick check on both expenditure and proper financial control.

Financial Books of Accounts

The following books of accounts are used to facilitate financial accounting in school:-

1. Receipt Book: This is a book where all payments received are entered. This
receipt is issued to the person paying. Examples of payments made: school fees,
grants from the Ministry/NGOs and other donors, rents, sales and debtors.

2. Cash Book: This is a book of accounts in which all financial transactions with
respect to payments and receipts are recorded. The cashbook consists of the
debit side [left hand side, for money received] and the credit side [right hand side,
for the money paid].

3. The Ledger: This is an extract of all transaction which are recorded in the cash
book against each approved vote-head. Each page of the ledger referred to as a
ledge account shows financial transactions for a given vote-head. The ledger
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account is divided into two sides: the debit and the credit side.

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4. The Journal: This is a book of accounts which contains records of financial
events as they occur on a daily basis. The journal entries are accompanied by a
narration/or an explanation of the transaction.

Other books of accounts are:-

❖ Payments Voucher
❖ Inventory
❖ Stores Ledger
❖ Local Purchase Order [L.P.O.]
❖ Commitment Register/Vote books etc.

LESSON 3: AUDITING

This is an investigation of the financial records of an organization in order to

ascertain the objectivity and accuracy of the financial statements. It appraises the
accuracy and completeness of the accounting system.

Objectives/Purposes
❖ To determine whether the financial statements made are accurate and in
application of therecommended accounting guidelines.
❖ To determine whether the organization's financial procedures comply with the
legalprovisions, policies and procedures are stipulated by the Ministry of
Education
❖ To identify any operational problems in the accounting procedures used by
theorganization.

Categories of Auditing
There are two categories:-
(a) Special auditing - Where accounts of a given vote-head are scrutinized to assess
how funds on this vote-head were used.
(b) General auditing - This is where the form and content of the budget document is
scrutinized

Types of Auditing

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There are two
types:-Internal
Auditing
This is done by the organization itself. This type of auditing enables the
organization toappraise the effectiveness of its financial management techniques.

External Auditing

This is performed by agencies outside the organization. In educational

organizations it isdone by the Ministry of Education Auditor.

Activity:

1. Discuss how a headteacher can effectively use school funds.

Indicate the problems a headteacher can encounter while managing school funds

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