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Physics Without Prior Knowledge Become An Einstein in 7 Days (Benjamin Spahic)
Physics Without Prior Knowledge Become An Einstein in 7 Days (Benjamin Spahic)
prior knowledge
Benjamin Spahic
Content
1. Foreword
2. Basics of mathematics
2.1. Solving equations
2.2. Exponential functions
2.3. Power laws
2.4. Logarithms
2.5. The Greek alphabet
2.6. Sine, cosine, tangent
2.7. Sine and cosine functions:
2.8. Arc sine, arc cosine, arc tangent
2.9. Two-dimensional coordinate system
3. Conventions in physics
3.1. Notation, upper case letters, lower case letters
3.2. Prefixes for a wide dynamic range
3.3. The "Système International d'unités"
3.4. Derived SI units
3.5. Representing differences
4. Movement and acceleration
4.1. The route s
4.2. The time t
4.3. The speed v
4.4. Uniform movements
4.5. Sectional, uniform movement
4.6. The acceleration a
4.7. Uniformly accelerated movement
4.8. The free fall
5. Forces and mechanics
5.1. The mass m
5.2. The momentum p
5.3. Newton's 1st Law - The Principle of Inertia
5.4. 2. Newton's law and the force F
5.5. Newton's 3rd Law - Reaction Principle
5.6. Vectors and representation of forces
5.7. Adding forces
5.8. Forces in inclined planes
5.9. Friction
6. Thermodynamics - Heat and Energy
6.1. The temperature
6.2. Linear expansion
6.3. Energy
6.4. The difference between heat and temperature
6.5. Power P
6.6. Law of conservation of energy and efficiency
6.7. Examples of efficiency from everyday life
6.8. Spring force
6.9. Kinetic energy
6.10. Potential energy
6.11. Spring-mass oscillator
7. Electrical engineering - current, voltage and co
7.1. The stream-water model
7.2. Atoms, electrons, protons
7.3. Why do some materials conduct electricity?
7.4. The electric field E
7.5. Representation of E-fields
7.6. The force in the electric field
7.7. The electrical potential and the voltage U
7.8. The current I
7.9. Technical and physical current direction
7.10. The magnetic field
7.11. Elementary magnets
7.12. Displaying magnetic fields
7.13. Electromagnetism
7.14. Induction law
7.15. Magnetic flux and induction
7.16. The Lenz Rule
7.17. The Lorentz force
7.18. The direction of the Lorentz force, the three-finger rule
7.19. Overview: E-field and B-field
8. Mechanical and electromagnetic waves
8.1. Properties of waves
8.2. The Doppler effect
8.3. Electromagnetic waves
8.4. The speed of light c
9. Optics - light and refraction
9.1. Light - an electromagnetic wave
9.2. Refraction
9.3. Reflection
9.4. Total reflection
9.5. Refraction through lenses
10. Nuclear physics
10.1. The atomic number Z
10.2. Isotopes
10.3. Radioactive decay
10.4. Alpha radiation
10.5. Beta radiation
10.6. Gamma radiation
10.7. Half-life
11. Theory of relativity
11.1. Relativity and inertial systems
11.2. Time dilation
11.3. The twin paradox:
11.4. Length contraction
11.5. Newton's simplification in everyday life
Free eBook
"Physics without prior knowledge" is the English translation of the German
book "Physik ohne Vorkenntnisse". Some passages in the book therefore
focus on the European region. This does not have an impact on the content,
the modes of action and general understanding.
Imprint:
Author: Benjamin Spahic
Address:
Benjamin Spahic
Konradin-Kreutzer-Str. 12
76684 Östringen, Germany
Editor/ Proofreading: Mentorium GmbH
Cover: Kim Nusko
ISBN Paperback: 979-8710556672
ISBN Hardcover: 9798724413534
ISBN eBook: B08WL9M683
Email: [email protected]
Facebook: Benjamin Spahic
Physics without prior knowledge
First publication 31.09.2021
Distribution through kindledirectpublishing
Amazon Media EU S.à r.l., 5 Rue Plaetis, L-2338, Luxembourg
1. Foreword
Physics is discussed everywhere, whether on public television, at school and
university or in private circles. But what is physics exactly? How can it be
distinguished from mathematics and what do we need it for?
Physics describes a super-area of many sub-areas of the technical world.
Velocities, electrical currents, mechanical forces or light rays and their
refraction. All these areas are subsumed under the term physics. And that
makes sense, because the description of all these natural laws can be
calculated in the same way.
We encounter physics every day. Just think of all the achievements that have
been made thanks to breakthroughs in physics. This doesn't necessarily just
refer to major events like landing on the moon, but those that get us through
life each day.
In the morning, we are woken up by our smartphone or digital alarm clock.
The aerodynamics of our car, together with the physical calculation of
acceleration and braking forces, get us to work safely and quickly. Almost
every new type of technology is based on fundamental, physical planning and
calculation.
Physics is important and unavoidable in many areas of life.
Despite its importance, however, there is one big problem: the enthusiasm
for understanding and learning physics is very limited in society. Only a
small, elite section of society studies the subject area.
Since you bought this book, it can be assumed that you are interested in the
basics of physics. Maybe you are still a pupil who is considering studying
physics, maybe you are an industrial engineering student who wishes to catch
up, or maybe you are a retiree who finally wants to catch up on what is not
taught well enough at school and in your studies. In any case, you won't regret
getting to grips with the subject matter.
When one deals with physics for the first time, one finds various books on
the subject, some of which consist of over 500 pages. Of course, these books
also have their raison d'être, for example if you want to scrutinise and
understand the subject matter down to the smallest detail, but for the majority
of those interested, this is neither necessary nor effective.
However, these books are completely unsuitable for newcomers. They
contain pages of mathematical derivations that are forgotten after a week. As
a result, confusion quickly spreads. This is demotivating and quickly leads to
many people giving up on the subject and reinforces their belief that "physics
is not for me". This is not because of the readers, but because they simply do
not belong to the book's target group. You don't have to be an Einstein to
understand the basics, you just have to be motivated to deal with the subject
matter, as Einstein himself already knew.
.
Here, a is called the base and x the exponent (colloquially high number). The
base must be a real number that is greater than 0 and not equal to 1. The
exponent is usually part of the real numbers. Note also the case .
Exponentiating powers
If a (base with) power is exponentiated, the exponents are multiplied
together.
2.4. Logarithms
Logarithms occur just as frequently as exponential functions in everyday life.
For example, in the human ear, in natural decay, pH values or our perception
of brightness.
The basic arithmetic operations, i.e. "plus and minus" as well as "times and
divided" are well-known. For every mathematical operation there is a
corresponding inverse function. For example, if you want to reverse an
addition, you subtract; a multiplication is reversed by means of division. The
logarithm function is used to reverse exponentiation.
Logarithms table
The following table shows the notation of the logarithms to the base
Base of the Notation Designation
logarithm
Any number a Logarithm to base a
2 Logarithm of two
(Logarithmus dualis)
Natural logarithm
10 Logarithm of ten
The natural logarithm is the logarithm most commonly used in mathematics.
The logarithm of two is often used in the IT sector, as a computer works
digitally, i.e. calculates in a binary way using only ones and zeros.
;
If the angle is then changed from 0° to 360°, we obtain a function that
expresses the value of the opposite or adjacent side as a function of the
angle.
Instead of specifying the angle in degrees, it is usual to use a conversion to
circle angles or radians , the so-called radians. A circle with the radius
has a circumference of . This circumference is used as a
reference for a full angle of 360°. 360° corresponds to 180° corresponds
example .
and are widely used and anyone familiar with the subject knows that the arc functions are
meant.
There are many more coordinate systems than you might think. For example,
the position of a point (in relation to the origin) can be described not only as
length (x-axis) and height (y-axis), but also as a radius from the origin and an
angle. However, these are not relevant for this book and will therefore not be
discussed further.
.
3. There is no rule on how to assign indices. However, it has
become accepted that an initial value is given the index
zero and then numbered consecutively.
The car drives constantly with an initial speed of ,
but an angle of .
6. For physical quantities, the internationally common
formula symbols are used.
The base 10 is the same, therefore the exponents can be offset. The numbers
before the exponents are calculated separately.
When invoicing, we split the numbers and their prefixes and charge them
separately.
Remark:
Newton is the unit of force, which we will discuss in more detail later.
It should also be noted that there are "naturalised" units. For example, one
thousand kilograms is called one ton = 1000 kg = 1 t.
For units of length and area, the prefix centimetre/centimetre (1 cm = 0.01m),
decimetre (1dm = 0.1 m) and an ar (1a = 100 m²) are also often used.
It is common to write a physical quantity in square brackets and then state the
unit.
For the purposes of this book, this convention will be maintained; if
something is in brackets, it is a unit.
The differential
Let us now make this delta smaller and smaller in our thoughts. The
Δ
The change of one quantity after another is written as a
differential. For example, speed is equal to the change in distance
after time. As a differential representation:
4. Movement and acceleration
In order to warm up to physics a little, let's get into a topic that still sounds
very logical and intuitive to most people. Distances and speeds are
something we can all imagine. Even terms like acceleration are familiar to
every car driver who has ever pressed hard on the accelerator. But how can
we calculate the correct physical quantities and what do we have to pay
attention to? That's what we'll look at in this chapter. We will start with the
first and simplest physical quantity.
We will explain later in the book why the representation as an arrow is not
100 % correct. A distance which represents a movement from A to B is
called displacement instead .
In the context of this book, only the formula symbol is used. is often used
in school lessons and in technical literature. In international works, the
formula symbol often appears in international works.
It is important to understand that a route needs a starting point (often also
zero point) and an end point. We determine the start and end points and their
designation ourselves . For the starting point, for example, we recommend
the designation (beginning) or . The route is often abbreviated as the
connection of the start and end points.
The distance can be explained clearly. The next physical quantity we learn
about is also known. It is time .
Minute 1 min 60 s
The velocity indicates the change in the distance over time and
is abbreviated with the formula symbol abbreviation.
The velocity consists of a direction and a magnitude ( speed ). Often the term
speed is used when the direction of the velocity does not matter.
and analogue .
or from is
A car is driving on the motorway at 120 . How long does it take to travel
20 km? How many metres does it travel per second?
Solution:
for.
Or in SI units:
The distance increases with time. What about the speed during this time?
This is constant the whole time at If we enter this into the same
coordinate system, we only get a constant.
Figure 12: Constant time-velocity diagram
The velocities are constant in the individual sections, which is why we also
speak of sectional uniform motion .
The table shows that the speed jumps at the rate of jumps.
If we transfer this fact to driving a car, it would mean that in one second we
The average speed results from the average of the start and end speed. If the
starting speed is zero, as in our case, it is calculated from
.
With the help of the average speed, we can finally calculate the distance
travelled.
So, we see that the distance is quadratically dependent on time. If we plot the
distance on a graph, we get a parabola.
Figure 18: Square time-distance diagram
This means that after one second of free fall, an object already
over .
The physical model of uniform motion or uniformly accelerated motion is
simple and understandable. As is so often the case, the model can only be
applied to reality to a limited extent; disturbance variables such as the
friction of the tyres on the road or the air resistance force, which increases
with speed, are not taken into account.
They ensure that the acceleration does not remain constant. For example, a
car can accelerate from 0 100 much faster than from 100 to 200
.
In free fall too, there is a balance between air resistance and gravity,
otherwise the speed would approach infinity over time.
.
We also know that momentum is the product of mass and velocity.
Since the mass does not change, a change in momentum can only change the
velocity .
If we insert this relationship into the above formula for calculating the force,
we get
.
Looking back over the last few chapters, can you recall whether we have seen
If we put the acceleration into the previous formula, we get Newton's second
law and one of the most important relationships in mechanics.
well as as the unit of acceleration. Both are correct. Depending on the task,
the appropriate unit can be chosen.
On earth, every object is attracted with the acceleration due to gravity. The
force exerted on a body is also called the weight force with the formula
Here, the difference between the weight or the weight force of
a body and its mass becomes clear once again.
Therefore, in order to lift an object, we need a force that is greater than the
weight force.
A stone with the mass moves with . What is its momentum? What
force acts on the stone? Hint: it is not accelerated.
Solution:
Another example is starting a car. To accelerate a car, the wheel must exert a
force on the road. According to Newton's third law, the road simultaneously
exerts a force on the car. How can we imagine this? The car accelerates the
earth by exerting a force on it? Sounds strange at first, that we are "pushing"
the earth.
But that is indeed the case.
the Earth by - of course, we would have to drive at full throttle all the
time.
Strictly speaking, we must bear in mind that the earth is not
The force that counteracts the force of gravity is called the normal force.
is called normal force. The normal force can be thought of as the force that
the ground exerts on us so that we are not accelerated into the ground. In free
fall, the normal force is zero. When we are standing on the ground it is equal
to the weight force. Finally, we are neither accelerated upwards nor
downwards.
We have already learned from the third axiom that forces not only have an
amount (numerical value) but also a direction. We will learn how to
represent forces in the following chapter.
Scalar Vector
Magnitude/Numerical value Magnitude + direction
Examples: Speed, distance, Examples: force, velocity,
temperature, length, mass displacement
But what is the use of representing a force as a vector? Vectors have other
properties that are extremely helpful for calculating with forces or vectors.
First of all, they can be added together.
Now the question arises, in which direction does the centre of the rope move?
In order to clarify this, we represent the forces that the teams exert on each
other as vectors, so each force is understood as an arrow with length and
direction. All vectors start at the centre and point in the direction in which the
rope is pulled. The length of the arrows indicate the strength of the force.
Trained adults can apply a pulling force of up to 800 N. For a ten-man team,
this is 8 kN. In the example, one team pulls with and the other
only with .
To obtain the resulting force, we take advantage of the fact that we can move
the vectors freely. The force components that point directly in opposite
directions neutralise each other. The creates a resultant force (net force).
In this example, there are only two directions in which the rope can move.
What happens if there are several forces acting in different directions?
We have determined the resulting force and its direction by adding up the
individual forces. Formally we write for this
(sum of all forces).
The amount of the resulting force corresponds to the length of the arrow.
Using the example, we also need to reconsider our formula for determining
the force.
It becomes clear that the downhill force is not equal to the weight force.
Furthermore, a connection with the angle of inclination must exist. For
this, we look at the trigonometric relationships in a triangle. If you are no
longer familiar with the relationships, you can fill in the gaps in your
knowledge in chapter 2.5 Sine, cosine, tangent.
In the example this results in
We can also verify the formula using the extreme cases. For an angle
the inclined plane is infinitely steep. The car would practically
fall, so the weight force equals the slope down force. Fittingly, the sine of
.
5.9. Friction
We are familiar with friction from everyday life. What happens when the
friction is no longer high enough, we see the impact when driving in winter on
icy roads.
Friction is one of the most difficult effects in physics to describe. Since
friction depends on countless factors, it is difficult to find a suitable model.
But what is the best way to describe friction physically?
For this, we take a closer look at the properties of friction. We cannot simply
push a car aside. "It's too heavy" is the colloquial expression. Strictly
speaking, only the friction between tyre and road is too great. On a frozen
lake, we can push a car under certain conditions. So we see that the greater
the friction, the more force we have to use to move or accelerate an object.
Friction counteracts positive acceleration and amplifies negative
acceleration.
Friction also depends on the surface properties of the materials that rub
against each other. Using the example of the car, it is also clear that it depends
on the mass, or the resulting weight force, or the normal force. or the
normal force respectively.
Figure 31: Frictional force on the car while driving
Stone on stone 1
Steel on ice 0.03
Leather on metal 0.6
raise.
How much force do we need to push a steel block with the mass
on a steel surface? How much force would we need on an
ice surface?
Solution:
On ice:
What is the maximum weight of a tree trunk (wood) that an adult man can pull
across a wooden floor? The man can exert a maximum force of
.
Solution:
We have learned about the force we have to exert to push an object. However,
there is another frictional force, namely the one we have to apply constantly
while the object is already in motion.
The initial force is always greater and is referred to as static friction or
static friction force. Accordingly, the static friction coefficient is
abbreviated as . In addition to this, there is the sliding or kinetic friction
mentioned above and, analogously, the kinetic friction coefficient .
We can see that the static friction is always greater than the kinetic friction.
We have learned many basics about physical forces, including where they
occur and how they work. Next, we will look at the relationship between
different forces and energies and heat. To do this, we first need to understand
what energy means and how we can tell energy and power apart.
6. Thermodynamics - Heat and Energy
Heat is intangible. We can perceive heat, but how can heat be described from
a physical point of view?
To clarify this question, let's look at what heat actually is, how we can
physically capture it and calculate with it.
But:
Kelvin is also the SI unit of temperature. So we see that the unit kelvin is of
great importance in physics.
with
off.
That doesn't sound like much at first. Let's calculate the absolute change in
length. To do this, we take a 120 m long railway rail, as used for railway
tracks. It expands accordingly by
expansion.
. How does the volume of the petrol change when a car tank is
filled with in the summer and the petrol then warms up?
Solution:
results from:
The absolute change results from
.
Work always acts on a body. The unit of work is Newton times metre
.
Unlike work, energy is not limited to work done on objects.
There are many different types of energy, for example heat energy. We can
feel this when we touch a warm object. If it adds too much heat to our body,
we suffer a burn. Furthermore, energy can take the form of movement. The
kinetic energy indicates the energy of a moving body. Other forms of energy
are, for example, electrical energy or rotational energy.
Solution:
6.5. Power P
Power (or performance) is a physical quantity and refers to
the work that is done in a certain amount of time. time.
The energy results from the power times the effective time. Therefore in
total . This corresponds to 258 kcal. However,
due to losses in converting the chemical energy from the food into kinetic
energy, Herbert burns considerably more than 258 kcal in practice.
A trained young man can produce a continuous output of approximately
or so. We recall that a pit horse can produce one horsepower, which
is circa which corresponds to approximately
You can quickly see that is always between zero and one. Often is given
as a percentage. With an efficiency of exactly 1 (= 100 %), the entire energy
is converted without loss. With an efficiency of zero, the complete energy can
no longer be used after conversion.
The terms exergy and anergy are also often used in connection with the
efficiency. Exergy describes the part of the energy that can be used.
In the case of driving, this is the proportion of energy that is converted into
propulsion for movement; the waste heat, i.e. the heating of the engine, the
unused energy, is referred to as anergy.
0.4275 (corresponds to
42.75 %).
Efficiency is an important aspect when it comes to developing and promoting
technologies. This is because it is often closely related to economic
profitability.
However, the context must always be taken into account. Solar and
wind energy is available in unlimited quantities and free of charge.
;
The spring is 24.905 cm long with the weight attached.
with and
bananas
It takes 26 bananas to climb the Zugspitze.
With the help of the potential energy, we can also calculate the speed of a
falling object. According to the conservation of energy, the total energy of a
system remains the same. In free fall, therefore, all the potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy.
Solution:
Alternatively, we could have calculated the speed using the formula for
uniformly accelerated motion.
First we calculate the fall duration. To do this, we use the formula for the
distance covered by a uniformly accelerated movement. The distance in this
case is the height and the acceleration corresponds to the acceleration
due to gravity .
We see that there are two different approaches to the same task. The result is
the same. That's what we expected.
onto the ground. It hits the ground with a speed of on impact. How high
is the tree? How fast would an apple twice as heavy hit the ground?
Solution:
The apple tree is 2.5 m high. The mass of the apple does not appear in the
equation. An apple that weighs twice as much will also hit the ground with
impact.
With kinetic and potential energy, two more forms are added to our
collection of different forms of energy. In the next chapter, we will see how
different forms of movement merge into each other and create an oscillation.
We then steer the car to the right from the equilibrium position. We refer to
the displacement as . What happens when we let go of the car?
The right spring pushes the car towards the rest position, the left spring
simultaneously pulls the car in the same direction. This accelerates the car
according to .
In reality, the car will never reach the starting point again, instead it will turn
around before it does. The reason for this is friction. Both the friction of the
tyres on the ground and the friction of the air take kinetic energy away from
the car, thus slowing it down and preventing it from reaching full
displacement again from its equilibrium position.
The interaction of tension and kinetic energy produces an oscillation of the
displacement. .
We now know that an oscillation occurs, but what does it look like, how long
does it last and how can we calculate the maximum speed of the car?
To do this, we take another look at the car's displacement over time. We also
introduce a physical quantity called the period. It is abbreviated with a T and
indicates the time that the car needs to arrive back at the starting point. A
passage from through the equilibrium position to and back
again is called a period. For a "normalised cosine oscillation" the period is
(see chapter 2.5. Sine, cosine, tangent).
T is given in seconds in practical tasks, such as our oscillation example. If
the car needs 10 seconds to be pre-accelerated once, turn around and arrive
back at the starting point, is .
There are important points within the period.
At the time the car is at the start position, the displacement is
. At this time, the acceleration is maximum, the speed is just zero.
Some of you may already recognise the curve. It is a cosine curve (see also
chapter 2.5).
The maximum distance is called amplitude . The distance is measured from
the zero point to the left or right.
The spring-mass system oscillates harmoniously with a displacement
.
Let's take a closer look at what the letter f inside the bracket is all about.
Before doing so, we can determine the oscillation mathematically.
arbitrarily small period of time, the span delta becomes a differential (see
chapter 3.5).
The same applies to the speed. It is the differential of the distance.
This results in the acceleration being twice the differential of the path.
We have already learnt about the amplitude . But what does the new
constant stand for? is called frequency and indicates how many periods the
car travels within one second. The unit of frequency is named after the
German physicist Heinrich Hertz . If the car drives forward once
within one second, turns around and is accelerated back until it arrives at the
starting point again, the frequency is . Since it indicates how often
an oscillation occurs per second, the frequency is just the reciprocal of the
frequency is also .
One hertz corresponds to but the unit Hertz Hz is reserved exclusively for
.
The frequency indicates the number of periods per second, therefore
Alternative: .
We now know what the frequency and period duration say. Let’s take another
look at our oscillation equation.
If we want to know the position of the car after a certain time, we put the
time into the vibration equation and get the position.
For example, if we steer the car around and the frequency of the
vibration is we can solve the vibration equation by
At the time is the position of the car:
The same consideration that we made for the position of the car can be
applied to its speed .
maximum .
The equation for the velocity is analogous to the position determination and
is only shifted by a quarter period.
The sine is shifted by a quarter period compared to the cosine.
The period duration and thus also the frequency of the oscillation is the same.
Therefore, the vibration equation that gives us the instantaneous velocity of
the car is: .
After half a period, the car is exactly at the reversal point at . The
speed there is zero. We can determine the position and the speed of the car
for every point in time. All we need is the frequency of the oscillation and
the amplitudes of the distance and speed.
The context is .
Let's go through the new formulas with concrete examples and numerical
values.
A car with the mass which is attached to two springs with the
;
The maximum speed results from:
The vibration equations and concrete values can thus be calculated using the
following formulae:
Real systems
We have already learned that there is virtually no system without friction. In
an oscillation, friction ensures that the amplitude decreases over time. The
oscillation subsides. That is why we call this type of oscillation damped
oscillation.
If you are new to the subject of electrical engineering, many of the terms used
are abstract and difficult to imagine. It takes time and practice to define the
terms and classify them correctly. To make it easier to remember the terms,
we use a model.
The formula symbol of the charge is Q and the unit of the charge is the
coulomb C . In SI units . The charge is therefore
given in C or As.
The elementary particles (protons and electrons) both have the smallest
possible charge that is physically possible. This is called the elementary
charge and is abbreviated as e.
The elementary charge has the value of
coulomb. An electron has the charge of
and a proton has a charge of .
Since the charge of an atom is neutral overall, it has the same number of
electrons as protons . The protons and neutrons form the atomic nucleus,
while the electrons race around the nucleus at the speed of light. Almost the
entire mass of the atom is united in the atomic nucleus.
If we look at the structure of an atom in more detail, we see that the electrons
do not race randomly around the atomic nucleus, but travel along defined
paths, so-called orbitals.
These are called shells , which can hold different numbers of electrons. The
innermost shell (K-shell), which is close to the nucleus, can hold only two
electrons; the second (L-shell) can hold a full 8 electrons, the third (M-
shell) up to 18 electrons and so on. In total, there are up to seven shells,
depending on how many protons and thus how many electrons an atom has.
If an atom has only 2 electrons, only the first shell is filled. If it has 11
electrons, the first and second shells are completely filled and there is a
single electron in the third.
The electrons that lie on the outermost shell are also called valence
electrons.
Metals such as iron, copper or aluminium form a special lattice structure in
which the valence electrons can move freely.
Let us return to our water model. The valence electrons are freely movable
and therefore correspond to water in the water cycle. These transfer charges,
or the energy in the circuit. Next, we come to the pressure difference
between the basins. This is caused by gravity, mathematically speaking by the
earth's gravitational field . We find the electric field in the circuit.
The illustration shows that the field lines (light blue arrows) are clearly
closer together (denser) at the circle representing the point charge than those
farther away from it. This means that the field is correspondingly stronger
there.
If several charge carriers meet, a wide variety of field lines are created.
Figure 43: Electric field lines
The field lines are jumbled and do not seem to follow any order.
If, on the other hand, the field lines are parallel, we speak of a homogeneous
field . The field has the same value at every point. This is the case, for
example, if we have two plane opposing metal plates on which charge
carriers are placed.
Figure 44: Homogeneous electric field
Often the field is also found in vector notation . We know by now what a
vector is. The fact that the E-field is a vector means that the field not only
exerts a force on the particle, but the force also has a direction in space.
To illustrate this, draw field lines that run away from positive
charges and towards negative charges. The density of the field lines
corresponds to the strength of the field.
in an E-field with ?
Solution:
What force does an electron experience in the same E-field? What is the
difference?
Solution: A proton has the same charge as an electron, but a different sign.
Therefore, the force is the same for the electron, but with a negative sign
(-480 pN). The proton is accelerated in the opposite direction.
Excursus equipotential lines:
In more in-depth literature, equipotential lines are also often mentioned.
These are perpendicular to the electric field lines.
The dark lines are the field lines of the point charges. The ellipses represent
the equipotential lines. At the crossing points, the equipotential and E field
lines are perpendicular to each other . The same electric potential prevails
at each point. In order to understand the meaning of the equipotential lines,
we first learn about the electric potential and the voltage U.
7.7. The electrical potential and the voltage U
The electric potential or electrostatic potential is abbreviated with ϕ (Greek
lower case letter Phi ). It has the unit volt V.
But what exactly is our pump now? The pump in the water circuit
corresponds to a voltage source in the electricity circuit. A voltage source
is, for example, a battery . A standard AA battery has a voltage of 1.5 V .
This means that the positive pole, i.e. the upper contact point of the battery,
has an electrical potential that is 1.5 V higher than the negative pole.
The circuit symbol of a voltage
source is a circle with a solid
Power sources:
Analogous to voltage sources, there are also current sources. These do not
generate a potential difference, but a constant current I, independent of the
voltage U applied.
flux density . It indicates how strong the magnetic flux is in the magnetic
field. It also indicates the force acting on a sample charge.
We are not interested in the complete magnetic field of a body, but only in the
"effects", and this is described by the flux density.
You can imagine the magnetic field like a waterfall. We are not
interested in the complete extent and size of the waterfall, but only in
the flux density of the falling water.
The magnetic field strength is less important in technology.
per metre.
The magnetic flux density and the magnetic field are directly related via the
permeability µ. µ is therefore also often called magnetic conductivity.
Now that we have learned about the physical quantities, we come to the cause
of a B-field. An electric field is created when charged particles form a
positive and a negative pole.
Fig u re 4 9 : Ele me n ta ry ma g n e ts
It is different with magnetic materials. There, all the elementary magnets are
aligned. This creates a north and a south pole: the material is magnetic. The
best-known magnets are neodymium magnets . These are made from the
element neodymium (Nd), which belongs to the rare earths, iron and boron.
Due to their extreme strength, neodymium magnets are used in many areas, for
example in asynchronous generators of wind turbines or in the drives of
electric cars.
The illustration shows magnetic lines of a permanent magnet. But these are not
self-contained, are they?
Yes, they are closed, because the magnetic field lines continue inside the
magnet from the south to the north pole, so that a closed circle is formed. We
are only interested in the outer field lines, which is why only these are drawn
in many illustrations.
We can draw the magnetic field lines as an arrow from one pole to the other,
knowing that the field lines continue inside the magnet. For the outer magnetic
field lines it is then true that the starting point is always the north pole and the
end point the south pole.
As in any field, the density of the magnetic field lines indicates the strength
You can remember this definition by a feathered arrow. If you shoot the arrow
into the plane, you see the tail, which is a two-dimensional cross. If the arrow
flies towards us, we only see the tip, i.e. a point.
7.13. Electromagnetism
Static magnetic fields, such as that of a permanent magnet, are clear and
familiar. Much more complex to understand are magnetic fields generated by
electricity, for example in an electric motor.
Electromagnetism is one of the most important effects in our time and can be
found almost everywhere. Electromagnetism plays a role in the electric car, in
data transmission, in the high-voltage transmission of our power grid and in
every power supply unit of a PC, laptop or smartphone.
To understand the effect, let's go back in time. In 1820, the physicist Hans
Christian Ørsted experimented with a piece of wire through which he let
current flow. In the process, he noticed that a compass located nearby
deflected each time the voltage was applied. The magnetic needle no longer
pointed north, but was deflected by the wire through which current was
flowing. This finding quickly made the rounds and other physicists such as
Ampère, after whom the current bar was named, were able to confirm the
experiment.
This proved that an electric current generates a magnetic field.
The direction of the B-field can be determined with the right-hand rule. You
clench a fist with your right hand and point your thumb upwards. This
indicates the direction of flow of the current (in the technical direction of the
current, i.e. from positive to negative pole). The four fingers indicate the
direction of circulation of the B-field.
7.14. Induction law
In physics, most effects are valid in both directions. A current flow in the
conductor generates a magnetic field. Conversely, an externally applied
magnetic field generates a current flow in a conductor. This inversion is
described as the law of induction. The process of electromagnetic induction
means that a current or voltage is generated in a conductor by an external,
changing magnetic field.
Derivation of induction
To do this, we will learn a new quantity. We already know the magnetic field
and the magnetic flux density. The third significant quantity is the magnetic
flux (Greek letter capital Phi) will be dealt with.
The magnetic flux can be compared to a waterfall. We take a surface and hold
it in the waterfall. We look at how much water flows through the surface.
The quantity that flows through the area corresponds to the magnetic flux. We
obtain the magnetic flux by multiplying the flux density by the area flowed
through.
The unit of magnetic flux is given by Tesla times square metre or Weber
Wb ( ).
Solution:
The second effect is used, for example, in the dynamo known from bicycles: A
permanent magnet rotates past a conductor. This causes the conductor to dip in
and out of the B-field with each rotation. According to the law of induction, a
voltage is induced that operates the front and rear lights.
Solution:
Field
constant
Cause Charged bodies Permanent magnets
or current-carrying
conductors
Test Test loading Sample magnet/
specimen current-carrying
conductor
Field lines Line along which a specimen
experiences a force
Field line From positive to Closed, outside
orientation negative pole from north to south
pole
Force Coulomb force Lorentz force
effect
8. Mechanical and electromagnetic waves
After understanding both oscillations and the basics of electrical engineering,
we come to the emission of electromagnetic waves.
Every type of wireless transmission is realised by electromagnetic waves. No
matter whether it is the W-LAN from home, the mobile network or GPS of the
mobile phone or the radio in the car radio.
The basis of electromagnetic waves is the electromagnetism already
described. Electrons move back and forth and generate a sinusoidal
alternating current. This means that the plus and minus poles change
periodically. We refer to this movement as a wave .
With transverse waves, on the other hand, the displacement takes place
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. For example, with
water waves or, as we will see later, with electromagnetic waves.
Figure 56: Display of transverse waves
On the other hand, we can observe a point on the water surface. At this point,
the water rises and falls every time a wave passes. The displacement is time-
dependent.
Time course of the amplitude at a fixed point in space:
often also called c . It is often also called the phase velocity of the wave.
formula formula.
Solution:
If we know how fast a wave propagates and what the period or frequency is,
we can determine the wavelength.
Because sound needs a carrier matter, for example air molecules. There is
almost no matter in space.
moving at a speed . In its normal state, the sound of the siren has a
As a result, the frequency increases when the sound source moves towards us
and decreases when the sound source moves away from us. We can see
exactly this effect in the siren of the police car. When the car passes us, the
sound changes.
We can calculate the change in frequency if we know the speed of propagation
of the wave and the speed of the vehicle. The new frequency is derived
from the original frequency as follows:
When the police car passes us, the relative speed is zero and the sound is
.
When the police car moves away from us, the frequency changes to:
Another phenomenon occurs with jets, for example. A jet emits engine noise
and air friction noise. We can hear it clearly on the ground. When a jet
accelerates and gets faster and faster, it accumulates the sound waves in front
of it. As the speed increases, the waves become denser and denser.
At the point where the jet has reached the speed of sound, the sound waves
are all superimposed on a plane in front of the jet. The amplitude or volume of
the waves adds up and a loud bang results - the sonic boom ! The jet then
moves faster than the sound. For passengers, the sounds emitted by the jet are
no longer perceptible.
This concludes our excursion into sound waves and the Doppler effect. Next,
we look at a class of waves that propagate much faster than the speed of
sound.
8.3. Electromagnetic waves
After learning about the basic properties of waves and the Doppler effect, we
move away from mechanical waves to waves that do not need a medium to
propagate. We do not deal in detail with the generation of electromagnetic
waves by means of antennas and oscillating circuits, but focus on physical
properties and their use.
At low frequencies, the electrons oscillate back and forth in the form of a
measurable voltage and current in the conductors or cables.
However, if we increase the frequency at which the electrons oscillate back
and forth, and dimension a suitable antenna, the oscillation can detach from
the conductive paths into space. The wave is radiated into space. The
frequencies of the waves must be selected extremely high.
It has already been mentioned that the frequency of the oscillation must be
very high so that the wave propagates. The following table helps us to get a
feel for the magnitudes of different waves. Since the waves are classified
according to their frequencies, we also speak of a (frequency) spectrum.
Designation Wave Example
frequency
Low frequency 0 Hz to 50 Hz ---
50 Hz European electricity grid
(conductor-based)
Up to 30 kHz Submarine communication
High frequency Up to 3 MHz Shortwave radio
Up to 300 MHz Radio and TV
Up to 1 GHz Mobile radio
2.4 GHz 2.4-WLAN
Up to 5 GHz Bluetooth, 5G, GPS
Up to 80 GHz Radar
Infrared > 300 GHz Microwaves
(heat radiation) Radiant heater
Light > 300 THz Visible light
UV rays > 800 THz Black light, photolithography
X-rays > 30,000 THz Medical technology
The European power grid is operated at a very low frequency of 50 Hz. This
is because it is a wired oscillation, which is not supposed to detach. Every
electromagnetic wave that detaches from the cables means a loss of energy
during transport.
.
The wavelength is calculated as
What is the wavelength of the WLAN network? (We can find the frequency in
the table above).
Solution:
In water, the propagation speed of light is about 25% lower than in air or in a
vacuum. How long is a wavelength of WLAN signals there?
Solution:
Frequency spectrum
Frequency
Wavelength
X-ray radiation Ultraviolet (UV) Visible light Infrared (IF) Radio radiation
radiation (VIS) radiation
However, the light of the sun also contains ultraviolet and infrared components that
we cannot perceive. We must always keep in mind that it is only due to our eyes that
we can see this part of the spectrum. Our eye is nothing more than a biological sensor
that can only pick up these specific waves. Animals such as fish or bees, on the other
hand, can also "see" into the UV range.
We have clarified the physical meaning of light as an electromagnetic wave. Building
on this, we will look at two other effects that benefit spectacle wearers in particular,
the refraction and reflection of waves. These principles are not limited to light or
electromagnetic waves, but we will focus on optics. First, we will look at the
phenomenon of refraction.
9.2. Refraction
Everyone knows the phenomenon as soon as you look at a water surface. Objects
under the water surface seem much closer than they really are.
Figure 64: Refraction at the water surface
The reason for this is that the propagation speed of light depends on
the medium. In water, the speed of propagation is not equal to the speed of
light in air, but is reduced by about 25%.
This is illustrated by an example: On a busy beach, a man in the water calls for help.
A lifeguard sees the man and has to rescue him as quickly as possible. The lifeguard
can run much faster on land than he can swim in the water. Therefore, he will stay on
land for as long as possible and only cover the necessary distance in the water.
Figure 65: Analogy - Lifeguard
The lifeguard understandably chooses the quickest route, not the shortest.
A physical phenomenon discovered by the French physicist Pierre Fermat and named
after him is very similar to the example with regards to the refractive behaviour of
light.
Fermat's principle states that light, in order to travel from one point to another,
always seeks the path of minimum travel time and not the shortest path. This is also
the case, for example, with our initial example of the refraction of air in water.
Air or vacuum have a refractive index of one, because there the speed
of propagation of light is equal to the speed of light.
Next, we look at the angle at which a light ray is refracted, or exactly which path the
light rays take when they pass from one medium to another.
This question can be solved mathematically by an extreme value problem. In physics,
one calculates exclusively with the result.
The transit time of the light beam should become minimal. This condition is fulfilled
if the product of the sine of the angle and the refractive index remains the same.
This law, which is based on Fermat's principle, was named Snell 's
law of refraction after the Dutch mathematician Willebrord van Roijen
Snell.
Let's apply the law of refraction to our water surface. The refractive index of air is 1,
that of water is approximately
The angle is reduced from 60° to 41.6°. This refracts the beam towards the
perpendicular.
9.3. Reflection
When light waves change from one material to another, they are not only refracted but
also partially reflected back. For example, the shore is reflected when we look at a
lake. This effect is also called reflection.
The same laws apply as for refraction.
However, since the material does not change, the refractive indices are the same.
Consequently, the angles are also the same.
In reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Refraction and
reflection usually occur together, depending on the refractive indices.
We can determine the critical angle at which total reflection occurs by the law of
refraction. At the critical angle the angle is exactly 90°.
.
From an angle of 45.6°, no more light rays are refracted.
The larger the object, the larger the image will be at the same distance. If we move
the object further away from the lens plane, the image also becomes smaller.
The ratio of image and object size is equal to the ratio of image and
object width. The relatively simple equation is:
When specifying spectacle lenses, one usually does not use the focal length but the
refractive power which is given in diopters . A lens with a focal
The image of the tree on the screen is high. How high is the real tree?
What is the focal length and refractive power of the lens?
Solution:
We use the lens refraction law:
We can refract and deflect light. On the other hand, we can shoot
individual photons at each other and bounce them off of each other like
classical particles. This fact is also described as wave-particle duality.
Wave-particle duality is not limited to light, but also to other particles such as
electrons.
10. Nuclear physics
In this chapter we look at the most important aspects of nuclear physics. How
much does an electron weigh? What is radioactivity and what are the different
types of radiation?
We have already learned about the structure of an atom.
In the atomic nucleus, neutrons and protons are crowded together in a very
small space. Electrons race around the nucleus in different orbits, also called
shells. Overall, the atom is neutrally charged, which means that we can find as
many electrons as protons in an atom.
We have already learned about the charge of electrons, which we call the
elementary charge C
However, we have not yet determined the mass of an electron in more detail.
Electrons, like light, can be regarded both as particles with a mass and as
waves.
The mass of an electron is another natural constant and is vanishingly small. It
The smallest and lightest element is hydrogen. It has the atomic number one,
which means that it consists of only one proton and one electron. The mass
number is also one, which means that it has no neutrons.
Iron, on the other hand, has the atomic number 26 - it therefore consists of 26
protons. In addition, there are 30 neutrons in the nucleus. The mass number is
correspondingly so that the iron atom is about 56
times as large as the nucleus of a hydrogen atom.
To represent an atom, the abbreviation is first used, for example H for
hydrogen (hydrogen) or Fe for iron (ferrite).
The mass number and the atomic number are written in front of it,
.
For hydrogen and iron, this would look like this:
and .
The mass number is often omitted if it is not necessary for the description. In
the following chapter, however, it is essential to specify the mass number.
10.2. Isotopes
We have established that the atom is determined by the atomic number. Is
every atom therefore exactly the same? Not necessarily. In the vast majority of
cases a specific composition of atomic number and mass number dominates.
Let's take the carbon atom as an example. It has the atomic number 6 and is
abbreviated with (carbon).
Most carbon atoms have an additional 6 neutrons in the nucleus. Thus we can
In nature, the atom occurs with a probability of 98.9 %. Only 1.1% of the
The average mass number of a carbon atom is 12.011. Therefore, the average
helium. .
does not sound like a lot of energy at first, but it must be taken
into account that not only one atom decays. One gram of uranium already
contains 2.53 trillion ( atoms, which corresponds to an energy of 1.7
giga joules!
On the other hand, there may also be too few neutrons. Then a proton is
converted into a neutron and a radiation is emitted. In the process, a
positron is released. Positrons are less well known than electrons
because they occur almost exclusively in beta decay and are not very
illustrative. The process is called beta-plus decay.
If a neutron is converted into a proton, the mass number does not change, but
the atomic number increases by one. Our carbon atom provides an example. In
10.7. Half-life
A radioactive atom is unstable. This means that it decays and loses part of its
mass.
In connection with radioactivity, the question often arises of how long a
radioactive substance radiates. Some substances decay into stable atoms
within just a few seconds and are thus no longer radioactive. Other
substances, however, including those widely used in energy production, such
as uranium or plutonium, radiate for centuries or even longer.
But how much time passes between a decay? It varies, the reason being that
radioactive decay is a random event. As soon as the atom is unstable, there is
a possibility of decay. When the decay actually occurs it is random. However,
it can be observed that certain substances decay faster than others. Therefore,
one can conclude that these tend to decay earlier.
In order to be able to make a statement about the "shelf life", the so-called
half-life is introduced.
First we need to understand that radioactive decay is a random, exponential
process. The more atoms that are left, the more decay.
The half-life of a potential decay indicates the average time after which the
mass of the radioactive substance has halved. In other words, after a half-life
half of all unstable atoms have decayed, the other half have not yet.
Figure 75: Representation of the half-life
After a further half-life, i.e. after a total of two half-lives only half of
the half, i.e. 25%, has not yet decayed, and so on.
To calculate the mass after a given half-life, we get:
only remains.
The following table shows the half-lives of various radioactive substances.
Radioactive Half-life
isotope
Iodine 131 8 days
Cobalt 60 5.27 years
Plutonium 239 24110 years
Uranium 235 703,800,000 (700 million)
years
Uranium 238 4,470,000,000 (4.4 billion)
years
The
theory of relativity is a very young theory. It investigates the relationship
between time, space and gravity. We all know the founder of the theory of
relativity. What is less well known is that the physicists Hendrik Lorentz and
Henri Poincaré did considerable preliminary work on which Einstein built.
.
Next, we look at what happens when both mirrors move constantly in one
direction. The inertial frame of the mirrors does not change at all. Just like
the experiment with the train, you can't notice that they are moving.
From the outside, however, the photon has travelled along a different path.
Namely, a diagonal.
Figure 79: Travelled path of the photon from the observer's point of view
Finally, if we solve for the time we get a concrete formula with which we
can calculate the time difference. We need the velocity difference and the
speed of light . The time which has elapsed in the system at rest
compared to the elapsed time in the moving system results from:
For the speed of the train, which moves relative to the station with a speed of
Time therefore passes at almost the same rate. The reason we don't see these
effects in everyday life is that normal speeds are still very far from the speed
of light.
This makes time dilation so marginal that we cannot perceive it.
These effects become noticeable when we approach the speed of light. Let us
assume that we manage to build a spaceship that can move us at 90 % of the
.
While Moritz has aged 30 years, his brother Max has only aged 13 years.
This is a nice mind game that violates some assumptions of time dilation.
What could they be?
Many factors violate the assumption that the spaceship and the Earth are one
inertial system. The spaceship must first be accelerated to 90 % of the speed
of light. In addition, the spaceship must turn around to get back to Earth. In the
process, it is braked and accelerated.
The essential point, however, is that the speed on the return
If the speed of light is constant, time can change in different systems or the
length of the object can shorten.
In length contraction, the space of a moving object shortens in the direction of
The shrinkage only takes place in the direction of movement. The spaceship
would therefore only be 43.6 m long but still just as wide.
Figure 82: Length contraction in the direction of movement
Practice makes perfect, there are countless other facets of physics that help us
to understand our world better, bit by bit.
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