Physics without

prior knowledge

Become an Einstein in 7 days

Benjamin Spahic
Content
1. Foreword
2. Basics of mathematics
2.1. Solving equations
2.2. Exponential functions
2.3. Power laws
2.4. Logarithms
2.5. The Greek alphabet
2.6. Sine, cosine, tangent
2.7. Sine and cosine functions:
2.8. Arc sine, arc cosine, arc tangent
2.9. Two-dimensional coordinate system
3. Conventions in physics
3.1. Notation, upper case letters, lower case letters
3.2. Prefixes for a wide dynamic range
3.3. The "Système International d'unités"
3.4. Derived SI units
3.5. Representing differences
4. Movement and acceleration
4.1. The route s
4.2. The time t
4.3. The speed v
4.4. Uniform movements
4.5. Sectional, uniform movement
4.6. The acceleration a
4.7. Uniformly accelerated movement
4.8. The free fall
5. Forces and mechanics
5.1. The mass m
5.2. The momentum p
5.3. Newton's 1st Law - The Principle of Inertia
5.4. 2. Newton's law and the force F
5.5. Newton's 3rd Law - Reaction Principle
5.6. Vectors and representation of forces
5.7. Adding forces
5.8. Forces in inclined planes
5.9. Friction
6. Thermodynamics - Heat and Energy
6.1. The temperature
6.2. Linear expansion
6.3. Energy
6.4. The difference between heat and temperature
6.5. Power P
6.6. Law of conservation of energy and efficiency
6.7. Examples of efficiency from everyday life
6.8. Spring force
6.9. Kinetic energy
6.10. Potential energy
6.11. Spring-mass oscillator
7. Electrical engineering - current, voltage and co
7.1. The stream-water model
7.2. Atoms, electrons, protons
7.3. Why do some materials conduct electricity?
7.4. The electric field E
7.5. Representation of E-fields
7.6. The force in the electric field
7.7. The electrical potential and the voltage U
7.8. The current I
7.9. Technical and physical current direction
7.10. The magnetic field
7.11. Elementary magnets
7.12. Displaying magnetic fields
7.13. Electromagnetism
7.14. Induction law
7.15. Magnetic flux and induction
7.16. The Lenz Rule
7.17. The Lorentz force
7.18. The direction of the Lorentz force, the three-finger rule
7.19. Overview: E-field and B-field
8. Mechanical and electromagnetic waves
8.1. Properties of waves
8.2. The Doppler effect
8.3. Electromagnetic waves
8.4. The speed of light c
9. Optics - light and refraction
9.1. Light - an electromagnetic wave
9.2. Refraction
9.3. Reflection
9.4. Total reflection
9.5. Refraction through lenses
10. Nuclear physics
10.1. The atomic number Z
10.2. Isotopes
10.3. Radioactive decay
10.4. Alpha radiation
10.5. Beta radiation
10.6. Gamma radiation
10.7. Half-life
11. Theory of relativity
11.1. Relativity and inertial systems
11.2. Time dilation
11.3. The twin paradox:
11.4. Length contraction
11.5. Newton's simplification in everyday life
Free eBook
"Physics without prior knowledge" is the English translation of the German
book "Physik ohne Vorkenntnisse". Some passages in the book therefore
focus on the European region. This does not have an impact on the content,
the modes of action and general understanding.

About the author

Benjamin Spahic M.Eng was born in Germany in 1995 and grew up in a
village with 8,000 inhabitants near Karlsruhe. His passion for technology is
reflected in his studies as an electrical engineer with a focus on information
technology at the University of Applied Sciences in Karlsruhe.
He then deepened his knowledge in the field of regenerative energy
production at the Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences.

Imprint:
Author: Benjamin Spahic
Address:
Benjamin Spahic
Konradin-Kreutzer-Str. 12
76684 Östringen, Germany
Editor/ Proofreading: Mentorium GmbH
Cover: Kim Nusko
ISBN Paperback: 979-8710556672
ISBN Hardcover: 9798724413534
ISBN eBook: B08WL9M683
Email: [email protected]
Facebook: Benjamin Spahic
Physics without prior knowledge
First publication 31.09.2021
Distribution through kindledirectpublishing
Amazon Media EU S.à r.l., 5 Rue Plaetis, L-2338, Luxembourg
1. Foreword
Physics is discussed everywhere, whether on public television, at school and
university or in private circles. But what is physics exactly? How can it be
distinguished from mathematics and what do we need it for?
Physics describes a super-area of many sub-areas of the technical world.
Velocities, electrical currents, mechanical forces or light rays and their
refraction. All these areas are subsumed under the term physics. And that
makes sense, because the description of all these natural laws can be
calculated in the same way.
We encounter physics every day. Just think of all the achievements that have
been made thanks to breakthroughs in physics. This doesn't necessarily just
refer to major events like landing on the moon, but those that get us through
life each day.
In the morning, we are woken up by our smartphone or digital alarm clock.
The aerodynamics of our car, together with the physical calculation of
acceleration and braking forces, get us to work safely and quickly. Almost
every new type of technology is based on fundamental, physical planning and
calculation.
Physics is important and unavoidable in many areas of life.
Despite its importance, however, there is one big problem: the enthusiasm
for understanding and learning physics is very limited in society. Only a
small, elite section of society studies the subject area.
Since you bought this book, it can be assumed that you are interested in the
basics of physics. Maybe you are still a pupil who is considering studying
physics, maybe you are an industrial engineering student who wishes to catch
up, or maybe you are a retiree who finally wants to catch up on what is not
taught well enough at school and in your studies. In any case, you won't regret
getting to grips with the subject matter.
When one deals with physics for the first time, one finds various books on
the subject, some of which consist of over 500 pages. Of course, these books
also have their raison d'être, for example if you want to scrutinise and
understand the subject matter down to the smallest detail, but for the majority
of those interested, this is neither necessary nor effective.
However, these books are completely unsuitable for newcomers. They
contain pages of mathematical derivations that are forgotten after a week. As
a result, confusion quickly spreads. This is demotivating and quickly leads to
many people giving up on the subject and reinforces their belief that "physics
is not for me". This is not because of the readers, but because they simply do
not belong to the book's target group. You don't have to be an Einstein to
understand the basics, you just have to be motivated to deal with the subject
matter, as Einstein himself already knew.

"I have no special talent, I am just

passionately curious. “
-Albert Einstein
With the right guide and a dose of motivation, anyone can understand the
basics in no time. It is precisely from this mindset that this book has emerged.
It is a beginner's guide for inquisitive people who want to learn the basics of
physics without much prior knowledge.

Prerequisites and level of knowledge:

This book is suitable for anyone with a basic enthusiasm for technology and
mathematics. The basic knowledge of mathematics, such as transforming
equations or the relationships between sine and cosine, is important and is
therefore repeated in the first chapters. The repetition only serves to refresh
the level of knowledge. This is followed by an introduction to the basics of
physics.
It is not assumed that one already knows physical units or formulas -- even if
this will certainly be the case for one or the other. The focus is on
understanding and applying the correct formulae - without prior knowledge.
For this purpose, complex physical relationships such as derivatives and
integral calculus are simplified.
For a better structure, the following symbols can be found throughout the
book:
 Arithmetic symbols: here the subject matter becomes more
complex. A digression or derivation is given. The derivation of a
topic is helpful for understanding, but it is not essential and is
intended for reference.

Light bulb: here the key points of a chapter are summarised.

These statements are good for reference or when reviewing a topic
area.

Attention: common mistakes are mentioned here. It is shown

where and why one often encounters obstacles or makes the wrong
assumptions.

Calculator: sample calculations or comprehension questions

to follow up and help you to revise and take in the content.

Notation in this book:

Terms in bol d : Terms that are to be newly introduced or particularly
emphasised.
Italicised terms : Variable names, functions and other terms that are to be set
aside from the continuous text.
Now I hope you enjoy reading and immersing yourself in physics!
2. Basics of mathematics
When you immerse yourself in physics, juggling terms and equations
becomes the order of the day. Mathematics provides us with the basis for
this. It serves as a tool.
Just as a carpenter needs to know how to use a hammer and chisel, we need
to know how to properly summarise or simplify formulas. Basic arithmetic
laws, function types and number systems are covered below. Those who
have obtained a university entrance qualification will already know most of
the areas, but partial aspects are also discussed that one only learns at
technical high schools, for example.
Experience has shown that mathematics is a necessary evil, which is why
each subject area is only dealt with as far as it is important for the
understanding of this book. This includes first and foremost the conversion or
solving of equations and the notation of powers.

2.1. Solving equations

The aim of solving an equation is to rearrange the equation so that we end up
with the variable we are looking for on one side of the equals sign.

To do this, we need to edit the equation in several steps to isolate the

variable.

When solving an equation, you transform it step by step until

the variable you are looking for (e.g. x) is alone and positive on one
side. The transformations are called equivalent transformations .
This does not falsify the statement of the equation.
For example, we can add or subtract a constant or variable on both sides of
an equation, or multiply, divide, increase, etc. both sides by a factor. When
applying an equivalence transformation, write it at the end of the line together
with a vertical line.
All transformations must always take place on both sides of the equation. We
will encounter the transformation of equations several times in each chapter.

2.2. Exponential functions

Exponential functions occur more often in everyday life than we assume.
Almost every natural process can be traced back to an exponential function.
This includes the growth of bacteria, the heating or cooling of any matter
(whether food, sand or metal) or electrotechnical processes such as the
charging and discharging of accumulators, battery storage or capacitors. In
order to understand how these processes work, we must first turn to the
mathematical basics - the exponential functions.
An exponential function is a function of the form

.
Here, a is called the base and x the exponent (colloquially high number). The
base must be a real number that is greater than 0 and not equal to 1. The
exponent is usually part of the real numbers. Note also the case .

for any base a.

2.3. Power laws

Power laws are applicable to terms with similar properties and allow us to
summarise powers more clearly. In electrical engineering, you have to
calculate a lot with exponents, so it helps if you have a few tricks at hand.

All the following equations always work in both directions!

Power with negative exponent
If the exponent of a power is negative, the power can be rewritten as

Multiplication of powers with the same base

If two or more powers with the same base are multiplied together, the
exponents add up. The base remains unchanged.

Division of powers with the same base

If two or more powers with the same base are divided, the exponents
subtract. The base remains unchanged. The derivation is obtained by writing
the division as multiplication with a negative exponent.

Multiplication of powers with equal exponents

If two or more powers with the same exponent but different bases are
multiplied together, the bases are multiplied. The exponent remains
unchanged.
Division of powers with equal exponents
If two or more powers with the same exponent but different bases are
divided, the bases are divided. The exponent remains unchanged.

Exponentiating powers
If a (base with) power is exponentiated, the exponents are multiplied
together.

2.4. Logarithms
Logarithms occur just as frequently as exponential functions in everyday life.
For example, in the human ear, in natural decay, pH values or our perception
of brightness.
The basic arithmetic operations, i.e. "plus and minus" as well as "times and
divided" are well-known. For every mathematical operation there is a
corresponding inverse function. For example, if you want to reverse an
addition, you subtract; a multiplication is reversed by means of division. The
logarithm function is used to reverse exponentiation.

For example, we are about to solve the equation:

To obtain the solution, i.e. our searched variable x, we apply the logarithm
function to the base 10, colloquially "we draw the logarithm to the base 10".
The number in the logarithm is called the numerus or logarithmand.
The base is written as an index to the logarithm.
In other words, the logarithm solves the problem: "To what number do I have
to take the base (10 in the example) to get the result (1000)". The answer in
the example is three, because

For each base there is a corresponding logarithm. Some occur more

frequently and have therefore been given their own abbreviation.

Logarithms table
The following table shows the notation of the logarithms to the base
Base of the Notation Designation
logarithm
Any number a Logarithm to base a
2 Logarithm of two
(Logarithmus dualis)
Natural logarithm
10 Logarithm of ten
The natural logarithm is the logarithm most commonly used in mathematics.
The logarithm of two is often used in the IT sector, as a computer works
digitally, i.e. calculates in a binary way using only ones and zeros.

2.5. The Greek alphabet

In addition to solving equations and the power laws, we often use the Greek
alphabet in physics, using both upper and lower case letters. The names will
be repeated in the coming chapters. The Greek alphabet has a similar
structure to ours and is therefore easy to understand. We do not have to learn
the complete alphabet by heart. The letters we need will be explained in
more detail in the coming chapters. Nevertheless, an overview and a
reference page is useful when we are looking for the pronunciation or a
certain letter.
The following table shows the Greek alphabet, in both upper and lower case.
Capital letter Lower case Pronunciation
Α α Alpha
Β β Beta
Γ γ Gamma
Δ δ Delta
Ε ε/ Epsilon
Ζ ζ Zeta
Η η Eta
Θ θϑ Theta
Ι ι Iota
Κ κ Kappa
Λ λ Lambda
Μ μ My [mü]
Ν ν Ny [nü]
Ξ ξ Xi
Ο ο Omicron
Π π Pi
Ρ ρ Rho
Σ σ Sigma
Τ τ Tau
Υ υ Ypsilon
Φ φ/ϕ Phi
Χ χ Chi
Ψ ψ Psi
Ω ω Omega
2.6. Sine, cosine, tangent
In addition to applying arithmetic laws, we will look at some trigonometry.
Sine, cosine and tangent describe the ratio of the length of two sides within
a right triangle.
The triangle consists of two cathets and a hypotenuse . The cathetus which
is adjacent to the angle and the right angle is called the adjacent side of
. The side
opposite the angle
is called the
opposite side
cathetus .
Figure 2: Sine and cosine on the right-angled triangle

2.7. Sine and cosine functions

If the hypotenuse is set to one in a triangle, the sine of an angle corresponds
to its opposite cathetus, the cosine of the angle to its opposite cathetus.

Figure 3: Sine and cosine for hypotenuse of length 1

;
If the angle is then changed from 0° to 360°, we obtain a function that
expresses the value of the opposite or adjacent side as a function of the
angle.
Instead of specifying the angle in degrees, it is usual to use a conversion to
circle angles or radians , the so-called radians. A circle with the radius
has a circumference of . This circumference is used as a
reference for a full angle of 360°. 360° corresponds to 180° corresponds

to and so on. The angle becomes .

If we plot the length of the sine and cosine over the angle, we get the sine and
cosine function respectively.

Figure 4: Sine and cosine function

Every natural oscillation consists of superimposed sine and cosine functions.

2.8. Arc sine, arc cosine, arc tangent

The sine, cosine and tangent functions map a ratio or a number onto an angle
or a radian value. Just as the square root is the inverse function of
exponentiation or the logarithm function is the inverse function of the
expotential function, there is also the corresponding inverse function for sine,
cosine and tangent.
 The Arcussinus , arc cosine and arc
tangent are the inverse functions and allow the radian or
angle to be calculated from the ratio value.
In the example we apply the arc sine to compensate the sine function and get
back the corresponding angle.

Often instead of the expression is used. Analogously

for the arc cosine or . Strictly speaking, this is wrong, for

example .

This does not correspond to the arcussinus. However, the expressions ,

and are widely used and anyone familiar with the subject knows that the arc functions are
meant.

2.9. Two-dimensional coordinate system

Before we can conclude the chapter on mathematics, we will look at the
representation of numbers and functions in coordinate systems. We will use
the Cartesian coordinate system .
Most people remember this from school. Cartesian means that the axes are
perpendicular to each other.
For the purposes of this book, we will limit ourselves to two dimensions
with two axes. The horizontal axis is called the abscissa axis and is more
simply referred to as the x-axis.
The vertical axis, on the other hand, is called the ordinate axis, the vertical
axis or simply the y-axis. We will not consider the spatial depth, which is a
third dimension, otherwise it can quickly become complex. The calculations
are analogous for two coordinate axes.

We can enter points in this coordinate system. A point in the mathematical

sense is a circle with an infinitely small radius. A point is usually
represented as a cross, rectangle or circle. A point has an x and a y
coordinate.

Figure 5: Cartesian coordinate system

It is important to understand that a coordinate system always

refers to an origin or the zero point, which we can determine
ourselves!
This always has the coordinates (0|0). The zero point can be the corner of a
room, the starting point of a racetrack or, as on the world map, our poles.
Most of the time it results from a task.

By cleverly choosing the zero point, subsequent calculations can often be

simplified.
The great advantage of coordinate systems is that we can represent
mathematical facts graphically. This gives us a clearer picture and facilitates
understanding.
In addition to individual points, we can also graphically represent entire
functions in a coordinate system.
The function assigns a y-value to each x-value. For an infinite number of
values, this results in a continuous line, the graph of the function.
Figure 6: Points in the coordinate system become the function graph

This concludes our brief review of the Cartesian coordinate system.

There are many more coordinate systems than you might think. For example,
the position of a point (in relation to the origin) can be described not only as
length (x-axis) and height (y-axis), but also as a radius from the origin and an
angle. However, these are not relevant for this book and will therefore not be
discussed further.

Figure 7: Illustration of two coordinate systems

3. Conventions in physics
After we have struggled through the mathematical basics, we can take care of
some conventions in physics.
German engineers are known for their order, overview and correct notations.
In many areas of engineering, a consensus has been reached to "speak the
same language". As an amateur electrical engineer, this is less important, but
in an international team it is more so. Because when help is required and
someone who has not previously been involved has to understand the thought
processes, correct notation is indispensable for comprehension. Therefore,
we will deal with this topic in the following chapter.

3.1. Notation, upper case letters, lower case letters

The most important notation rules are:

1. If an index is set, it should be meaningful.

The car is travelling at a speed of .

2. If there are several identical sizes within an area, one

distinguishes by indices. The simplest method is to
number the sizes consecutively.

Car 1 drives along , car 2 drives along

.
3. There is no rule on how to assign indices. However, it has
become accepted that an initial value is given the index
zero and then numbered consecutively.
 The car drives constantly with an initial speed of ,

then it accelerates with .

4. If a variable is time-dependent, we use lower case letters.

In addition, the variable on which the size is dependent is
indicated in round brackets.

The speed of the car over time is described by

described by
5. For digital content, such as this book, the convention is
that there is a space between the number and the unit.

The exception is the degree sign when we speak of an

angle, but not when we speak of temperatures.

but an angle of .
6. For physical quantities, the internationally common
formula symbols are used.

By adhering to these conventions, knowledge exchange is ensured evenly

across national borders. Therefore in this book, as in every other textbook,
we strictly adhere to the correct notation.

3.2. Prefixes for a wide dynamic range

Physics uses mathematics as a tool to put events into numbers and to be able
to calculate with them. Since the world covers a very large range of values,
prefixes were introduced. Instead of 1000 metres, one writes 1km, instead of
0.001 metres, one writes 1mm and so on. The following table shows an
overview of the prefixes.
 Designation Decimal Power Name Abbreviation
number notation
One billiard part 0.000000000000001 femto f
One trillionth 0.000000000001 pico p
One billionth 0.000000001 nano n
One millionth 0.000001 micro µ
One thousandth 0.001 milli m
One 1 - -
One thousand 1,000 kilo k
One million 1,000,000 mega M
One billion 1,000,000,000 giga G
One trillion 1,000,000,000,000 tera T
One quadrillion 1,000,000,000,000,000 peta P

We recall the mathematical basics. We can always write prefixes as powers

and then apply the power laws.
Let's take an example in which we are to calculate three km (kilometres)
times five mm (millimetres). First, we write both values as a superscript.

The base 10 is the same, therefore the exponents can be offset. The numbers
before the exponents are calculated separately.

When invoicing, we split the numbers and their prefixes and charge them
separately.

Calculate and simplify:

1. Three million times one billionth
2. Seven trillion times 4 thousandths
With units:
3. Five kilometres by 8 micrometres
4. One terranewton times 7 picometres
Solutions

Remark:
Newton is the unit of force, which we will discuss in more detail later.

3.3. The "Système International d'unités"

We have already covered the conventions in physics. Not only is the correct
notation enormously important, but also the units with which we calculate, as
the following example shows:
In 1999, the Mars probe " Climate Orbiter " was lost when it entered the
Martian atmosphere. At first, engineers puzzled over what had gone wrong.
The denouement was not long in coming and amounted to a sad comedy. A
NASA supplier used the English/Imperial system of units and calculated the
distances needed to land on Mars in inches and feet . A second NASA
control team adopted the values but calculated in metres and centimetres .
The data was accordingly incorrect and the probe burned up in the
atmosphere on its approach to Mars. This expensive example shows how
important it is to use a uniform system. In order to be able to calculate
physical quantities in a meaningful way, an internationally valid system of
units must therefore be introduced.
In technology, it is the " Système International d'unités ".

In the "Système International d'unités", exactly seven base

units were defined. The units of the quantities are therefore also
called SI units.
The SI units were almost all defined by natural constants. Each base unit is
defined by a base quantity, a formula symbol and a unit or unit symbol. In the
course of this book, we will deal with all physical quantities and their SI
units. The following table with all seven base units is recommended as an
overview.
Physical Formula Unit Unit
value symbol symbol
Time t Second s
Length s/l Metre m
Mass m Kilogram kg
Current I Amps A
Temperature T Kelvin K
Amount of n Mol mol
substance
Light intensity Iv Candela cd

It should also be noted that there are "naturalised" units. For example, one
thousand kilograms is called one ton = 1000 kg = 1 t.
For units of length and area, the prefix centimetre/centimetre (1 cm = 0.01m),
decimetre (1dm = 0.1 m) and an ar (1a = 100 m²) are also often used.

3.4. Derived SI unit s

In physics, there are many other quantities, such as the area A, the force N or
the voltage U. All other quantities can be derived from the SI quantities. One
therefore speaks of derived SI units.
The area A is a derived SI unit

It is common to write a physical quantity in square brackets and then state the
unit.
For the purposes of this book, this convention will be maintained; if
something is in brackets, it is a unit.

For example: The unit of time is the second .

3.5. Representing differences

If you want to represent the difference of a quantity in physics, a delta Δ is
used for this. For the difference between two quantities of energy, for
example, one writes: Δ .
The large delta describes a difference.

The differential
Let us now make this delta smaller and smaller in our thoughts. The

values E2 and E1 continue to approach each other, but never

become exactly the same. For this approximation of an infinitely
small difference, one uses a differential . The large delta becomes a
small d.

Δ
The change of one quantity after another is written as a
differential. For example, speed is equal to the change in distance
after time. As a differential representation:
4. Movement and acceleration
In order to warm up to physics a little, let's get into a topic that still sounds
very logical and intuitive to most people. Distances and speeds are
something we can all imagine. Even terms like acceleration are familiar to
every car driver who has ever pressed hard on the accelerator. But how can
we calculate the correct physical quantities and what do we have to pay
attention to? That's what we'll look at in this chapter. We will start with the
first and simplest physical quantity.

4.1. The distance and displacement s

The distance between two points A and B is called the length

or distance. Its formula symbol is or and its SI unit is the metre
. Distances are often represented by arrows.

Figure 8: The route is shown as an arrow

We will explain later in the book why the representation as an arrow is not
100 % correct. A distance which represents a movement from A to B is
called displacement instead .

In the context of this book, only the formula symbol is used. is often used
in school lessons and in technical literature. In international works, the
formula symbol often appears in international works.
It is important to understand that a route needs a starting point (often also
zero point) and an end point. We determine the start and end points and their
designation ourselves . For the starting point, for example, we recommend
the designation (beginning) or . The route is often abbreviated as the
connection of the start and end points.

Figure 9: Route display with start and end point

We apply an imaginary scale to "measure" the distance. Depending on the

interpretation, a point can also be negative.
Let's take a car as an example. We define the zero point at the beginning at the
position where the car is. If the car drives 5m forward, it has covered a
distance of . If, on the other hand, the car drives
backwards, it has also covered a distance of but it is
now located at the point

Figure 10: Negative location coordinates

The distance can be explained clearly. The next physical quantity we learn
about is also known. It is time .

4.2. The time t

The physical quantity time is described by the formula symbol
t. The unit of time is the second .
Often in a task the time is not given in seconds, but in minutes ( min), hours (
h), days ( d) or even years ( a), then we must first calculate the time back to
the basic unit of seconds.
 Second 1s

Minute 1 min 60 s

Hour 1h 60 min 3,600 s

Day 1d 24 h 1440 min 86,400 s

Year 1a 365 d 8,760 h 525,600 min 31,536,000 s

How many seconds are 21 minutes and 12 seconds?

How many seconds are there in 1 hour 34 minutes?
How many seconds are there in 1 day, 2 hours and 33 seconds?
After getting to know the essential representation and interpretation of
distances/displacement and briefly repeating the physical unit of time , we
turn to the next physical quantity, the velocity v.

4.3. The velocity v

The velocity indicates the change in the distance over time and
is abbreviated with the formula symbol abbreviation.

The velocity consists of a direction and a magnitude ( speed ). Often the term
speed is used when the direction of the velocity does not matter.

The unit of velocity v is accordingly

If we travel one metre in one second, we move with the speed . If

we travel 3 metres in half a second, we move with a speed of

In physics we calculate with . In everyday life the unit kilometre-per-hour

is more common. is the common unit .

The units can be easily converted into each other.
One kilometre corresponds to 1000 metres. One hour corresponds to 3600
seconds. This results in

and analogue .

The conversion factor of is 3.6

or from is

A pedestrian walks across a road that is 15 m wide at a traffic light within

10 seconds. What is the speed of the pedestrian in ?

Solution:

A car is driving on the motorway at 120 . How long does it take to travel
20 km? How many metres does it travel per second?
Solution:

We convert the formula according to the variable t we are looking

for.
Or in SI units:

The car travels 33.3 m in one second.

4.4. Uniform movements

We have already learned the basic equation for velocity.

In the derivation, we assumed a constant speed . Let’s take our pedestrian

from the above example, who crosses a road at a speed of across a

wide road. After one second the pedestrian has after one
second, and after seconds after seconds and so on.
If we plot these pairs of values in a coordinate system where the X-axis
represents time and the Y-axis represents distance travelled, we get the
following graph:
Figure 11: Linear time-distance diagram

The distance increases with time. What about the speed during this time?

This is constant the whole time at If we enter this into the same
coordinate system, we only get a constant.
Figure 12: Constant time-velocity diagram

The speed is constant over our observation period. This is

referred to as a uniform movement .

4.5. Sectional, uniform movement

What happens if the pedestrian decides to turn around halfway, i.e. after 5
seconds? The pedestrian walks 7.5 m across the road and then 7.5 m back.
Remember that the distance he walks back is counted negatively.

Figure 13: Reversing the speed at half distance

The speed that the pedestrian travels is also negative as a result.

when running there

 when running back

The distance travelled in relation to the first traffic light

increases evenly at first, then decreases evenly again.

Figure 14: Time-distance diagram for reversal

The speed jumps from positive to negative when reversed.

Figure 15: Time-velocity diagram for reversal

The velocities are constant in the individual sections, which is why we also
speak of sectional uniform motion .

The table shows that the speed jumps at the rate of jumps.
If we transfer this fact to driving a car, it would mean that in one second we

are and after a fraction of a second drive.

However, neither a pedestrian, a car nor any other object can suddenly
change its speed. To change a speed, we must brake or accelerate, which
leads us directly to the next physical quantity, acceleration.

4.6. The acceleration a

To move an object and thus increase its speed, we have to accelerate it.

The physical quantity acceleration describes the change in

speed over time. Its formula symbol is .
The unit of acceleration is accordingly .
A metre-per-square-second is not a descriptive quantity. The unit results
from the definition of acceleration as a change in velocity over time.

If we go from to this results in an acceleration of .

The term braking is also often used. Since we lose speed when braking, the

speed before braking is greater than after ( ). Accordingly,

and thus the acceleration is negative.

If a car brakes in three seconds from to the acceleration is

If we want to know what speed we are travelling after a certain time, we

rearrange the formula according to the speed.

When we accelerate with we get

Figure 16: Linear time-velocity diagram during acceleration

A Tesla Model S accelerates from 0 to 100 in 2.5 seconds . How great is

the acceleration of the car?

A cycling professional accelerates with . How fast is he after three

seconds?
4.7. Uniformly accelerated movement
If we accelerate constantly, we speak of a uniformly accelerated movement
. Compared to uniform motion, the speed changes depending on the
acceleration.
We already know how to calculate the speed when we know the acceleration
values. But what about the distance travelled? We remember that we
calculate the distance of a uniform movement with .
But with people, the speed changes during the process, which speed do we
have to use for the calculation? The final speed? No, after all, we are not
travelling at the terminal velocity the entire time.
Instead, we must use the mean speed or average speed. At the beginning of
the acceleration phase we move slower than with the average speed and
towards the end of the acceleration phase we move faster. The average speed
is expressed as ("v-stroke", "v-across" or "v-average").
What is the average velocity in our acceleration phase? To do this, let's take
another look at the time-velocity graph and plot the mean velocity.
Figure 17: Average speed during acceleration

The average speed results from the average of the start and end speed. If the
starting speed is zero, as in our case, it is calculated from

.
With the help of the average speed, we can finally calculate the distance
travelled.

So, we see that the distance is quadratically dependent on time. If we plot the
distance on a graph, we get a parabola.
Figure 18: Square time-distance diagram

We have already calculated the acceleration of the Tesla Model S. With an

average certification of it needs from 0 to to

accelerate. What distance does the vehicle cover when accelerating?
We use two formulas that are available to us. Both lead to the same result.
A car brakes with to 0 . The braking distance is . How
long did the braking process take and how fast was the car at the beginning of
the braking process?
Solution:

4.8. The free fall

When we drop an object from a certain height, the object is accelerated
uniformly. The acceleration that the body experiences is called acceleration
due to gravity and is abbreviated as g . The acceleration due to gravity is a
constant that is determined by the mass of the earth. The numerical value is

approximately . On other planets, the acceleration is different.

This means that after one second of free fall, an object already

has a speed of . The mass is insignificant here.

A spring is accelerated just as fast as a stone. The difference in velocities is
caused by air friction, not by the acceleration due to gravity.
 Roller coasters often advertise with "g-
forces". This describes the acceleration of the roller coaster compared to the
acceleration due to gravity. The Silver Star roller coaster in the Europapark
in Rust accelerates the passengers of the car with 4 g, four times the

acceleration due to gravity, i.e. with just under !

It must be said that this acceleration only

affects the occupants for an extremely short time. After one second with an

acceleration of the car would already be at which is

over .
The physical model of uniform motion or uniformly accelerated motion is
simple and understandable. As is so often the case, the model can only be
applied to reality to a limited extent; disturbance variables such as the
friction of the tyres on the road or the air resistance force, which increases
with speed, are not taken into account.
They ensure that the acceleration does not remain constant. For example, a

car can accelerate from 0 100 much faster than from 100 to 200
.
In free fall too, there is a balance between air resistance and gravity,
otherwise the speed would approach infinity over time.

However, we can approximate the movements for very small

periods of time very well with our physical models.
However, if the result deviates from our calculations, we must always keep
in mind that complex disturbance variables are very likely to be to blame.
This concludes the first chapter of acceleration. The next chapter is really
important because it is about forces!
5. Forces and mechanics
We encounter forces everywhere in everyday life. When carrying shopping
bags, climbing stairs or doing leisure sports. Forces and their interactions are
summarised in physics under the umbrella term ‘mechanics’. Put simply,
mechanics includes everything that moves and influences each other. In the
17th century, a well-known physicist named Isaac Newton established three
important axioms that were named after him. An axiom is a principle or law.
That is why Newton's axioms are also called Newton's laws or Newtonian
principles. With the help of the axioms, predictions can be made.
Before we deal with the axioms, we ought to consider a few physical
quantities that are important for understanding the axioms.
To make mechanics more tangible, we must first introduce a descriptive
physical quantity, mass.

5.1. The mass m

Mass is a physical quantity, which is abbreviated with the formula symbol m.
The SI unit is the kilogram .
The kilogram is a special SI unit. Contrary to what you might expect, the base
unit is not the gram, but the kilogram, i.e. 1000 grams . At first it is
confusing that with every other unit you convert the prefixes, but not with the
kilogram. The kilogram was not defined by natural constants, but by a
reference stone. In France lies the " original kilogram ", which was used as a
definition for 1kg.
If you don't have any background knowledge of physics, mass is often equated
with the weight of a thing. Strictly speaking, this is not correct, but on earth it
is true. The mass 1 kg also has a weight of one kilogram due to the Earth's
gravitational pull. On the moon, on the other hand, there is only 0.165g, i.e.
only 16.5% of the Earth's gravitational force. Accordingly, a mass of 1kg on
the moon weighs only 165g. The mass has not changed. Nevertheless, one
often speaks of light and heavy masses, although a small or large mass would
be physically correct.
It gets more interesting when masses start to move, which leads us to the next
physical quantity, momentum.
5.2. The momentum p

Momentum is a physical quantity that represents the product of

the mass and velocity of a body. The impulse is abbreviated by the
formula symbol p.

The unit of the momentum is correspondingly

Colloquially, momentum can be described as the "force" of a body.
Momentum is decisive in the impact of one body on another.
We have all felt the force of a body at some point, for example when we have
been hit by a football, tennis ball or golf ball. The damage caused by the ball
depends on the weight of the ball and its speed. A table tennis ball, due to its
low mass, causes much less damage when it hits us at the same speed than,
for example, a bowling ball. The bowling ball has a much higher momentum.
Having learnt about momentum, we turn to Newton's first law.

5.3. Newton's 1st Law - The Principle of Inertia

The principle of inertia, also called the law of inertia or inertial law, states
that every body maintains its speed and direction without external influence.
A body that is at rest remains at rest. A body moving on a straight line will
continue to move until it is deflected from its path by an external force.
In reality, a football will not fly straight for an infinite time. The gravitational
force of the earth and the friction of the air have a constant influence on the
ball. In space, on the other hand, things look different. Here, gravity and
friction are almost non-existent. An object that we push in space will move
straight ahead until it hits another object. In the process, the momentum is
exchanged with the other object.
 The principle of inertia states that the direction and amount of
the momentum of a body can only be changed by an external force.
Forces are the cause of a change in motion.
The principle of inertia is understandable, but it is a purely theoretical
statement. We can say that the momentum of a body does not change without
the application of force, but if we want to calculate with numbers, we need
formulas. This is exactly what Newton described in his second law.

5.4. Newton's Second Law: The force F

Newton's second law is a consequence of the law of inertia.
To understand the implications, we must introduce a physical quantity whose
unit was also named after the successful physicist.
The physical quantity force bears the formula symbol F. The unit of force is
the Newton
The conclusion from Newton's 1st law is that we need a force to change the
momentum in time. Expressed in formulas this means

.
We also know that momentum is the product of mass and velocity.

Since the mass does not change, a change in momentum can only change the
velocity .

If we insert this relationship into the above formula for calculating the force,
we get

.
Looking back over the last few chapters, can you recall whether we have seen

the expression before? We have indeed, in the definition of acceleration!

If we put the acceleration into the previous formula, we get Newton's second
law and one of the most important relationships in mechanics.

If a body is accelerated, the force acting on the body is

directly proportional to its mass as well as to the acceleration.

The unit of mass is , the unit of acceleration is

If a body with a mass of is accelerated with an

acceleration of the body is subjected to a force of

.
We also know this effect from driving a car. We experience a force when we
step on the accelerator, but not when we drive constantly, because then the
acceleration is zero.
The definition of the force gives the acceleration a a further meaning.

. The unit of acceleration can therefore be expressed both as as

well as as the unit of acceleration. Both are correct. Depending on the task,
the appropriate unit can be chosen.
On earth, every object is attracted with the acceleration due to gravity. The
force exerted on a body is also called the weight force with the formula
 Here, the difference between the weight or the weight force of
a body and its mass becomes clear once again.
Therefore, in order to lift an object, we need a force that is greater than the
weight force.

What force acts on an occupant with a mass of when

accelerating in the Silver Star roller coaster ( ?

Solution:

A stone with the mass moves with . What is its momentum? What
force acts on the stone? Hint: it is not accelerated.
Solution:

Since the stone is not accelerated, no force acts on the stone.

To lift a crate of vegetables we need at least a force of . How

heavy is the crate?
Solution:
The acceleration that the box experiences is just the acceleration due to
gravity. Therefore, the force we need to lift the box is just equal to the
weight force

. For the mass, this gives:

When determining the force, we assume that a change in momentum results

from a change in velocity. The mass remains constant. However, the mass of a
body can change.
These effects occur when, for example, a body moves at almost the speed of
light. We are very far away from witnessing this in everyday life, which is
why Newton's axioms can be applied.

Furthermore, a linguistic distinction is made between classical

mechanics/physics , in which Newton's laws apply, and modern physics ,
which includes, for example, quantum mechanics and Einstein's theory of
relativity.

5.5. Newton's 3rd Law - Reaction Principle

Newton's third law describes what happens when one body exerts a force on
another body, the same force is simultaneously exerted by the second body on
the first body. The direction of the forces is opposite, so that the sum is zero.
We can see this again in football, for example. When a player receives the
ball with full force in the face, he sinks to the ground in pain. The ball has
exerted a force on the player. In return, however, the player also exerts the
same force on the ball.
As a reaction, the ball does not stay at the feet of the player who has sunk to
the ground, instead it bounces powerfully. Every action results in a reaction.
This principle is also described as Actio = Reactio.

Figure 20: Actio = Reactio in a collision

Another example is starting a car. To accelerate a car, the wheel must exert a
force on the road. According to Newton's third law, the road simultaneously
exerts a force on the car. How can we imagine this? The car accelerates the
earth by exerting a force on it? Sounds strange at first, that we are "pushing"
the earth.
But that is indeed the case.

Figure 21: Force diagram during start-up

However, we also know that the acceleration . The counterforce with

which our car accelerates the earth is the same, but the earth has a mass of
approx. and our car has a mass of approximately
. So, the effect is negligible. Moreover, there are certainly
other cars somewhere on the planet that accelerate in the opposite direction in
the same second, so that the effect is cancelled out.
For fun, let's calculate the example anyway.
For this, we take our Tesla Model S again, which has an acceleration of

has. The weight of the Tesla is just under .

This means that our sports car exerts a force of

on the road. The earth experiences a

counterforce with the same value, but in the opposite direction.
This means that the acceleration towards the earth results in:

This means that if we accelerate at the speed of

, we would change the speed of

the Earth by - of course, we would have to drive at full throttle all the
time.
Strictly speaking, we must bear in mind that the earth is not

accelerating in a straight line, but is rotating. It is therefore a

rotation . The analogous quantity of velocity for the rotational
movement is the angular velocity. .
However, since the example is only a theoretical experiment that is
not meant to be taken too seriously, we will not go into it further.
Back to reality. What happens if the road cannot apply the desired force, for
example because there is not enough friction to transfer the force from the tyre
to the asphalt? Then no force is exerted, neither on the tyre nor on the earth.
The earth and the car do not accelerate because the wheel spins.
Another example of the third axiom is that the earth exerts a weight force on
us and pulls us towards the centre of the earth. We have already learned about
acceleration due to gravity g. However, a force counteracts the Earth's
gravitational pull. Otherwise we would accelerate as if in free fall.

The force that counteracts the force of gravity is called the normal force.
is called normal force. The normal force can be thought of as the force that
the ground exerts on us so that we are not accelerated into the ground. In free
fall, the normal force is zero. When we are standing on the ground it is equal
to the weight force. Finally, we are neither accelerated upwards nor
downwards.

Figure 22: Force diagram normal force and gravity

We have already learned from the third axiom that forces not only have an
amount (numerical value) but also a direction. We will learn how to
represent forces in the following chapter.

5.6. Vectors and representation of forces

A vector is a mathematical entity represented by an arrow.
A vector has a magnitude (measurement), which is represented by the length
of the arrow, and a direction. The opposite we have looked at so far is the
scalar . A scalar has a magnitude but no direction.
Vectors are directional and location-independent, whereas a distance has a
defined start and end point. So far, we have represented the distance as a
vector (arrow), now we also understand the physical background.

Scalar Vector
 Magnitude/Numerical value Magnitude + direction
Examples: Speed, distance, Examples: force, velocity,
temperature, length, mass displacement

Once we know what a vector is, we can represent forces as vectors.

A force is given a magnitude. This value, as we have learned, is given in
newtons. In addition, the force is assigned a direction in space. As always,
we limit ourselves to a two-dimensional space.
Strictly speaking, we have already done this without knowing that we are
dealing with vectors. The third Newtonian law "Actio = Reactio" or “For
every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.” described that when a
force occurs, there must always be an opposing force. For example, in our
car.

Figure 23: Vector representation Actio=Reactio

But what is the use of representing a force as a vector? Vectors have other
properties that are extremely helpful for calculating with forces or vectors.
First of all, they can be added together.

5.7. Adding forces

There is not only one force acting on a body, but very often several. Each
force has a different strength and different directions.
Let's take an example that some of you will certainly be familiar with. In
classic tug-of-war, two teams with ten members each compete against each
other and pull on two different ends of a rope.
Figure 24: Forces in different directions during tug of war

Now the question arises, in which direction does the centre of the rope move?
In order to clarify this, we represent the forces that the teams exert on each
other as vectors, so each force is understood as an arrow with length and
direction. All vectors start at the centre and point in the direction in which the
rope is pulled. The length of the arrows indicate the strength of the force.
Trained adults can apply a pulling force of up to 800 N. For a ten-man team,
this is 8 kN. In the example, one team pulls with and the other
only with .

Figure 25: Force representation in tug-of-war

To obtain the resulting force, we take advantage of the fact that we can move
the vectors freely. The force components that point directly in opposite
directions neutralise each other. The creates a resultant force (net force).

Figure 26: Resultant force when forces are superimposed

As a result we get what was already obvious; the team that pulls more
strongly on the rope moves the opposing team further and further towards it.
The centre M moves in the direction of the stronger force. The resulting
force is

In this example, there are only two directions in which the rope can move.
What happens if there are several forces acting in different directions?

As an example, let's imagine five ropes that are

all knotted at one point, the centre point M.

At each of the five ends E1-E5, a person pulls in a

different direction and with different forces. One person a little stronger, the
other a little weaker.
To determine the resulting force, we again apply the representation as
vectors.

Figure 28: Representation as vectors

The length of the arrows again indicate the amount of the forces, i.e. the
strength. In this example: .
We can then move the vectors freely again. In doing so, one vector starts at
the end of another. The order in which we move the vectors does not matter,
the result is the same. For the example, we place the vectors next to each
other according to the index.

Figure 29: Graphical addition of forces

We have determined the resulting force and its direction by adding up the
individual forces. Formally we write for this
(sum of all forces).
The amount of the resulting force corresponds to the length of the arrow.
Using the example, we also need to reconsider our formula for determining
the force.

In our example, F is the resulting force .

This results in respectively

Without our vector theory, we would have been unable to determine either the
direction or the magnitude of the resulting force.
The vector representation is still of great importance in the next chapter.
5.8. Forces in inclined planes
We already know how much force we have to use at least to overcome the
gravitational force acting on a body with mass m , namely .
This relationship always applies when we lift an object directly against
gravity. But what about when we carry the object up a hill? For example,
when a car rolls down a hill. Is it then also accelerated with the

acceleration? Let's take a closer look at the situation and

consider which forces are responsible for the acceleration.

The weight force always acts perpendicular to the ground. We

call the accelerating force the downward slope force and it acts
along the inclined plane.
Figure 30: Slope down force on a sliding plane

It becomes clear that the downhill force is not equal to the weight force.
Furthermore, a connection with the angle of inclination must exist. For
this, we look at the trigonometric relationships in a triangle. If you are no
longer familiar with the relationships, you can fill in the gaps in your
knowledge in chapter 2.5 Sine, cosine, tangent.
In the example this results in

The downward slope force acting on a body in the direction of

the inclined plane is calculated as follows
.

We can also verify the formula using the extreme cases. For an angle
the inclined plane is infinitely steep. The car would practically
fall, so the weight force equals the slope down force. Fittingly, the sine of
.

The second extreme value is which corresponds to a horizontal

plane. The car is accelerated neither to the left nor to the right. Therefore, the
resulting force must be be. If we calculate the sine of 0°, we see that
the result is also zero and thus gives . So
the formula also seems logically coherent.

We have already learned about the unit of acceleration. It is . However, we

have so far ignored one important property of all bodies, namely friction. We
will include this in the next chapter.

5.9. Friction
We are familiar with friction from everyday life. What happens when the
friction is no longer high enough, we see the impact when driving in winter on
icy roads.
Friction is one of the most difficult effects in physics to describe. Since
friction depends on countless factors, it is difficult to find a suitable model.
But what is the best way to describe friction physically?
For this, we take a closer look at the properties of friction. We cannot simply
push a car aside. "It's too heavy" is the colloquial expression. Strictly
speaking, only the friction between tyre and road is too great. On a frozen
lake, we can push a car under certain conditions. So we see that the greater
the friction, the more force we have to use to move or accelerate an object.
Friction counteracts positive acceleration and amplifies negative
acceleration.
Friction also depends on the surface properties of the materials that rub
against each other. Using the example of the car, it is also clear that it depends
on the mass, or the resulting weight force, or the normal force. or the
normal force respectively.
Figure 31: Frictional force on the car while driving

Since friction is complex, it is mostly determined by measurement. We

increase the force that we have to exert on our car until it starts to
move. We call this force friction force . Then we put the force in relation
to the normal force of the object. This gives us the coefficient of friction .

The coefficient of friction describes the ratio of frictional

force and normal force. It is usually between zero and one. Exceptions
are certain "anti-slip" coatings.
The value zero means that we do not have to overcome any frictional force
and thus there is no friction. The value of one means that we have to apply the
complete normal force. The value is determined by measurement.
To get a feel for the coefficients of friction, let's look at a table of common
coefficients of friction.

Materials pair Friction coefficient

Steel on steel 0.2

Wood on wood 0.5
Wood on stone 0.9
 Steel on wood 0.5

Stone on stone 1
Steel on ice 0.03
Leather on metal 0.6

If we want to move a stone with a mass of m = 10 kg on a stone floor, we can

use the following equation:

raise.

How much force do we need to push a steel block with the mass
on a steel surface? How much force would we need on an
ice surface?
Solution:

On ice:

What is the maximum weight of a tree trunk (wood) that an adult man can pull
across a wooden floor? The man can exert a maximum force of
.
Solution:
We have learned about the force we have to exert to push an object. However,
there is another frictional force, namely the one we have to apply constantly
while the object is already in motion.
The initial force is always greater and is referred to as static friction or
static friction force. Accordingly, the static friction coefficient is
abbreviated as . In addition to this, there is the sliding or kinetic friction
mentioned above and, analogously, the kinetic friction coefficient .

The force that we have to exert when pushing on something

The force we have to exert constantly when pushing

This expands the table of friction coefficients.
Materials Static friction Kinetic
pair
coefficient coefficient
Steel on steel 0.2 0.1
Wood on wood 0.5 0.4
Wood on stone 0.9 0.7
Steel on wood 0.5 0.4
Stone on stone 1 0.9
Steel on ice 0.03 0.01
Leather on 0.6 0.4
metal

We can see that the static friction is always greater than the kinetic friction.
We have learned many basics about physical forces, including where they
occur and how they work. Next, we will look at the relationship between
different forces and energies and heat. To do this, we first need to understand
what energy means and how we can tell energy and power apart.
6. Thermodynamics - Heat and Energy
Heat is intangible. We can perceive heat, but how can heat be described from
a physical point of view?
To clarify this question, let's look at what heat actually is, how we can
physically capture it and calculate with it.

6.1. The temperature

We are all familiar with temperature; it indicates the heat content of the
environment. The physical quantity temperature is indicated by the formula
sign or abbreviated.

We measure temperature in degrees Celsius °C. Named after

the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius. Another unit of
temperature is degrees Fahrenheit °F , named after the German
physicist Daniel Fahrenheit.

Here, the temperature is always relative, i.e. it was

determined at a reference temperature. For our temperature scale,
we use the freezing point of water as a reference for 0 °C and the
boiling point as a reference for 100 °C.
Daniel Fahrenheit used the lowest temperature he had ever measured
(converted to approximately 17.4 °C) as the zero point (0 °F) and the body
temperature of a human being as the reference for 96 °F.
The conversion from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit is linear, and
therefore relatively simple.

For example, 20°C corresponds to .

However, there is another very important temperature scale with the unit
"degree Kelvin". This was named after "Lord Kelvin". It is the standard
scale in physics. The reason for this is that it uses a very special reference.
To do this, let's first take a closer look at atoms at the molecular level. We
notice that they themselves are constantly moving back and forth. The atoms
are never still, but move within their connecting structures. These movements
decrease with decreasing temperature. The atoms become slower and
slower.

The temperature describes the energetic state of the atoms.

The warmer it is, the faster the atoms move back and forth. It is a
measure of the kinetic energy of the atoms.
If we keep reducing the temperature, the atoms move slower and slower.

At a temperature of absolute zero is reached. Here, no atom

moves any more.
The Kelvin temperature scale starts exactly there. It takes absolute zero, i.e.
the point at which there is no movement and thus no energy, as the reference
for 0 K. It uses the unit Kelvin K accordingly.
The temperature in space is relatively close to absolute zero. It is freezing
cold there. There is a temperature of about 3 K.
A difference of one kelvin corresponds to a difference of one degree celsius,
so that the temperature scale in kelvin is only shifted by 273.15 °C. In
notation, the following is often used for a temperature indication in °C and
for a temperature indication in Kelvin.

But:
Kelvin is also the SI unit of temperature. So we see that the unit kelvin is of
great importance in physics.

6.2. Linear expansion

We have already learned that atoms move faster with increasing temperature.
However, this is only half the truth. Because atoms not only move faster
within their molecular structures, they also expand. Does that mean that
everything expands in summer and contracts again in winter?
Indeed, yes, but it depends on the material. The characteristic property of the
material is given in the coefficient of expansion. In order to determine this,
the material is measured at a reference temperature, usually 20 °C.
It is then heated and the change in length is recorded.

with

The coefficient of expansion indicates the relative change

in length of a substance. The unit is accordingly .

If we want to know the absolute change in length, we have to multiply the
relative change by the length of the material.

Iron has a coefficient of expansion of

This means that if the temperature rises by 40 °C between summer and
winter, for example, iron expands in length by

off.
That doesn't sound like much at first. Let's calculate the absolute change in
length. To do this, we take a 120 m long railway rail, as used for railway
tracks. It expands accordingly by
expansion.

We see that can become a problem if suddenly screws no longer

fit or there are gaps between the tracks.
In reality, of course, this linear expansion is taken into account. The rails are
fixed so that they cannot expand freely. However, a resulting residual stress
and possibly a deformation of the tracks remain.
Volume expansion
We can apply the same formulas used for linear expansion for volumetric
expansion. We only have to replace the coefficient of linear expansion with
the coefficient of volumetric expansion. This is often denoted by the index V
for volume.

The coefficient of volume expansion of petrol is .

The petrol is pumped underground in a filling station at a temperature of

. How does the volume of the petrol change when a car tank is
filled with in the summer and the petrol then warms up?

Solution:

The temperature difference is The relative change

results from:
The absolute change results from

The total volume therefore corresponds to l.

Another faux pas that is very often committed by technically unskilled people
is the confusion of power and energy. Especially when it comes to renewable
energies, terms are used incorrectly and inappropriate quantities and units
are often mentioned, so that every physicist grabs their head in
incomprehension. Therefore, the difference is explained below.
6.3. Work and Energy
The terms energy and work are used in physics for the same physical
quantity. The energy or the work done is abbreviated with the formula
symbol E or W.

Work describes the process of converting one form of energy

into another. "Work is done when a heavy stone is lifted". Energy
given refers to the stored work within a system. The stone has
potential energy after being lifted. Practically and mathematically,
the terms are to be used in the same way. The same units and
formulae are used for calculation.
The work done is described as the product of the force acting over a
distance.

The work or the energy expended is independent of the time.

It does not matter whether we move a stone with a mass of

within one hour or within one minute. Only the distance
covered counts. The work done in both cases is

.
Work always acts on a body. The unit of work is Newton times metre
.
Unlike work, energy is not limited to work done on objects.
There are many different types of energy, for example heat energy. We can
feel this when we touch a warm object. If it adds too much heat to our body,
we suffer a burn. Furthermore, energy can take the form of movement. The
kinetic energy indicates the energy of a moving body. Other forms of energy
are, for example, electrical energy or rotational energy.

The SI unit of energy is the joule .

Alternative units are watt-seconds or kilowatt-hours, when
we're talking about electrical energy or heating energy. Naturalised units for
energy are, for example, kilocalories, . We use kilocalories to indicate
the energy in our food.
In physical arithmetic, the various forms of energy hardly differ. All are
expressed in joules, watt-seconds or kWh.

6.4. The difference between heat and temperature

There is often a lack of clarity among laypersons as to how the terms heat,
temperature or work are distinguished. Therefore, we will eliminate all
ambiguities. We have already got to know temperature. The same applies to
energy or work. The physical quantity heat is abbreviated with the letter .
Heat is a form of energy, which is why its unit is equal to the unit of energy

In order to achieve a temperature increase, we must supply energy to a

system in the form of heat. How much heat energy is needed depends on the
substance and is described by the specific heat capacity .

The unit results from the equation and is accordingly

With a heat capacity of energy is required to

raise the temperature of the substance with a mass of by
or respectively.

Water has a specific heat capacity of

How much energy do we need to heat a whirlpool with a water volume of
from 20 °C to 40 °C? How many kWh is that? How much does
the energy cost if one kWh costs 30 cents?

Solution:

So the heating requires Accordingly, at 30 cents

per kWh, heating costs approximately

.
We now know what is behind energy. The amount of work we have to do.
Often it is not only the total amount of work that is interesting, but also the
time in which we have done it. This leads us directly to power .

6.5. Power P
Power (or performance) is a physical quantity and refers to
the work that is done in a certain amount of time. time.

The unit of power is the watt , corresponding to work per time .

The unit of work is the joule , the unit of time is the second .

One watt is therefore equivalent to one joule per second. .

On our electricity bill, the energy is stated in kWh, i.e. how many kW of
power were used for how many hours.
Excursus: Horsepower
Another unit of power is the horsepower.
The unit horsepower goes back to James Watt. Horsepower described the
average continuous performance of a working horse. It is unclear which
horse and which power measurement was chosen as a reference. There are
many assumptions, for example that James Watt used a pit horse as a
yardstick. The horse pulled coal sacks out of the pits via ropes and pulleys.
The working time, the weight of the coal sacks and the height lifted were
used for calculation. 1 hp corresponds to approximately 735 W.
In the end, the horsepower was only able to establish itself with engine
manufacturers. In physics, the watt, also named after James Watt, is used
almost without exception.

When a service over a period of time is effective, a work

is performed with .

A hair dryer has a power consumption of or . If you let the

hairdryer run for one second, the hairdryer consumes (this is actually not
correct, because the energy is converted into moving heat and not "consumed
" ) an energy of .

After half an hour the hairdryer has used ,

after one hour it is and so on. The power remains constant the
whole time at but the energy depends on the time that has
passed.
If one wants to convert or to or vice versa, the following
conversion applies:
Which units are correct, which are wrong? It is not a question of whether the
numbers are correct, but only of the units!

In one hour, a refrigerator consumes

Wrong - A refrigerator has a power consumption of In one hour it
consumes accordingly .

Germany has an annual electricity demand of .

Correct - the energy demand is given in TWh .
The maximum demand for electrical power in Germany is approximately
Wrong - The power is given in W. The correct answer is

A Tesla Model 3 has an engine power output of and a battery

capacity of
Both correct - the power is given in W (360 kW corresponds to
approximately 490 hp), the energy stored by the battery in kWh. (The term
battery capacity is not physically correct, as capacity is a different
measure. Colloquially, it refers to the amount of energy stored.)

of bread contains an energy of approx. (one

megajoule).
Correct - even though the unit joule is unusual for food, it is a form of
energy. 1 MJ corresponds to about 240 kilocalories.

Herbert consumes while cycling. How much energy does he

consume in two hours of cycling? How many kcal is that?

The energy results from the power times the effective time. Therefore in
total . This corresponds to 258 kcal. However,
due to losses in converting the chemical energy from the food into kinetic
energy, Herbert burns considerably more than 258 kcal in practice.
A trained young man can produce a continuous output of approximately
or so. We recall that a pit horse can produce one horsepower, which
is circa which corresponds to approximately

6.6. Law of conservation of energy and efficiency

We have become a lot smarter and can distinguish between energy and
power. Next, we look at another linguistic flaw when we talk about energy,
the "consumption" of energy. The reason that we do not physically "consume"
energy is explained by the law of conservation of energy .
The conservation of energy is one of the most fundamental laws of
thermodynamics.
Most physical laws are to be regarded as "given by nature". One can go
deeper and deeper into these laws until one arrives at the level of the
smallest particles. As always, this book refrains from a detailed derivation
and instead focuses on understanding and practical examples. This is also the
case with the conservation of energy.
Conservation of energy states that there is a fixed amount of energy in the
universe and that it cannot be destroyed or created. Energy can only be
converted into different forms. We already know most of the forms, such as
heat or kinetic energy.
For example, in a wind power plant, the kinetic energy of the wind is
absorbed as rotational energy and then converted into electrical energy.
However, there is the restriction that every conversion results in a proportion
of unusable energy, mostly in the form of heat . The ratio of how much
energy is retained during a conversion and how much is lost is described by
the efficiency.
Efficiency is a dimensionless quantity and is abbreviated with the Greek
letter (eta). is defined as the ratio of the usable

energy to total energy ,

or, when converting energy, as the ratio of the usable energy after conversion

to the energy before conversion. .

You can quickly see that is always between zero and one. Often is given
as a percentage. With an efficiency of exactly 1 (= 100 %), the entire energy
is converted without loss. With an efficiency of zero, the complete energy can
no longer be used after conversion.
The terms exergy and anergy are also often used in connection with the
efficiency. Exergy describes the part of the energy that can be used.
In the case of driving, this is the proportion of energy that is converted into
propulsion for movement; the waste heat, i.e. the heating of the engine, the
unused energy, is referred to as anergy.

6.7. Examples of efficiency from everyday life

Photovoltaic modules today have an efficiency of about 20 % . This means
that only one fifth of solar energy is converted into electricity. This
electricity must then be converted to the right voltage for the socket or stored,
whereby losses in the range of 2-10 % can occur.
LEDs convert about 40-50 % of the electrical power into light. The rest is
needed by the control electronics to stabilise the current flow and is
converted into heat. With conventional incandescent lamps, the colloquial
light bulbs, the efficiency is significantly lower, here only 10-20 % of the
energy is converted into light, the rest is released as heat.
However, a coal-fired power plant, which is supposed to convert the energy
from the coal solely into electrical energy, generates over 60 % thermal
energy, i.e. an efficiency of just under 40 %.
If several processes or conversions are carried out in succession, the total
efficiency is obtained by multiplying the individual efficiencies.
Example: A wind turbine can convert 50 % of the kinetic energy of the wind
into rotational energy. The speed is then increased via a gearbox. The
gearbox has an efficiency of 95 %. The generator, which finally provides the
electrical energy, has an efficiency of 90 %. The overall efficiency of the
wind turbine is thus as follows

0.4275 (corresponds to
42.75 %).
Efficiency is an important aspect when it comes to developing and promoting
technologies. This is because it is often closely related to economic
profitability.
However, the context must always be taken into account. Solar and
wind energy is available in unlimited quantities and free of charge.

Therefore, the efficiency of 20 % or 40 % is not a knock-out

criterion for this technology. Gas or petrol, on the other hand, are
raw materials and therefore have a market price, which is why you
have to extract as much exergy as possible from the raw materials
there in order to be able to operate profitably.
If we burn oil worth €100, at least €100 worth of electricity must be
generated in the process. Every percent increase in efficiency goes directly
into the economic balance.
Efficiency in electric and combustion engines:
We have already seen that good efficiency is extremely important in many
technologies; mobility is no exception.
Nowadays, electromobility is becoming more and more popular. It is also
high time that this development occurred. The change to sustainable mobility
is essential and should be implemented as soon as possible. We will carry
climate damage and environmental pollution with us for the rest of our lives.
However, we do not want to go too deeply into the ethical and ecological
aspects of electric cars or internal combustion engines, instead we will look
at both technologies from a physics perspective.
Electric motors are one of the most efficient inventions for locomotion. An
electric motor converts about 90 % of the electrical energy into kinetic
energy. Only 10% is emitted as waste heat. Traditional internal combustion
engines, on the other hand, have an efficiency of 30-40 %. The technical
maximum is around 45 %. Diesel and petrol engines differ only by a few
percentage points.
This means that 30-40 % of the energy contained in the fuel is used to move
the car. The remaining 60-70 % is given off as waste heat.

From a physical point of view, an internal combustion car is

more like a heater, which moves as a by-product.
However, one must also consider that the energy density of petrol is much
greater than that of today's battery storage systems. This means that internal
combustion cars can still drive much further despite their poor efficiency, but
they also consume considerably more energy in the process.
Next, we look at an example where different types of force or energy are
converted into each other.

6.8. Spring force

Most people have seen a spring before. For example, the shock absorbers in
a car or the inside of a biro. A spring in the physical sense is an elastic body
that can be pulled apart or compressed. When no forces are acting on the
spring, it is at rest . In order to deflect it from its rest position, i.e. to pull it
apart or compress it, we have to apply a force.
For example, to be able to pull a metal spring apart, we have to pull firmly
on it. The force is linearly dependent on the deflected distance. This means
that if we pull a spring apart by 20 cm, we need twice as much force as if we
only pull it apart by 10 cm.

The linear relationship between extension and force is also

called Hooke's ( spring) law. The force F that we have to exert to
deflect a spring by the distance s from its rest position is
calculated using:

The proportionality constant D is called the spring constant, spring rate or

spring stiffness. The value for D depends on the spring in question.
Colloquially, we also use the terms hard and soft to describe the properties
of a spring. A hard spring has a higher spring constant than a soft spring.

The unit of the spring constant is Newton per metre

. A spring constant of means that we have to apply a force of

one newton to pull the spring apart or push it in by one metre.

Figure 32: Spring in stretched, relaxed and compressed state

Strictly speaking, this is only correct for small displacements. If we
compress the spring to the maximum, even more force will not bring more
success. If we pull the spring apart, it will eventually be irreparably
damaged. In the normal working range of a spring we can safely calculate
with the equation without hesitation. We call it a ideal spring.
Pulling a spring apart and compressing it are physically identical. It is not
important whether we pull a spring apart by one metre or compress it.

The force that the spring exerts against us is called the

restoring force. It acts to restore the spring towards equilibrium.
According to Newton's third axiom, it is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction to the cause, i.e. .
If we hang a weight on a spring, we can calculate its displacement. The force
acting on the spring is calculated from . The weight force is
equal to the spring force because the resulting force on the spring must be
zero. Otherwise the spring would be would be accelerated. Let's
look at two tasks for this:

A sphere with the mass is attached to a spring of hardness

In the rest position the spring is long. Calculate its

length when the weight is attached.
Solution:

;
The spring is 24.905 cm long with the weight attached.

A bungee jumper with a mass of hangs from the bungee cord.

This stretches the rope from 10 m to 15 m.
Calculate the "spring hardness" of the bungee cord.
Solution:

The person then jumps into the depths.

At the lowest point, the person is subjected to a spring force of
.
How long is the rope extended?
Solution:

The rope is extended by 12 m. This makes it a total of 22 m long.

A spring exerts a force as soon as it is in the deflected state. If we compress
a spring, it stores the energy expended. We have already learned about the
energy or the work done. It is calculated as . Here, the question
arises again as to which displacement we have to apply. At the beginning the
displacement of the spring is zero, at the end it is exactly . Analogous to
the calculation of the uniform accelerated movement, we have to calculate

the average displacement of the spring. be used.

The reason for this is that for a displacement of , no force has to be

applied to compress the spring either. The more we compress the spring, the
more force we have to apply. The average force is proportional to the
average displacement. This is to be used for the stored energy.
Thus, the stored energy in a spring results in

with and

The energy is also called spring or tension energy.

A spring of hardness is deflected by from its rest

position. How much energy does the spring store? How much energy does it
store if we double the displacement?
Solution:

If the displacement is doubled, the stored energy is quadrupled to

.
With this we have got to know our first concrete form of energy. Next, we
will look at another form of energy that we may not yet have in mind as a
concrete form of energy.
6.9. Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy describes the energy that a body carries with it, simply by the
fact that it is moving. But why does a moving body have energy at all? Where
does it come from?
To achieve the movement, we had to accelerate the body beforehand. To do
this, we had to apply an acceleration a or a force respectively. Since we
used up the force over a certain distance s , work was done on the body.

This work done is calculated as and is stored in the moving

body in the form of kinetic energy.
In order to derive a formula for calculating the kinetic energy, we use the
formulas that we have already looked at in the previous chapters. For the
force we insert . Since the force driving the body is constant,
the acceleration a is also constant. It is therefore the case of a uniformly
accelerated movement. Therefore, for the distance s we can insert the term:

for the distance s. The exact derivation for uniformly

accelerated movement was discussed in detail in chapter 4.7.
Together, the energy of a moving body results in

So we see that the kinetic energy is proportional to the mass

of the body and quadratic to the speed of the body.
Let's take a look at a few calculation examples.

A car with a mass of which is moving at a speed of

has a kinetic energy of

A pedestrian with a mass of and a speed of

has a kinetic energy of only

6.10. Potential energy

Another form of energy is potential energy , also called position energy. We
already know that work is done when we move an object a distance with a
force, the abbreviation is .
However, there is a force acting on all of us that we have also already
learned about, and that is gravity. The force of gravity or the acceleration due
to gravity is a constant force that pulls us towards the centre of the earth.
When we move an object away from the centre of the earth, we have to do
some work.
to be done. In the case of potential energy,
we replace the distance by the height by which an object has been
lifted.
Thus the potential energy of a body of mass m is given by

How much work must a climber with mass do to climb the

Zugspitze (Highest mountain in Germany) to a height of ?
Solution:
How many bananas would you have to eat for this, if one banana contains
and the climber can only utilise 30% of the energy
using their muscles?
Solution: The usable energy of a banana is

This means that the climber needs a total of

bananas
It takes 26 bananas to climb the Zugspitze.
With the help of the potential energy, we can also calculate the speed of a
falling object. According to the conservation of energy, the total energy of a
system remains the same. In free fall, therefore, all the potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy.

A sphere of mass is dropped from a height . With

what speed does the ball hit the ground?

Solution:

Alternatively, we could have calculated the speed using the formula for
uniformly accelerated motion.
First we calculate the fall duration. To do this, we use the formula for the
distance covered by a uniformly accelerated movement. The distance in this
case is the height and the acceleration corresponds to the acceleration
due to gravity .

If we substitute the fall time into the velocity formula of uniformly

accelerated motion, we get:

We see that there are two different approaches to the same task. The result is
the same. That's what we expected.

An apple with a mass of is ripe and falls from an apple tree

onto the ground. It hits the ground with a speed of on impact. How high
is the tree? How fast would an apple twice as heavy hit the ground?

Solution:
The apple tree is 2.5 m high. The mass of the apple does not appear in the
equation. An apple that weighs twice as much will also hit the ground with

impact.
With kinetic and potential energy, two more forms are added to our
collection of different forms of energy. In the next chapter, we will see how
different forms of movement merge into each other and create an oscillation.

6.11. Spring-mass oscillator

A spring-mass oscillator refers to the interaction of an ideal

spring to which a mass m is attached. Often this experiment is also
called a spring pendulum.
We have already calculated how much a spring expands when a weight is
attached to it. In the example, the spring has reached a stable equilibrium
phase. The spring force and the weight force just cancel each other out.
In the following experiment, we take a toy car and attach a spring to the left
and right of the car. Both springs are equally hard, so they have the same
spring constant D .
Figure 33: Car on the spring system in rest position

We then steer the car to the right from the equilibrium position. We refer to
the displacement as . What happens when we let go of the car?

Figure 34: Deflected car on the suspension system

The right spring pushes the car towards the rest position, the left spring
simultaneously pulls the car in the same direction. This accelerates the car

according to .

In the process, the energy stored in the spring is converted into

the kinetic energy of the car.
When the car reaches the equilibrium position, none of the springs exerts any
force on the car. However, it has been accelerated to a speed . Therefore,
it shoots to the left beyond the equilibrium position. There it must compress
the left spring and pull the right spring apart. In the process, the car's kinetic
energy is again stored in the springs. At the point the entire energy is
stored in the springs and the game starts all over again. The car is
accelerated and races beyond the resting position to the point of .
Figure 35: Car swings beyond the rest position

In reality, the car will never reach the starting point again, instead it will turn
around before it does. The reason for this is friction. Both the friction of the
tyres on the ground and the friction of the air take kinetic energy away from
the car, thus slowing it down and preventing it from reaching full
displacement again from its equilibrium position.
The interaction of tension and kinetic energy produces an oscillation of the
displacement. .
We now know that an oscillation occurs, but what does it look like, how long
does it last and how can we calculate the maximum speed of the car?
To do this, we take another look at the car's displacement over time. We also
introduce a physical quantity called the period. It is abbreviated with a T and
indicates the time that the car needs to arrive back at the starting point. A
passage from through the equilibrium position to and back
again is called a period. For a "normalised cosine oscillation" the period is
(see chapter 2.5. Sine, cosine, tangent).
T is given in seconds in practical tasks, such as our oscillation example. If
the car needs 10 seconds to be pre-accelerated once, turn around and arrive
back at the starting point, is .
There are important points within the period.
At the time the car is at the start position, the displacement is
. At this time, the acceleration is maximum, the speed is just zero.

After a quarter of a period, the car crosses the equilibrium . Since

both springs are relaxed, the acceleration is also zero. However, it is going
at the maximum speed.
We can carry out this line of thought for every significant point. As a
temporal displacement we obtain a course, which is shown in the following
graph.
Figure 36: Cosine oscillation of the spring-mass system

Some of you may already recognise the curve. It is a cosine curve (see also
chapter 2.5).
The maximum distance is called amplitude . The distance is measured from
the zero point to the left or right.
The spring-mass system oscillates harmoniously with a displacement

.
Let's take a closer look at what the letter f inside the bracket is all about.
Before doing so, we can determine the oscillation mathematically.

To do this, we set up a balance of forces, namely on one side of the

accelerating force and on the other side the corresponding spring
force. Since neither the displacement nor the velocity nor the
acceleration are constant in the experiment, we replace them with the time-
dependent quantities , .
We equate the accelerating force with the spring force and obtain

Next, it becomes very mathematical.

We know that acceleration describes the change over time for an

arbitrarily small period of time, the span delta becomes a differential (see
chapter 3.5).
The same applies to the speed. It is the differential of the distance.

This results in the acceleration being twice the differential of the path.

If we substitute the expression into the above equation, we get

This is a differential equation, since both the differential of the path as
well as the path itself is part of the equation. We need a function whose
second, temporal change is equal to the function.
The detailed solution of the differential equation will be abbreviated in this
book. The solution for the temporal displacement is also the cosine function,
which we had already logically deduced earlier

We have already learnt about the amplitude . But what does the new
constant stand for? is called frequency and indicates how many periods the
car travels within one second. The unit of frequency is named after the
German physicist Heinrich Hertz . If the car drives forward once
within one second, turns around and is accelerated back until it arrives at the
starting point again, the frequency is . Since it indicates how often
an oscillation occurs per second, the frequency is just the reciprocal of the

period duration and vice versa. ; . The unit Hz is therefore

equal to . As an alternative to the frequency f, the angular frequency is

often used. The angular frequency refers to a "normalised" cosine oscillation
of 360° or written as a radian.

is a numerical value of , therefore the unit of the angular

frequency is also .

One hertz corresponds to but the unit Hertz Hz is reserved exclusively for

the frequency . The angular frequency is therefore given in never in Hertz

Hz .
If the car drives forward once within one second, turns around and is
accelerated backwards until it arrives at the starting point again, the
frequency will be

the angular frequency is .

The car performs two full periods in 5 seconds (forward-backward-forward-

backward).
What is the period of the oscillation? At what frequency does the car
oscillate? What is the angular frequency?
The period duration indicates the duration for one period. Therefore

.
The frequency indicates the number of periods per second, therefore

Alternative: .

We now know what the frequency and period duration say. Let’s take another
look at our oscillation equation.

If we want to know the position of the car after a certain time, we put the
time into the vibration equation and get the position.

For example, if we steer the car around and the frequency of the
vibration is we can solve the vibration equation by
At the time is the position of the car:

After 0.5 seconds the car is at the position

Figure 37: Position of the car after half a second

The same consideration that we made for the position of the car can be
applied to its speed .

In the beginning, the speed of the car .

In the zero crossing, i.e. for the first time after a quarter period, the speed is

maximum .
The equation for the velocity is analogous to the position determination and
is only shifted by a quarter period.
The sine is shifted by a quarter period compared to the cosine.
The period duration and thus also the frequency of the oscillation is the same.
Therefore, the vibration equation that gives us the instantaneous velocity of
the car is: .

Let's check the equation by taking the values and in the

equation. How fast is the car after a quarter of the period and after a half of
the period?

After a quarter of a period, the speed is at a maximum. This is logical,

because that is exactly what we set as a condition to derive the equation.

Figure 38: Position of the car after a quarter of a period

After half a period, the car is exactly at the reversal point at . The
speed there is zero. We can determine the position and the speed of the car
for every point in time. All we need is the frequency of the oscillation and
the amplitudes of the distance and speed.

The maximum speed depends on how long the car can be

accelerated, i.e. how much it is deflected at the beginning. It also
 depends on the frequency of the oscillation.

The context is .

But how do we arrive at the frequency of the oscillation? To do this, we

consider what the frequency, i.e. how fast the car vibrates, depends on. First
of all, it is clear that it depends on the selection of the springs used, i.e. the
spring stiffness D . Harder springs can accelerate the car more, so it vibrates
faster.
Another influencing factor is the mass of the car. A heavy car is accelerated
more slowly, it therefore vibrates more slowly.

The frequency, or the angular frequency of the oscillation, is

determined by the hardness of the spring and the mass of the
oscillating object.
The exact relationship of the quantities is as follows:

Let's go through the new formulas with concrete examples and numerical
values.

A car with the mass which is attached to two springs with the

total spring hardness vibrates with a (circular) frequency of

The period of the oscillation is .

 It does not matter whether the car is deflected by 1cm, 5cm or
10cm, the duration of the oscillation is independent of the
displacement!
Let's look at another example of vibration.

A stone of the mass is hung on a rubber rope with a spring

hardness and deflected by . At what (circular)

frequency does the stone vibrate? What is the equation of oscillation for the
distance and the speed? Where is the stone after ?
For the task, the influence of gravity can be neglected.

;
The maximum speed results from:

The vibration equations and concrete values can thus be calculated using the
following formulae:

Real systems
We have already learned that there is virtually no system without friction. In
an oscillation, friction ensures that the amplitude decreases over time. The
oscillation subsides. That is why we call this type of oscillation damped
oscillation.

Figure 39: Decaying oscillation

This concludes the chapter on spring-mass oscillators. In this chapter we

have learned what the physical quantities period, frequency and angular
frequency mean and how we can represent an oscillation analytically. We
will also encounter these quantities in the coming chapters because
oscillations cannot only occur mechanically.
Electromagnetic oscillations enable us to navigate via GPS, make phone
calls or send a message via our smartphone while on the move. Before we
get to electromagnetic waves, we will first learn the basics of electrical
engineering. We will look at the systematics of the behaviour of an electron,
the structure of permanent magnets and electro-magnetism.
7. Electrical engineering - current, voltage
and co
The following chapter was largely taken from the book "Electrical Engineering without Prior
Knowledge". However, simplifications and changes have been made so that the chapter remains
consistent with the content of this book.

If you are new to the subject of electrical engineering, many of the terms used
are abstract and difficult to imagine. It takes time and practice to define the
terms and classify them correctly. To make it easier to remember the terms,
we use a model.

A model is a simplification of reality and attempts to map

new, complex facts onto what is already known.
In our case, many analogies can be used to transfer the topic of the electric
circuit to a familiar water circuit.

7.1. The stream-water model

Each component in the water circuit is contrasted with a corresponding
component from the electricity circuit:

Figure 40: Water cycle

In simple terms, a water circuit consists of two water basins, a water pump,
pipes that transport the water and a consumer, such as a turbine, a water
wheel or similar.
One water basin is higher than the other. The pump constantly pumps water
upwards. As a result, the water in the upper basin has a greater potential
energy. There is a pressure difference between the upper and the lower
basin.
The water runs through the pipes and via the consumer back into the lower
basin. The consumer is driven by the moving water. The water thus transmits
the energy of the pump to the consumer. For each element in the water
circuit, we look for a corresponding element in the electric circuit.
Let's start with our pipes through which the water flows. In the electric
circuit, these are the cables or wires through which the current flows. The
water in the water circuit corresponds to our current, which consists of
moving electrons. But how is a conductor actually constructed and how can
the electrons move in it? Let's take a very close look at the material.

7.2. Atoms, electrons, protons

In order to understand the various effects of electrical engineering, let's first
take a look at the basic building blocks of physics - atoms. Every material
consists of atoms at the smallest level. An atom consists of positively
charged particles, the protons , particles without charge, the neutrons, and
negatively charged particles, the electrons.

The formula symbol of the charge is Q and the unit of the charge is the
coulomb C . In SI units . The charge is therefore
given in C or As.
The elementary particles (protons and electrons) both have the smallest
possible charge that is physically possible. This is called the elementary
charge and is abbreviated as e.
 The elementary charge has the value of
coulomb. An electron has the charge of
and a proton has a charge of .
Since the charge of an atom is neutral overall, it has the same number of
electrons as protons . The protons and neutrons form the atomic nucleus,
while the electrons race around the nucleus at the speed of light. Almost the
entire mass of the atom is united in the atomic nucleus.

Each element such as hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, iron or even

nickel, copper and zinc have a very specific, unique number of
protons and electrons that hold the element together.

If we look at the structure of an atom in more detail, we see that the electrons
do not race randomly around the atomic nucleus, but travel along defined
paths, so-called orbitals.

Figure 41: Structure of an atomic model

These are called shells , which can hold different numbers of electrons. The
innermost shell (K-shell), which is close to the nucleus, can hold only two
electrons; the second (L-shell) can hold a full 8 electrons, the third (M-
shell) up to 18 electrons and so on. In total, there are up to seven shells,
depending on how many protons and thus how many electrons an atom has.
If an atom has only 2 electrons, only the first shell is filled. If it has 11
electrons, the first and second shells are completely filled and there is a
single electron in the third.

7.3. Why do some materials conduct electricity?

Electricity consists of nothing but moving charge carriers. A material is
therefore a good conductor if the charge carriers can move easily. Since the
protons are fixed in the nucleus, only the electrons remain, which can move
freely, but they are attracted by the positive nucleus.
Since the electrons on the outer shells are not attracted as strongly, they can
detach from the atomic nucleus more easily.

The electrons on the outer shells are therefore very important

for the conductivity of a substance.

The electrons that lie on the outermost shell are also called valence
electrons.
Metals such as iron, copper or aluminium form a special lattice structure in
which the valence electrons can move freely.

In metals, the valence electrons buzz around like a

homogeneous gas in the lattice; one also speaks of an electron cloud
or electron gas in the metal.
Non-conductive materials, such as most plastics, do not form a lattice and
strongly retain their valence electrons. This means that electrons cannot flow
through the material.
What we generally know as electricity is nothing more than the movement of
valence electrons from A to B.
 A current flow consists of moving charge carriers

Let us return to our water model. The valence electrons are freely movable
and therefore correspond to water in the water cycle. These transfer charges,
or the energy in the circuit. Next, we come to the pressure difference
between the basins. This is caused by gravity, mathematically speaking by the
earth's gravitational field . We find the electric field in the circuit.

7.4. The electric field E

First, let's clarify the properties of the Earth's gravitational field. It ensures
that everything on this planet experiences an attraction towards the centre
of the Earth. The principle behind this is that masses attract each other. The
larger the masses and the closer they are to each other, the stronger the force
of attraction.
In our water cycle, this means that the water can drive the turbine because it
was pumped up by the pump, i.e. it was lifted against gravity or the earth's
gravitational field. Physically speaking, work has been done and potential
energy has been supplied to the water. This has created a pressure difference.
When the water flows down the pipes, the pressure is converted at the
consumer (the turbine).
In electrical engineering, there are electric and magnetic fields that assign
potentials to electrons. But what is a field and how can you imagine it?

7.5. Representation of E-fields

First of all, every field has a cause. In the case of the electric field or simply
E-field, the cause is charged particles.

Electric fields form around charged particles.

An accumulation of positive charge is called a positive pole, an

accumulation of negative charge carries correspondingly a negative pole.
In order to be able to represent the field, it is necessary to draw field lines
that start at the cause .

Field lines always point away from a positive charge and

towards a negative charge. The density of the field lines indicates
the strength of the field.

Figure 42: Field lines of a point charge

The illustration shows that the field lines (light blue arrows) are clearly
closer together (denser) at the circle representing the point charge than those
farther away from it. This means that the field is correspondingly stronger
there.
If several charge carriers meet, a wide variety of field lines are created.
Figure 43: Electric field lines

The field lines are jumbled and do not seem to follow any order.
If, on the other hand, the field lines are parallel, we speak of a homogeneous
field . The field has the same value at every point. This is the case, for
example, if we have two plane opposing metal plates on which charge
carriers are placed.
Figure 44: Homogeneous electric field

7.6. The force in the electric field

If we place a sample charge, for example a proton, in the field, it is repelled
by the positive pole and attracted by the negative pole. The particle thus
experiences a force along the field lines . Based on this fact, the electric
field strength can be determined. This is defined as the force F that the
field exerts on a sample charge Q.

Often the field is also found in vector notation . We know by now what a
vector is. The fact that the E-field is a vector means that the field not only
exerts a force on the particle, but the force also has a direction in space.

When calculating, we always talk about the electric field

strength. In colloquial language, only "electric field" is used. Strictly
speaking, this is not correct, as the "field" only describes the spatial
distribution, not its strength.
The unit of the electric field strength results from

[ another unit for the strength of the electric field is

volts per metre . .

Summary of an electric field:

An electric field is formed wherever electric charges are

present.

To illustrate this, draw field lines that run away from positive
charges and towards negative charges. The density of the field lines
corresponds to the strength of the field.

The electric field exerts a force on a sample charge.

What force is experienced by a single proton with a charge of

in an E-field with ?

Solution:

What force does an electron experience in the same E-field? What is the
difference?
Solution: A proton has the same charge as an electron, but a different sign.
Therefore, the force is the same for the electron, but with a negative sign
(-480 pN). The proton is accelerated in the opposite direction.
Excursus equipotential lines:
In more in-depth literature, equipotential lines are also often mentioned.
These are perpendicular to the electric field lines.

Figure 45: Equipotential lines

The dark lines are the field lines of the point charges. The ellipses represent
the equipotential lines. At the crossing points, the equipotential and E field
lines are perpendicular to each other . The same electric potential prevails
at each point. In order to understand the meaning of the equipotential lines,
we first learn about the electric potential and the voltage U.
7.7. The electrical potential and the voltage U
The electric potential or electrostatic potential is abbreviated with ϕ (Greek
lower case letter Phi ). It has the unit volt V.

The electric potential describes the potential energy of a

sample charge within an electric field. The electric field assigns a
potential to every point in space.
Analogously in the water cycle, it is the absolute pressure that the water
possesses and exerts through height. The pressure exerted by the basin of
water at a certain height is determined by the earth's gravitational field. As a
simplified example, the upper basin has a gravity pressure of one bar and the
lower basin has a pressure of zero bar.
However, in the water circuit it is not the absolute pressures that matter, but
only the relative pressure, i.e. the pressure difference between the lower and
upper water basin.

Figure 46: Potentials and voltage in the homogeneous E-field

The difference between two potentials ϕ2-ϕ1 is called the voltage U , the
voltage also has the unit volt V.

With a voltage, it must always be ensured that it only indicates

a potential difference. Therefore, you always need a reference
potential.

But what exactly is our pump now? The pump in the water circuit
corresponds to a voltage source in the electricity circuit. A voltage source
is, for example, a battery . A standard AA battery has a voltage of 1.5 V .
This means that the positive pole, i.e. the upper contact point of the battery,
has an electrical potential that is 1.5 V higher than the negative pole.
The circuit symbol of a voltage
source is a circle with a solid

line. Every voltage source

consists of a positive and a
negative pole. An ideal voltage
source generates a voltage
independent of the applied load.
In reality, this is only
approximately possible.

In electrical circuits, one usually selects

the lowest potential and defines it as the reference potential. This means
that it has the potential of ϕ = 0 V and all other potentials are specified in
relation to this potential.
 In electrical engineering, voltages are relevant almost without
exception. Potentials are hardly ever considered, as current can only
flow at a potential difference.
7.8. The current I
We have already learned that the water in the water cycle corresponds to our
electrons. But in everyday life we always talk about currents , i.e. moving
electrons . A measure of the strength of the electron flow is therefore the
current, abbreviated with the formula symbol I. Its unit is the ampere A .
Since the current indicates the flow of electrons, and each electron has a
charge, the current indicates how much charge is transferred per time.

the unit ampere is accordingly

What is the electric current when one quadrillion ( electrons, each

with a charge of e = 1.602⋅10-19 C, flow in a conductor per second?
Solution: First we calculate the charge. The total charge results from the
charge of an electron times the number of electrons.

Then we look at the time in which this charge flowed.

Power sources:
Analogous to voltage sources, there are also current sources. These do not
generate a potential difference, but a constant current I, independent of the
voltage U applied.

In the water cycle, we can think of a power source as a pump

that always produces a constant amount of water flow, so it only
drives the water, but does not raise it or increase the pressure.
7.9. Technical and
physical current direction
In electrical engineering, as well as
all other engineering sciences, one
uses the technical direction of current,
but what does that mean exactly?
Let's start with the physical direction
of the current. We know that electrons
are negative charge carriers that form
the current flow. Therefore, the current
flows from where there are more
electrons to where there are fewer
electrons. Since electrons are
negatively charged, the current flows
from the negative pole to the positive
pole. This is the "physical" direction of current or the direction of flow of the
electrons.
The term "physical current direction" is somewhat misleading, since

in physics the technical current calculation is usually also

used. The "physical current direction" merely corresponds to the
direction of movement of the electrons, not the direction actually used
in electrical engineering.
However, the current and its properties were discovered before it was known
exactly whether the positive or negative charge carriers were responsible for
the current flow. It was wrongly assumed that the positive charge carriers, i.e.
the protons, form the current flow. In this model, the current flows from the
positive pole to the negative pole. This notation has been retained until today.
Nothing changes in the calculations, the effects etc. It is only good to know
that the current flow is different in reality from the way we draw it.

The technical current direction is used in all circuit diagrams,

drawings and circuits.
In order to avoid getting confused, let's remember:

In a technical circuit, the current always flows from the

positive pole to the negative pole!

7.10. The magnetic field

Just like the gravitational field, the magnetic field is familiar from our
everyday lives. Everyone is familiar with magnets, for example for attaching
notes to a pin board. Since these magnets are permanently magnetic , they
are also called permanent magnets.
There are many similarities and analogies between magnetic and electric
fields. At the end of the chapter, we therefore compare the magnetic and
electric fields again.
The magnetic field strength has the formula symbol H, since it also

has a direction, just like the electric field, it is often described

as described. The unit of the magnetic field is .

Often, it is not the absolute magnetic field that is needed, but the magnetic

flux density . It indicates how strong the magnetic flux is in the magnetic
field. It also indicates the force acting on a sample charge.
We are not interested in the complete magnetic field of a body, but only in the
"effects", and this is described by the flux density.

You can imagine the magnetic field like a waterfall. We are not
interested in the complete extent and size of the waterfall, but only in
the flux density of the falling water.
 The magnetic field strength is less important in technology.

Almost without exception, flux density is used for calculated.

Therefore, the abbreviation for the magnetic field is generally referred to as a
B-field (analogous to the E-field - the electric field).
The unit of magnetic flux density is the Tesla T , or Newton per ampere and

per metre.
The magnetic flux density and the magnetic field are directly related via the
permeability µ. µ is therefore also often called magnetic conductivity.

Common permeabilities are, for example, iron or ferrite with of

15,000.

Now that we have learned about the physical quantities, we come to the cause
of a B-field. An electric field is created when charged particles form a
positive and a negative pole.

The cause of the magnetic field in a permanent magnet is not

charged particles, but so-called elementary magnets.

7.11. Elementary magnets

This is again a physical model. Each element consists of countless small
elementary magnets. These elementary magnets cannot be broken apart
because they represent the smallest unit. Just like a "large" magnet, they
consist of a north and a south pole. Equal poles repel each other, different
poles attract each other.
In most materials, these elementary magnets are arranged without a system.
The respective poles neutralise each other and the material is not magnetic.

Ordered - magnetic Without system - non-magnetic

Fig u re 4 9 : Ele me n ta ry ma g n e ts

It is different with magnetic materials. There, all the elementary magnets are
aligned. This creates a north and a south pole: the material is magnetic. The
best-known magnets are neodymium magnets . These are made from the
element neodymium (Nd), which belongs to the rare earths, iron and boron.
Due to their extreme strength, neodymium magnets are used in many areas, for
example in asynchronous generators of wind turbines or in the drives of
electric cars.

Excursus: Magnetising materials

You may know that you can magnetise certain non-magnetic metals with the
help of a permanent magnet. If you rub the metal several times with a
permanent magnet, it gradually becomes slightly magnetic. This is because the
permanent magnet aligns the elementary magnets in the metal in one direction.
Over time, the elementary magnets arrange themselves and remain in their
position. A north and south pole is created - the metal is magnetised.

7.12. Displaying magnetic fields

Just as with the electric field, the magnetic field is represented by field lines.

Magnetic field lines are always self-contained. They therefore

do not have a starting and end point.

Figure 50: Magnetic field lines of a permanent magnet

The illustration shows magnetic lines of a permanent magnet. But these are not
self-contained, are they?
Yes, they are closed, because the magnetic field lines continue inside the
magnet from the south to the north pole, so that a closed circle is formed. We
are only interested in the outer field lines, which is why only these are drawn
in many illustrations.

We can draw the magnetic field lines as an arrow from one pole to the other,
knowing that the field lines continue inside the magnet. For the outer magnetic
field lines it is then true that the starting point is always the north pole and the
end point the south pole.

As a mnemonic for drawing the field lines, it helps to say:

"From north the arrow goes away".

As in any field, the density of the magnetic field lines indicates the strength

of the magnetic field and is therefore a measure of the flux density .

A B-field is distributed three-dimensionally in space. When drawing, a
convention has become established. A magnetic field that points into the
drawing plane is marked by a cross. If it points out of the drawing plane, it is
marked by a dot.
Figure 51: Representation of field lines

You can remember this definition by a feathered arrow. If you shoot the arrow
into the plane, you see the tail, which is a two-dimensional cross. If the arrow
flies towards us, we only see the tip, i.e. a point.

7.13. Electromagnetism
Static magnetic fields, such as that of a permanent magnet, are clear and
familiar. Much more complex to understand are magnetic fields generated by
electricity, for example in an electric motor.
Electromagnetism is one of the most important effects in our time and can be
found almost everywhere. Electromagnetism plays a role in the electric car, in
data transmission, in the high-voltage transmission of our power grid and in
every power supply unit of a PC, laptop or smartphone.
To understand the effect, let's go back in time. In 1820, the physicist Hans
Christian Ørsted experimented with a piece of wire through which he let
current flow. In the process, he noticed that a compass located nearby
deflected each time the voltage was applied. The magnetic needle no longer
pointed north, but was deflected by the wire through which current was
flowing. This finding quickly made the rounds and other physicists such as
Ampère, after whom the current bar was named, were able to confirm the
experiment.
This proved that an electric current generates a magnetic field.

A current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field.

But how do the field lines of the magnetic field run?

After some experiments, it was found that the resulting B-field builds up
concentrically around the conductor through which the current flows.

Figure 52: Magnetic field of a current-carrying conductor

The direction of the B-field can be determined with the right-hand rule. You
clench a fist with your right hand and point your thumb upwards. This
indicates the direction of flow of the current (in the technical direction of the
current, i.e. from positive to negative pole). The four fingers indicate the
direction of circulation of the B-field.
7.14. Induction law
In physics, most effects are valid in both directions. A current flow in the
conductor generates a magnetic field. Conversely, an externally applied
magnetic field generates a current flow in a conductor. This inversion is
described as the law of induction. The process of electromagnetic induction
means that a current or voltage is generated in a conductor by an external,
changing magnetic field.

Derivation of induction
To do this, we will learn a new quantity. We already know the magnetic field
and the magnetic flux density. The third significant quantity is the magnetic
flux (Greek letter capital Phi) will be dealt with.
The magnetic flux can be compared to a waterfall. We take a surface and hold
it in the waterfall. We look at how much water flows through the surface.
The quantity that flows through the area corresponds to the magnetic flux. We
obtain the magnetic flux by multiplying the flux density by the area flowed
through.

This relationship only applies to homogeneous magnetic

fields, but in the context of this book we will limit ourselves to this
"special case".

The unit of magnetic flux is given by Tesla times square metre or Weber
Wb ( ).

We have a homogeneous magnetic field with the flux density of

. We consider a square surface with an edge length of 10 cm.
What is the magnetic flux?

Solution:

7.15. Magnetic flux and induction

The law of induction states that the voltage induced on a conductor depends
on the change in magnetic flux over time. The temporal change is described
by the differential (see 3.3.3 )

In practice, this means that a voltage is induced on a conductor when:

1. the magnetic flux B changes over time . This can be the
case, for example, when more energy is supplied to an electromagnet
and the field becomes larger as a result.
2. if the area A through which the magnetic field passes
changes. This can be the case, for example, when the surface is
pulled out of the B field or immersed.

The second effect is used, for example, in the dynamo known from bicycles: A
permanent magnet rotates past a conductor. This causes the conductor to dip in
and out of the B-field with each rotation. According to the law of induction, a
voltage is induced that operates the front and rear lights.

With the help of this system, a voltage can therefore also be

induced from a movement. The law of induction is the basis for
electro-mechanical systems such as electric motors and generators.

7.16. The Lenz Rule

Nature is "lazy" and does not like to change. It strives for balance and
homogeneity. This can be observed in many natural effects.
In electrical engineering there is an effect described by Lenz's rule.
It states that the induced voltage counteracts its cause (the change in
the B-field or area).

We explain this with an example.

- A conductor is completely in a B-field.
Since the B-field does not change and the conductor lies
completely in the B-field, no voltage is induced. Let us
now assume that the external magnetic field decreases due
to external influences.
- The change in the magnetic field is no longer
zero.
- A voltage is induced in the conductor.
- A current flows through the induced voltage.
- This generates a magnetic field that is
superimposed on the external magnetic field.
- However, the magnetic field generated is
polarised in such a way that it counteracts the cause, i.e.
the decrease of the external B-field. Accordingly, it has a
"building up instead of decreasing" effect.
- The generated magnetic field "supports" the
external magnetic field so that it decreases more
slowly.
- As a consequence of Lenz's rule, no abrupt
changes of the magnetic flux are possible.
 The increase and decrease of the magnetic flux induces a
voltage that counteracts the cause.

7.17. The Lorentz force

In the electric field, a sample charge Q experiences a Coulomb force that
pulls the sample charge towards one pole and repels it from the other.
Similar to the electric field, test charges that are placed in the magnetic field
experience a force. A test charge is not a charge particle, but a magnet. And as
we have learned, a current-carrying conductor is also a magnet because it
generates a magnetic field.

A force, the Lorentz force, acts on a current-carrying

conductor in the magnetic field.
Figure 53: Lorentz force in the horseshoe magnet

As an example, we will use a horseshoe magnet. The advantage of this

magnet is that the field within the legs of the horseshoe can be considered
approximately homogeneous.
The B field flows from the north pole to the south pole. If we place a current-
carrying piece of wire in the homogeneous magnetic field, it experiences a
force. The magnitude of the force depends on the strength of the B field the
strength of the current and the length s of the piece of wire.
What force is experienced by a conductor with a length of 10cm, through
which 10 A flows and which is in a B field with a flux density of 200 mT?

Solution:

What is the length s of a wire on which force acts on it

when it is in a B-field of strength and a current of
flowing through it?
Solution:

7.18. The direction of the Lorentz force, the three-

finger rule
The direction of the force can be determined with the right-hand or three-
finger rule. The thumb, index finger and middle finger are stretched out to
form a right-handed coordinate system (right-hand system). The thumb is the
direction of the technical current, the index finger is the direction of the
magnetic field and the middle finger indicates the direction of the resulting
force.
7.19. Overview: E-field and B-field
Finally, the following table illustrates all analogies of the electric and
magnetic field. Strictly speaking, the Lorentz force is not a purely magnetic
force effect, since a current-carrying conductor is necessary.
Type E-field B-field
Field
strength
Field lines
vividly

Field
constant
Cause Charged bodies Permanent magnets
or current-carrying
conductors
Test Test loading Sample magnet/
specimen current-carrying
conductor
Field lines Line along which a specimen
experiences a force
Field line From positive to Closed, outside
orientation negative pole from north to south
pole
Force Coulomb force Lorentz force
effect
8. Mechanical and electromagnetic waves
After understanding both oscillations and the basics of electrical engineering,
we come to the emission of electromagnetic waves.
Every type of wireless transmission is realised by electromagnetic waves. No
matter whether it is the W-LAN from home, the mobile network or GPS of the
mobile phone or the radio in the car radio.
The basis of electromagnetic waves is the electromagnetism already
described. Electrons move back and forth and generate a sinusoidal
alternating current. This means that the plus and minus poles change
periodically. We refer to this movement as a wave .

8.1. Properties of waves

First of all, we do not limit ourselves to electromagnetic waves. There are
numerous others, for example sound waves or water waves.

In contrast to a vibration, a wave is not bound to a place, but

spreads out in space.
Nevertheless, there are many analogies between vibrations and waves. But
what is a wave actually?
The most illustrative is a water wave. We imagine a calm lake with a smooth
water surface. There is no wave to be seen. But if we throw a stone into the
lake, a wave spreads out in all directions around the stone's entry point.
A wave is a spreading disturbance. Usually the wave has a specific cause. In
our example, this is the stone. By hitting the water surface, part of the kinetic
energy is transferred to the water surface, which carries the additional energy
away as a wave.
A wave transmits energy, but not matter. This is another difference between a
wave and an oscillation. In an oscillation, the energy supplied is stored in
different ways. For example, in spring and kinetic energy. A wave, on the
other hand, transports the energy away, so the energy spreads out in space.
 A wave is an oscillation that propagates spatially. The particles
that oscillate within a wave have no average speed of propagation in
time.
We distinguish between two types of waves. Longitudinal waves and
transversal waves.
With a longitudinal wave, the amplitude of the wave occurs in the direction of
propagation. Colloquially, one also speaks of pressure or sound waves. This
is because the propagation of sound is the prime example of a longitudinal
wave.

Figure 55: Representation of longitudinal waves

With transverse waves, on the other hand, the displacement takes place
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. For example, with
water waves or, as we will see later, with electromagnetic waves.
Figure 56: Display of transverse waves

In practice, transverse waves occur much more frequently than longitudinal

waves. A distinction is often made between mechanical waves and non-
mechanical waves. Mechanical waves have vibrating particles that are
coupled to each other.
In contrast, light waves, for example, also propagate in a vacuum, i.e. without
carrier materials.
All equations that we will get to know can be used independently of the wave
type.
We know by now what the difference is between an oscillation and a wave,
but as always, we need concrete physical quantities and formulae to calculate.
Let's therefore look at some important physical quantities for describing
waves.
As with an oscillation, a period duration can be assigned to a wave. This is
the time in which a complete period is passed through. We designate the
period duration again with . The reciprocal value of the period duration is
again the frequency of the wave. It indicates how many periods are
completed in one second.
Since a wave propagates not only in time but also in space, we can specify the
distance of a period by a unit of distance, e.g. in metres. The physical quantity
that describes the length of a period is called the wavelength. The formula
symbol of the wavelength is (lambda).
We can always represent a wave in a location-dependent or time-dependent
way.
As an example, we use a water wave. We can display the wave over the
entire water surface and get the typical wave pattern.
Figure 57: Water wave after stone throwing

Spatial distribution of the amplitude at a fixed point in time:

Figure 58: Propagation of the wave in space

On the other hand, we can observe a point on the water surface. At this point,
the water rises and falls every time a wave passes. The displacement is time-
dependent.
Time course of the amplitude at a fixed point in space:

Figure 59: Temporal propagation of the wave at one point

Which points in space have the same displacement at any point in time?
Solution: The points that are exactly one wavelength apart.
As the last characteristic quantity of a wave, we need to know how fast it
propagates in space. This quantity is described by the speed of propagation

often also called c . It is often also called the phase velocity of the wave.

We recognise that the velocity is present as a vector, since it indicates a

spatial direction, namely the direction of propagation of the wave. In the
simplified case, the vector arrow is often omitted because it is clear from the
context in which direction the wave is propagating, or because the wave
propagates equally in all directions considered.
The speed of propagation forms the bridge of spatial propagation as a function

of time. It is given in and can be calculated according to the already known

formula formula.

The sound wave of a lightning bolt travels approximately one kilometre in

three seconds.
9 seconds after the lightning has struck in the distance, we hear the thunder of
the lightning. What is the propagation speed of the thunder and how far away
is the lightning?

Solution:

The speed of propagation indicates another important relationship. It connects

the wavelength with the period or frequency of a wave. We can describe the
relationship as
If we know how fast a wave propagates and how long the wavelength is, we
can determine the period and frequency.

If we know how fast a wave propagates and what the period or frequency is,
we can determine the wavelength.

Why can't we hear anything in a vacuum, e.g. in space?

Solution:

Because sound needs a carrier matter, for example air molecules. There is
almost no matter in space.

8.2. The Doppler effect

We have already learned about the propagation speed of waves. What
happens when we send out the waves on a moving object? A classic example
from everyday life is the siren of a police or ambulance car. The car is

moving at a speed . In its normal state, the sound of the siren has a

propagation speed of approx. . What happens when the

moving vehicle emits sound waves?
Mathematically speaking, the velocity vectors of the sound and the car add or
subtract each other. Explained graphically, the car travels behind the sound
waves, causing the distances between the waves in front of the car to decrease
and behind the car to increase. What physical quantity indicates how far apart
two sound waves are? Exactly, the wavelength or, converted, the frequency
.

Figure 60: Doppler effect

As a result, the frequency increases when the sound source moves towards us
and decreases when the sound source moves away from us. We can see
exactly this effect in the siren of the police car. When the car passes us, the
sound changes.
We can calculate the change in frequency if we know the speed of propagation
of the wave and the speed of the vehicle. The new frequency is derived
from the original frequency as follows:

The effect of frequency shifting in moving objects was

discovered by the astronomer Christian Doppler, after whom the
Doppler effect was named. Nowadays, the frequency shift is also
used to measure speeds in road traffic (radar traps).
A patrol car is on a chase and races the suspect with after
the suspect. As it does so, the siren sounds, the sound waves of which

propagate at the speed of sound. of sound. The sound of the

siren has an original frequency of .
At what frequency do we perceive the sound when the police car approaches
us, when it just passes us and when it moves away from us again?
Solution:

First, we convert the speed into SI units. correspond to

When the police car comes towards us, the frequency changes to:

When the police car passes us, the relative speed is zero and the sound is
.
When the police car moves away from us, the frequency changes to:

Another phenomenon occurs with jets, for example. A jet emits engine noise
and air friction noise. We can hear it clearly on the ground. When a jet
accelerates and gets faster and faster, it accumulates the sound waves in front
of it. As the speed increases, the waves become denser and denser.
At the point where the jet has reached the speed of sound, the sound waves
are all superimposed on a plane in front of the jet. The amplitude or volume of
the waves adds up and a loud bang results - the sonic boom ! The jet then
moves faster than the sound. For passengers, the sounds emitted by the jet are
no longer perceptible.
This concludes our excursion into sound waves and the Doppler effect. Next,
we look at a class of waves that propagate much faster than the speed of
sound.
8.3. Electromagnetic waves
After learning about the basic properties of waves and the Doppler effect, we
move away from mechanical waves to waves that do not need a medium to
propagate. We do not deal in detail with the generation of electromagnetic
waves by means of antennas and oscillating circuits, but focus on physical
properties and their use.

An electromagnetic wave is created by the interaction of electric and

magnetic fields. As soon as a current is made to oscillate, it generates a
changing electric field. We have learned that a current also produces a
magnetic field at the same time.

At low frequencies, the electrons oscillate back and forth in the form of a
measurable voltage and current in the conductors or cables.
However, if we increase the frequency at which the electrons oscillate back
and forth, and dimension a suitable antenna, the oscillation can detach from
the conductive paths into space. The wave is radiated into space. The
frequencies of the waves must be selected extremely high.

When the wave is radiated from the conductor, the oscillating

electrons remain in the conductor, because a wave does not transport
matter. Only the electrical energy is converted into radiant energy by
the wave and radiated.
 The electric and magnetic fields are spatially shifted by 90°
and are in turn 90° to the propagation speed.

It has already been mentioned that the frequency of the oscillation must be
very high so that the wave propagates. The following table helps us to get a
feel for the magnitudes of different waves. Since the waves are classified
according to their frequencies, we also speak of a (frequency) spectrum.
Designation Wave Example
frequency
Low frequency 0 Hz to 50 Hz ---
50 Hz European electricity grid
(conductor-based)
Up to 30 kHz Submarine communication
High frequency Up to 3 MHz Shortwave radio
Up to 300 MHz Radio and TV
Up to 1 GHz Mobile radio
2.4 GHz 2.4-WLAN
Up to 5 GHz Bluetooth, 5G, GPS
Up to 80 GHz Radar
Infrared > 300 GHz Microwaves
(heat radiation) Radiant heater
Light > 300 THz Visible light
UV rays > 800 THz Black light, photolithography
X-rays > 30,000 THz Medical technology

The European power grid is operated at a very low frequency of 50 Hz. This
is because it is a wired oscillation, which is not supposed to detach. Every
electromagnetic wave that detaches from the cables means a loss of energy
during transport.

We have an overview of electromagnetic waves and their frequency. Next,

we will look at the speed at which waves propagate in space.

8.4. The speed of light c

The speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum can be
derived from the natural constants of the electric and magnetic fields.
From the electric field constant and the magnetic field constant the
speed of propagation of each electromagnetic wave is given by
We set the numerical values for and we get a speed of

The speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a

vacuum is called the speed of light and is expressed by the constant

or abbreviated. The speed of light is a fundamental natural

constant that also plays a major role in other areas of physics.
The speed of light is often rounded for calculations. Instead of the exact

numerical value of a speed of light of

is used. This value is easier to remember, it

is simple to enter into the calculator or computer and corresponds to the
numerical value with an accuracy of 99.993%. For calculations, we therefore

henceforth use the value

The propagation speed of an electromagnetic wave in other media depends
on the respective material constants and .

Since air has a dielectric constant and a permeability of almost unity,

the propagation speed in air is only 0.28% lower than in a vacuum. We can
therefore use the speed of light as the propagation speed of electromagnetic
waves in air as a good approximation.

The radio station "Antenne Bayern" broadcasts at a frequency of

approximately 100 MHz. What is the propagation speed of the wave? What
is the wavelength of the wave?
Solution:
The speed of propagation of the wave corresponds to the speed of light

.
The wavelength is calculated as

What is the wavelength of the WLAN network? (We can find the frequency in
the table above).
Solution:

In water, the propagation speed of light is about 25% lower than in air or in a
vacuum. How long is a wavelength of WLAN signals there?

Solution:

We have dealt with the essential properties of mechanical and

electromagnetic waves. In this context, we have already learned about the
speed of light without going into more detail about what light is in the first
place. Because light is much more extensive than you would initially think.
9. Optics - light and refraction
For most of the history of our existence, the daily routine of humans had to follow a
natural phenomenon, the day-night rhythm. With a few exceptions, work could only be
done during the day.
The invention of an artificial light source in the form of an incandescent lamp in 1835
decoupled working hours from the day-night rhythm.
Today's LCD displays and LED spotlights allow us to work in front of the PC at night
or enjoy football matches in floodlights.
But what is this light that determines our entire everyday life?

9.1. Light - an electromagnetic wave

Light is electromagnetic radiation, just like WLAN, GPS or Bluetooth. The
frequencies are in the terrahertz range. That is why we more often speak of
wavelengths and not frequencies in connection with light. We can convert the two
quantities into each other at any time using the well-known constant of the speed of
light. Each colour has a characteristic wavelength.
The human eye can only recognise a certain part of the spectrum. This part of the
spectrum is therefore also called visible light.

Frequency spectrum
Frequency

Wavelength

X-ray radiation Ultraviolet (UV) Visible light Infrared (IF) Radio radiation
radiation (VIS) radiation

Figure 62: Frequency spectrum

Within visible light, we find different colours at different frequencies.

The colours blue and red are at the edge of visible light at a wavelength of
and Green, yellow and orange tones are in the
middle of visible light.
Figure 63: Spectrum of visible light
Colour version of the book in better resolution as a free eBook - See at the end of the book!

However, the light of the sun also contains ultraviolet and infrared components that
we cannot perceive. We must always keep in mind that it is only due to our eyes that
we can see this part of the spectrum. Our eye is nothing more than a biological sensor
that can only pick up these specific waves. Animals such as fish or bees, on the other
hand, can also "see" into the UV range.
We have clarified the physical meaning of light as an electromagnetic wave. Building
on this, we will look at two other effects that benefit spectacle wearers in particular,
the refraction and reflection of waves. These principles are not limited to light or
electromagnetic waves, but we will focus on optics. First, we will look at the
phenomenon of refraction.

9.2. Refraction
Everyone knows the phenomenon as soon as you look at a water surface. Objects
under the water surface seem much closer than they really are.
Figure 64: Refraction at the water surface

Refraction occurs during the transition from one medium (air) to

another medium (water). The angle of the wave to the perpendicular of the
transition surface changes.
The perpendicular is the vertical line through the breaking point or entry point of the
wave into the water.

The reason for this is that the propagation speed of light depends on
the medium. In water, the speed of propagation is not equal to the speed of
light in air, but is reduced by about 25%.
This is illustrated by an example: On a busy beach, a man in the water calls for help.
A lifeguard sees the man and has to rescue him as quickly as possible. The lifeguard
can run much faster on land than he can swim in the water. Therefore, he will stay on
land for as long as possible and only cover the necessary distance in the water.
Figure 65: Analogy - Lifeguard

The lifeguard understandably chooses the quickest route, not the shortest.
A physical phenomenon discovered by the French physicist Pierre Fermat and named
after him is very similar to the example with regards to the refractive behaviour of
light.
Fermat's principle states that light, in order to travel from one point to another,
always seeks the path of minimum travel time and not the shortest path. This is also
the case, for example, with our initial example of the refraction of air in water.

Figure 66: Difference between fastest and shortest route

In order to calculate refraction, we need a number that describes the properties of a
material in relation to the speed of propagation.

This number is called the refractive index or optical density. The

refractive index is abbreviated with . It describes the ratio of the speed of
light to the speed of light in the medium.

To avoid confusion, we use instead of as the speed of light.

Air or vacuum have a refractive index of one, because there the speed
of propagation of light is equal to the speed of light.
Next, we look at the angle at which a light ray is refracted, or exactly which path the
light rays take when they pass from one medium to another.
This question can be solved mathematically by an extreme value problem. In physics,
one calculates exclusively with the result.

Figure 67: Refraction of air in water

The transit time of the light beam should become minimal. This condition is fulfilled
if the product of the sine of the angle and the refractive index remains the same.
 This law, which is based on Fermat's principle, was named Snell 's
law of refraction after the Dutch mathematician Willebrord van Roijen
Snell.
Let's apply the law of refraction to our water surface. The refractive index of air is 1,
that of water is approximately

. When a ray of light falls on the water surface at an angle of 60° to

the perpendicular, it is refracted according to the law of refraction. We can calculate
the resulting angle.

The angle is reduced from 60° to 41.6°. This refracts the beam towards the
perpendicular.

In a transition from one medium to another, light is refracted towards

the perpendicular as the refractive index increases and away from the
perpendicular as the refractive index decreases.

Material Refractive index

Vacuum 1
Air Nearly 1
Ice cream 1.3
Water 1.33
Glass 1.4 … 2.2
Quartz glass 1.46
Benzene 1.5
Polycarbonate (PC) 1.585
Spectacle lenses (plastic) Up to 1.76
Sulphur 2
Diamond 2.4
A beam of light is refracted by ice in air. Is it refracted towards the perpendicular or
away?

The angle is 20°, what is the exit angle ?

Solution:
The refractive index of ice is
, the refractive index of
air is . Since the
beam is broken away from the
perpendicular

The refractive index of an unknown substance is determined by directing a laser

pointer at an angle of onto the substance. We observe an angle
. What material is it?
Solution:
A comparison with the refractive indices in the table shows: The material is
polycarbonate .

9.3. Reflection
When light waves change from one material to another, they are not only refracted but
also partially reflected back. For example, the shore is reflected when we look at a
lake. This effect is also called reflection.
The same laws apply as for refraction.

However, since the material does not change, the refractive indices are the same.
Consequently, the angles are also the same.

In reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Refraction and
reflection usually occur together, depending on the refractive indices.

Figure 69: Partial reflection and partial refraction

9.4. Total reflection

In the case of total reflection, all the light is reflected back and not partially refracted.
We can first logically deduce when this is the case. If a light beam enters a matter
with a smaller refractive index, for example from glass into air, the beam is refracted
away from the perpendicular. What happens if we keep increasing the angle of entry
and thus also the angle of exit? At some point we reach a critical angle at which the
exit angle becomes greater than 90°. From this angle on, the beam is no longer
refracted but completely reflected. This is called total reflection .

Figure 70: Boundary case in the refraction of glass to air

We can determine the critical angle at which total reflection occurs by the law of
refraction. At the critical angle the angle is exactly 90°.

This results in from:

For our example of glass to air, this results in a critical angle of

.
From an angle of 45.6°, no more light rays are refracted.

9.5. Refraction through lenses

We can use the effect of refraction to deflect light rays in a way that is advantageous
for a particular problem. For example, eyeglass lenses compensate for the biological
inaccuracy of the eyeball.
An optically transparent disc with one or two curved sides is called a lens. If the
surface is curved, usually parabolic, it is called a convex lens; otherwise it is called
a concave lens.

Figure 71: Different lens shapes

The task of a lens is to refract parallel incident light rays at the

surface in order to focus (converging lens) or scatter (diverging lens) the
light rays. A (bi-) convex lens focuses the light rays, a (bi-) concave lens
scatters the light rays.
To illustrate the path of light rays through a lens, we place a horizontal axis and a
vertical axis through the lens. The horizontal axis is called the optical axis , the
vertical axis is called the lens plane.

Figure 72: Beam path of a converging lens

The point at which a convex lens focuses all parallel rays of light is called the focal
point. The distance of the focal point from the lens plane is called the focal length.
is called the focal length.

The focal length of a lens is a characteristic property and can be

determined by the curvature, material, thickness or surface properties of the
lens.
A focal point is also defined for a concave lens, but this is not vivid, which is why
we restrict ourselves to convex lenses, i.e. converging lenses.
Through this focusing effect, a fire can be created with the help of a simple
magnifying glass or a convex lens by focusing the parallel rays of the sun into one
point. The complete energy of the light rays is also concentrated there, so that there is
enough energy to ignite a fire.
But what happens when the light rays do not hit the lens in parallel, but emanate from
a point, for example an object?
The object has a height, which is measured from the optical axis. The object size is
denoted by The distance of the object from the lens plane is given by the distance
of the object from the lens plane with .
The light rays from the object pass through the lens, are refracted and project an
image behind the lens plane. The distance of the image from the lens plane is denoted
by and the height of the image is given by .
The following figure illustrates the relationship between the quantities. In addition,
refraction causes a reflection of the object on the optical axis.
Figure 73: Image and object width of a converging lens

The larger the object, the larger the image will be at the same distance. If we move
the object further away from the lens plane, the image also becomes smaller.

The ratio of image and object size is equal to the ratio of image and
object width. The relatively simple equation is:

In addition, another relationship can be established, which is listed without

mathematical proof. The so-called lens equation describes the relationship between
object width, image width and focal length. We remember that the focal length is a
property of the lens, which is independent of the respective image. The equation for
determining the focal length is:

When specifying spectacle lenses, one usually does not use the focal length but the
refractive power which is given in diopters . A lens with a focal

length of has a refractive power of

A tree which is from the lens plane is projected by a lens camera onto
a white background at a distance of projected.

The image of the tree on the screen is high. How high is the real tree?
What is the focal length and refractive power of the lens?
Solution:
We use the lens refraction law:

In this chapter, we have always considered light as an electromagnetic wave. Another

theory sees light as a stream of particles and not as a wave. Here, so-called photons
are the carriers of energy. In this theory, a beam of light consists of countless photons
that are emitted. A photon is the smallest possible light particle.
But which theory is correct? Are photons particles with a mass or an electromagnetic
wave? The truth is that both models are correct. We have learned that a model should
only represent as good a representation of reality as possible so that we can apply
mathematical operations. Light shows properties that we can apply to both theories,
for example, it can be refracted and thus has wave character. However, we can now
also look at individual photons, which speaks for the particle character.
Since the introduction of quantum theory, it has been clear that light particles exhibit
the properties of both classical particles and classical waves.

We can refract and deflect light. On the other hand, we can shoot
individual photons at each other and bounce them off of each other like
classical particles. This fact is also described as wave-particle duality.
Wave-particle duality is not limited to light, but also to other particles such as
electrons.
10. Nuclear physics
In this chapter we look at the most important aspects of nuclear physics. How
much does an electron weigh? What is radioactivity and what are the different
types of radiation?
We have already learned about the structure of an atom.
In the atomic nucleus, neutrons and protons are crowded together in a very
small space. Electrons race around the nucleus in different orbits, also called
shells. Overall, the atom is neutrally charged, which means that we can find as
many electrons as protons in an atom.
We have already learned about the charge of electrons, which we call the
elementary charge C
However, we have not yet determined the mass of an electron in more detail.
Electrons, like light, can be regarded both as particles with a mass and as
waves.
The mass of an electron is another natural constant and is vanishingly small. It

amounts to . Protons and neutrons, on the other hand,

are about 1800 times heavier with a mass of .

Next, we deal with different atoms, from hydrogen to uranium or plutonium.
In the process, individual sections become blurred with other subject areas.
Atomic numbers and the mass of atoms are also basic principles of chemistry.
A clear separation is therefore not possible.

10.1. The atomic number Z

The atomic number of an atom indicates the number of its protons and
electrons.

The atomic number Z determines the atom. It indicates the

number of protons in the atomic nucleus and the number of electrons
 around the nucleus.
The mass of an atom depends largely on the number of protons and neutrons.
These are called nucleons. The number of neutrons in an atom is also called
the neutron number N.
The sum of protons and neutrons is also called the mass number A.

Theoretically, we have to add the electron mass to determine the mass of an

atom. As we have already seen, however, this has hardly any influence.

The smallest and lightest element is hydrogen. It has the atomic number one,
which means that it consists of only one proton and one electron. The mass
number is also one, which means that it has no neutrons.
Iron, on the other hand, has the atomic number 26 - it therefore consists of 26
protons. In addition, there are 30 neutrons in the nucleus. The mass number is
correspondingly so that the iron atom is about 56
times as large as the nucleus of a hydrogen atom.
To represent an atom, the abbreviation is first used, for example H for
hydrogen (hydrogen) or Fe for iron (ferrite).
The mass number and the atomic number are written in front of it,

.
For hydrogen and iron, this would look like this:

and .
The mass number is often omitted if it is not necessary for the description. In
the following chapter, however, it is essential to specify the mass number.

10.2. Isotopes
We have established that the atom is determined by the atomic number. Is
every atom therefore exactly the same? Not necessarily. In the vast majority of
cases a specific composition of atomic number and mass number dominates.
Let's take the carbon atom as an example. It has the atomic number 6 and is
abbreviated with (carbon).
Most carbon atoms have an additional 6 neutrons in the nucleus. Thus we can

describe it as . As always in nature, there are also exceptions. For

example, carbon atoms with 7 neutrons and thus 13 nucleons. Carbon atoms
with 8 or more neutrons do not occur because they are too unstable due to
their high mass and decay.

If an element occurs with different numbers of neutrons, these

are called isotopes. They can occur in a stable state or in a
temporary, unstable state.

In nature, the atom occurs with a probability of 98.9 %. Only 1.1% of the

carbon atoms that occur are atoms.

If we want to calculate the mass of a carbon body, we have to calculate the
mass of an average carbon atom. This is calculated from the arithmetic mean,
where the occurrence probabilities are multiplied by the mass number.

The average mass number of a carbon atom is 12.011. Therefore, the average

carbon atom is often given as is given.

If an atomic isotope becomes too low in mass, the atomic nucleus or the
whole atom may become unstable. It decays into smaller atoms and emits
radioactive radiation.

10.3. Radioactive decay

When an atom changes from an unstable state to a stable state by emitting
radioactive radiation, this is called radioactive decay. As disasters like
Fukushima or Chernobyl show, uncontrolled radioactive decay can have
devastating effects on animals and humans. The term radioactive decay goes
back to the Polish chemist Marie Curie. For her research on radioactivity, she
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Unfortunately, her years of research with radioactive
elements proved to be her undoing, as she died of the health consequences in
1934.
However, there are different types of radioactive radiation. Some are
relatively harmless and can be shielded with the help of a sheet of paper,
other types of radiation penetrate house walls and metal plates. Therefore, we
look at different types of radiation.
We begin with the type of radiation that was discovered first and is therefore
simply abbreviated with the first letter of the Greek alphabet - alpha
radiation.

10.4. Alpha radiation

With radiation, alpha particles are emitted. Alpha particles

consist of two protons and two neutrons. The atom that consists of
exactly 2 protons and two neutrons and two electrons is called

helium. .

The difference between alpha particles and helium is that alpha

particles lack the two electrons. That is why we often speak of
helium nuclei.
An example process for the release of alpha radiation is the radioactive
substance uranium. Uranium has the atomic number 92 and the mass number

238, . It is radioactive and decays into smaller atoms by emitting alpha

radiation (helium nucleus), for example thorium with atomic number 90 and
mass number 234.

Furthermore, additional energy is released in the form of heat during decay.

Since the alpha radiation is "missing" two electrons , it is positively
charged.
Since alpha particles are helium nuclei, they can be captured or blocked with
almost any kind of matter. A sheet of paper is already sufficient to capture the
helium nuclei. Alpha radiation is therefore relatively harmless to humans.
From the outside, the radiation is already blocked by the uppermost layers of
skin without causing any far-reaching damage. It becomes dangerous when a
radioactive substance enters the body and it can damage internal, healthy
cells.

Mass defect in alpha decay

In alpha decay, the radioactive nucleus decays into small elements and helium
nuclei. In the process, a fraction of the mass is also converted into energy.
During the conversion of a uranium nucleus, for example, a mass of
is converted into energy. But how can mass be converted into
energy?

This is where Albert Einstein's most famous formula comes in: .

The energy is equal to the mass times the speed of light squared. For our
decay, therefore, an energy is released of

does not sound like a lot of energy at first, but it must be taken
into account that not only one atom decays. One gram of uranium already
contains 2.53 trillion ( atoms, which corresponds to an energy of 1.7
giga joules!

10.5. Beta radiation

With radiation, beta particles are emitted. Beta particles

are produced when there is an unbalanced ratio of protons and
neutrons in an atomic nucleus. If there are too few protons but too
 many neutrons, a neutron is converted into a proton to compensate. In
the process, the excess charge is released as radiation.

Since the charge released is negatively charged, it is also called

radiation. The charge particle is an electron .
This is why we often speak of beta-minus decay and beta-minus radiation or
beta-minus particles.

On the other hand, there may also be too few neutrons. Then a proton is
converted into a neutron and a radiation is emitted. In the process, a
positron is released. Positrons are less well known than electrons
because they occur almost exclusively in beta decay and are not very
illustrative. The process is called beta-plus decay.

If a neutron is converted into a proton, the mass number does not change, but
the atomic number increases by one. Our carbon atom provides an example. In

its nucleus, it consists of 6 protons and 6 neutrons ( or 7 neutrons (

. We also know that it is stable with mass numbers 12 and 13.

If an additional neutron is added to the nucleus, we obtain , an unstable

element, which immediately converts a neutron into a proton. As the number

of protons is increased, we get a new, stable element nitrogen .

Enormous energy is generated, which carries the newly created electrons out
of the atom.

When a neutron is converted into a proton, an electron is

emitted as beta radiation.
The energy of the released electrons depends on the material. Beta radiation
is more difficult to shield than alpha radiation, but it is still relatively easy.
An aluminium plate, which only needs to be a few millimetres thick, is
sufficient.
The last type of radiation, on the other hand, is much more energetic and more
difficult to shield. We are talking about gamma radiation.

10.6. Gamma radiation

The radiation usually occurs in combination with alpha or

beta radiation when the atom still has excess energy after decay. This
is emitted in the form of a high-energy electromagnetic wave. Gamma
radiation is usually a side effect of alpha or beta decay. The gamma
particles are also called photons.
The frequency of the electromagnetic wave is above all previously known
waves with frequencies in the range of or a wavelength of
.
Gamma radiation is very energetic and because it is an electromagnetic wave,
it can propagate through almost any element. The high energy can cause
damage to cells or human DNA, which can trigger infertility, tumours or
deformities. Attenuation is achieved by high-density matter, for example lead
plates several centimetres to decimetres thick, but complete protection is
almost impossible.
Gamma radiation is also used for technical applications, for example in
sensors or nuclear power plants. However, sufficient radiation protection
must always be ensured.

10.7. Half-life
A radioactive atom is unstable. This means that it decays and loses part of its
mass.
In connection with radioactivity, the question often arises of how long a
radioactive substance radiates. Some substances decay into stable atoms
within just a few seconds and are thus no longer radioactive. Other
substances, however, including those widely used in energy production, such
as uranium or plutonium, radiate for centuries or even longer.
But how much time passes between a decay? It varies, the reason being that
radioactive decay is a random event. As soon as the atom is unstable, there is
a possibility of decay. When the decay actually occurs it is random. However,
it can be observed that certain substances decay faster than others. Therefore,
one can conclude that these tend to decay earlier.
In order to be able to make a statement about the "shelf life", the so-called
half-life is introduced.
First we need to understand that radioactive decay is a random, exponential
process. The more atoms that are left, the more decay.
The half-life of a potential decay indicates the average time after which the
mass of the radioactive substance has halved. In other words, after a half-life
half of all unstable atoms have decayed, the other half have not yet.
Figure 75: Representation of the half-life

After a further half-life, i.e. after a total of two half-lives only half of
the half, i.e. 25%, has not yet decayed, and so on.
To calculate the mass after a given half-life, we get:

From a radioactive mass of after three half-lives

only remains.
The following table shows the half-lives of various radioactive substances.
Radioactive Half-life
 isotope
Iodine 131 8 days
Cobalt 60 5.27 years
Plutonium 239 24110 years
Uranium 235 703,800,000 (700 million)
years
Uranium 238 4,470,000,000 (4.4 billion)
years

After how many days has iodine 131 decayed to 75%?

Solution: After two half-lives, only 25% are left, therefore 75% have
already decayed.

A radioactive substance with a mass of and a half-life of

decays. How much mass is still present after ?
Solution:

A substance decomposes after three days from to

.
What is the half-life of the substance?
Solution:
We insert the given values and solve for the half-life

Now we have to draw a logarithm. The logarithm of

two is a good choice.

The half-life is about 6.24 h.

This concludes the topic of atomic physics and radiation theory.
In the meantime, we also understand why nuclear power and the resulting
nuclear waste is harmful and why long-term storage facilities are being
discussed. Uranium, which we use today for our electricity generation, will
continue to emit harmful radiation for several billion years.
This brings us almost to the end of the panoramic view through the
multifaceted subject areas of physics.
Almost, because there is still one chapter left that was shaped by one, if not
the most famous physicist. We are talking, of course, about Albert Einstein
and the theory of relativity.
11. Theory of relativity

The
theory of relativity is a very young theory. It investigates the relationship
between time, space and gravity. We all know the founder of the theory of
relativity. What is less well known is that the physicists Hendrik Lorentz and
Henri Poincaré did considerable preliminary work on which Einstein built.

The theory of relativity is divided into the special theory of

special relativity which was published in 1905 and the general
theory of general relativity which was added in 1916.
The special theory of relativity forms the basis, which is easier to understand
and which we will look at in more detail. The general theory of relativity
builds on this and adds other aspects, especially the influence of gravity.
As the name suggests, the theory of relativity describes that all physical
relationships must be viewed as relative to each other.
Moreover, the entire world view is turned upside down. Objects moving at
almost the speed of light suddenly become shorter and time is not rigid but
can stretch like a rubber rope.
11.1. Relativity and inertial systems
A term coined by Einstein is that of inertial systems or inertial reference
frames.
An inertial reference frame describes a closed system in which all objects
behave according to Newton's laws. A body at rest will remain at rest, a
body moving uniformly will remain in motion.
Accelerated systems, on the other hand, do not form inertial systems. These
include, for example, rotating systems. An accelerating car also does not
constitute an inertial system.

An inertial reference frame is not accelerated or spinning.

Inertial systems always move relative to each other.
To understand what is meant by relativity in the first place, let's look at a
journey in an ICE train. The train forms a closed inertial reference frame that

moves relative to the rest of the world at a constant rate .A

passenger on the train does not even notice that he is currently moving with

moving. For him, he himself is not in motion within the inertial

system, his speed is therefore . Only when he looks out of the

window can he realise that he is moving relative to the outer inertial system,
or that the outer inertial system is moving relative to him.
This is exactly what the principle of relativity says. All inertial reference
frames always move at a relative speed to each other. The train moves with

relative to the external observer!

However, there is a constant in the universe. Let's imagine again that we are
standing in a long aisle of the moving train. We switch on a laser pointer and
shine it along the aisle. The light spreads out with the speed of light of
 . But what does this
experiment look like to an outside
observer?

According to the current state of

knowledge, the speed of the train and
that of the light must add up. The light
therefore propagates with
.
Measurements showed, however, that
the speed still corresponds to the speed of light, i.e. .

This phenomenon is one of the fundamental pillars of special

and general relativity. The speed of light is the fastest possible speed
in any inertial frame. It is invariable, which is why we speak of the
constancy of the speed of light .
The only solution to the problem described, where the speed of light can be
measured both times, is that time or space behaves differently in the two

systems. For the speed is merely distance per time, .

If the speed remains the same, space must shorten or time must increase.
This realisation, the relativity of time and space, leads to the first
revolutionary aspect of relativity - time dilation .

11.2. Time dilation

Time dilation describes that time passes more slowly in a

moving inertial system than in a stationary one.
For the occupants of the moving inertial system, time does not pass faster or
slower, but "normally fast".

Within the inertial system, they do not perceive themselves as

moving. Instead, for the occupants, the other inertial frame is moving
relative to theirs (remember, everything is always relative to one
another). Therefore, they also perceive the time of the other inertial
frame as being slower.

In order to derive a concrete formula, we use two mirrors at a distance of

between which a beam of light is reflected back and forth. For the sake of
clarity, we will only consider a single photon, not the entire light beam.

Figure 78: A photon is reflected by two mirrors

When the photon is reflected once, it has covered a total distance of

.
Next, we look at what happens when both mirrors move constantly in one
direction. The inertial frame of the mirrors does not change at all. Just like
the experiment with the train, you can't notice that they are moving.
From the outside, however, the photon has travelled along a different path.
Namely, a diagonal.
Figure 79: Travelled path of the photon from the observer's point of view

We can calculate the distance covered with the Pythagorean theorem.

Figure 80: Calculation of the time difference

Finally, if we solve for the time we get a concrete formula with which we
can calculate the time difference. We need the velocity difference and the
speed of light . The time which has elapsed in the system at rest
compared to the elapsed time in the moving system results from:
For the speed of the train, which moves relative to the station with a speed of

this results in a relative time difference of:

Time therefore passes at almost the same rate. The reason we don't see these
effects in everyday life is that normal speeds are still very far from the speed
of light.
This makes time dilation so marginal that we cannot perceive it.
These effects become noticeable when we approach the speed of light. Let us
assume that we manage to build a spaceship that can move us at 90 % of the

speed of light, i.e. with that is.

This results in a time dilation of

If one second passes for the occupant of the spaceship, only 0.44 seconds
pass in the system of the observer at rest. However, it is the same the other
way around. Since the observer is also moving relative to the spaceship, the
time for the occupant of the spaceship is reduced from one second on Earth to
only 0.44 seconds.
We can already accelerate individual atoms to almost the speed of light, but
so far we are still very far away from speeds at which time dilation exerts a
noticeable influence for larger objects.
However, if we imagine that it is possible, we come to paradoxical
experiments, for example the twin paradox, which Einstein himself presented
in 1911.
11.3. The twin paradox:
Twins are born. We name the twins Max and Moritz.

Max flies with the help of a spaceship at a speed of to another

star. Moritz remains behind on Earth.
Seen from Earth, time passes more slowly in Max's spaceship. When Max
comes back to Earth after 30 Earth years, the only time that has passed for
him is

.
While Moritz has aged 30 years, his brother Max has only aged 13 years.
This is a nice mind game that violates some assumptions of time dilation.
What could they be?

Figure 81: Twin paradox

Many factors violate the assumption that the spaceship and the Earth are one
inertial system. The spaceship must first be accelerated to 90 % of the speed
of light. In addition, the spaceship must turn around to get back to Earth. In the
process, it is braked and accelerated.
 The essential point, however, is that the speed on the return

flight is no longer, but is. This is because the

speed always has a magnitude and a direction.

11.4. Length contraction

We have established that we cannot rigidly separate time and space in
moving inertial frames. The two physical quantities are closely interrelated
and are combined to form so-called space-time. That is why an analogous
effect appears alongside time dilation, the length contraction or also called
Lorentz contraction.

If the speed of light is constant, time can change in different systems or the
length of the object can shorten.
In length contraction, the space of a moving object shortens in the direction of

the movement by the factor

A spaceship which is long and moving at 90 % of the speed

of light, shrinks to the length for the observer:

The shrinkage only takes place in the direction of movement. The spaceship
would therefore only be 43.6 m long but still just as wide.
Figure 82: Length contraction in the direction of movement

11.5. Newton's simplification in everyday life

We have covered the effects of time dilation and length contraction but does
that mean that all the previous chapters are wrong? Was Newton talking
nonsense? The answer is yes and no.

The trick is that the speed of light is so incredibly fast

compared to our everyday speeds.

As an example we take the formulas for the momentum

This formula is approximately correct if we apply it to our everyday
velocities. The correct formula for momentum would be

Even if a rocket travels through space at , that is

still only 0.000093% of the speed of light. Therefore, the prefactors such as

which Einstein added, are negligible.

This concludes our journey through physics. Of course, it is not necessary for
the complete content of the book to be understood immediately and that every
formula should be learnt off by heart. That shows neither diligence nor
intelligence. Even Einstein knew:
"Learning is experience. Everything else is simply information".
-Albert Einstein

Practice makes perfect, there are countless other facets of physics that help us
to understand our world better, bit by bit.
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