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Ultrasound - Wikipedia
Ultrasound - Wikipedia
An ultrasonic examination
History
Definition
Perception
Humans
The upper frequency limit in humans (approximately 20 kHz) is due to
limitations of the middle ear. Auditory sensation can occur if high-
intensity ultrasound is fed directly into the human skull and reaches the
cochlea through bone conduction, without passing through the middle
ear.[13]
Children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot
hear, because in humans the upper limit pitch of hearing tends to
decrease with age.[14] An American cell phone company has used this
to create ring signals that supposedly are only audible to younger
humans,[15] but many older people can hear the signals, which may be
:
because of the considerable variation of age-related deterioration in
the upper hearing threshold.
Animals
Many insects have good ultrasonic hearing, and most of these are
:
nocturnal insects listening for echolocating bats. These include many
groups of moths, beetles, praying mantises and lacewings. Upon
hearing a bat, some insects will make evasive manoeuvres to escape
being caught.[17] Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the
noctuid moth that causes it to drop slightly in its flight to evade
attack.[18] Tiger moths also emit clicks which may disturb bats'
echolocation,[19][20] and in other cases may advertise the fact that they
are poisonous by emitting sound.[21][22]
Dogs and cats' hearing range extends into the ultrasound; the top end
of a dog's hearing range is about 45 kHz, while a cat's is 64 kHz.[23][24]
The wild ancestors of cats and dogs evolved this higher hearing range
to hear high-frequency sounds made by their preferred prey, small
rodents.[23] A dog whistle is a whistle that emits ultrasound, used for
training and calling dogs. The frequency of most dog whistles is within
the range of 23 to 54 kHz.[25]
Toothed whales, including dolphins, can hear ultrasound and use such
sounds in their navigational system (biosonar) to orient and to capture
prey.[26] Porpoises have the highest known upper hearing limit at
around 160 kHz.[27] Several types of fish can detect ultrasound. In the
order Clupeiformes, members of the subfamily Alosinae (shad) have
been shown to be able to detect sounds up to 180 kHz, while the other
subfamilies (e.g. herrings) can hear only up to 4 kHz.[28]
Non-contact sensor
An ultrasonic level or sensing system requires no contact with the
target. For many processes in the medical, pharmaceutical, military and
general industries this is an advantage over inline sensors that may
contaminate the liquids inside a vessel or tube or that may be clogged
by the product.
Both continuous wave and pulsed systems are used. The principle
behind a pulsed-ultrasonic technology is that the transmit signal
consists of short bursts of ultrasonic energy. After each burst, the
electronics looks for a return signal within a small window of time
corresponding to the time it takes for the energy to pass through the
vessel. Only a signal received during this window will qualify for
additional signal processing.
Nondestructive testing
:
Principle of flaw detection with
ultrasound. A void in the solid
material reflects some energy
back to the transducer, which is
detected and displayed.
Non-destructive testing of a
swing shaft showing spline
cracking
Ultrasound Identification
(USID)
:
Ultrasound Identification (USID) is a Real-Time Locating System (RTLS)
or Indoor Positioning System (IPS) technology used to automatically
track and identify the location of objects in real time using simple,
inexpensive nodes (badges/tags) attached to or embedded in objects
and devices, which then transmit an ultrasound signal to communicate
their location to microphone sensors.
Imaging
Acoustic microscopy
Acoustic microscopy is the technique of using sound waves to visualize
structures too small to be resolved by the human eye. High and ultra
:
high frequencies up to several gigahertz are used in acoustic
microscopes. The reflection and diffraction of sound waves from
microscopic structures can yield information not available with light.
Human medicine
Medical ultrasound is an ultrasound-based diagnostic medical imaging
technique used to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal
organs to capture their size, structure and any pathological lesions with
real time tomographic images. Ultrasound has been used by
radiologists and sonographers to image the human body for at least 50
years and has become a widely used diagnostic tool. The technology is
relatively inexpensive and portable, especially when compared with
other techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and
computed tomography (CT). Ultrasound is also used to visualize
fetuses during routine and emergency prenatal care. Such diagnostic
applications used during pregnancy are referred to as obstetric
sonography. As currently applied in the medical field, properly
performed ultrasound poses no known risks to the patient.[36]
Sonography does not use ionizing radiation, and the power levels used
for imaging are too low to cause adverse heating or pressure effects in
tissue.[37][38] Although the long-term effects due to ultrasound
exposure at diagnostic intensity are still unknown,[39] currently most
doctors feel that the benefits to patients outweigh the risks.[40] The
ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle has been
advocated for an ultrasound examination – that is, keeping the
:
scanning time and power settings as low as possible but consistent
with diagnostic imaging – and that by that principle nonmedical uses,
which by definition are not necessary, are actively discouraged.[41]
Ultrasound is also increasingly being used in trauma and first aid cases,
with emergency ultrasound becoming a staple of most EMT response
teams. Furthermore, ultrasound is used in remote diagnosis cases
where teleconsultation is required, such as scientific experiments in
space or mobile sports team diagnosis.[42]
Veterinary medicine
Diagnostic ultrasound is used externally in horses for evaluation of soft
tissue and tendon injuries, and internally in particular for reproductive
work – evaluation of the reproductive tract of the mare and pregnancy
detection.[44] It may also be used in an external manner in stallions for
evaluation of testicular condition and diameter as well as internally for
reproductive evaluation (deferent duct etc.).[45]
Physical therapy
Ultrasound has been used since the 1940s by physical and
occupational therapists for treating connective tissue: ligaments,
tendons, and fascia (and also scar tissue).[48] Conditions for which
ultrasound may be used for treatment include the follow examples:
:
ligament sprains, muscle strains, tendonitis, joint inflammation, plantar
fasciitis, metatarsalgia, facet irritation, impingement syndrome, bursitis,
rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and scar tissue adhesion.
When the UIT tool, made up of the ultrasonic transducer, pins and
other components, comes into contact with the work piece it
acoustically couples with the work piece, creating harmonic
resonance.[51] This harmonic resonance is performed at a carefully
calibrated frequency, to which metals respond very favorably.
Processing
Ultrasonication offers great potential in the processing of liquids and
slurries, by improving the mixing and chemical reactions in various
applications and industries. Ultrasonication generates alternating low-
pressure and high-pressure waves in liquids, leading to the formation
and violent collapse of small vacuum bubbles. This phenomenon is
termed cavitation and causes high speed impinging liquid jets and
strong hydrodynamic shear-forces. These effects are used for the
deagglomeration and milling of micrometre and nanometre-size
materials as well as for the disintegration of cells or the mixing of
reactants. In this aspect, ultrasonication is an alternative to high-speed
mixers and agitator bead mills. Ultrasonic foils under the moving wire in
a paper machine will use the shock waves from the imploding bubbles
to distribute the cellulose fibres more uniformly in the produced paper
web, which will make a stronger paper with more even surfaces.
Furthermore, chemical reactions benefit from the free radicals created
by the cavitation as well as from the energy input and the material
transfer through boundary layers. For many processes, this
sonochemical (see sonochemistry) effect leads to a substantial
:
reduction in the reaction time, like in the transesterification of oil into
biodiesel.
Ultrasonic disintegration
Similar to ultrasonic cleaning, biological cells including bacteria can be
disintegrated. High power ultrasound produces cavitation that
facilitates particle disintegration or reactions. This has uses in
biological science for analytical or chemical purposes (sonication and
sonoporation) and in killing bacteria in sewage. High power ultrasound
can disintegrate corn slurry and enhance liquefaction and
saccharification for higher ethanol yield in dry corn milling
plants.[58][59]
:
Ultrasonic humidifier
The ultrasonic humidifier, one type of nebulizer (a device that creates a
very fine spray), is a popular type of humidifier. It works by vibrating a
metal plate at ultrasonic frequencies to nebulize (sometimes incorrectly
called "atomize") the water. Because the water is not heated for
evaporation, it produces a cool mist. The ultrasonic pressure waves
nebulize not only the water but also materials in the water including
calcium, other minerals, viruses, fungi, bacteria,[60] and other
impurities. Illness caused by impurities that reside in a humidifier's
reservoir fall under the heading of "Humidifier Fever".
Ultrasonic welding
In ultrasonic welding of plastics, high frequency (15 kHz to 40 kHz) low
amplitude vibration is used to create heat by way of friction between
the materials to be joined. The interface of the two parts is specially
designed to concentrate the energy for maximum weld strength.
:
Sonochemistry
Power ultrasound in the 20–100 kHz range is used in chemistry. The
ultrasound does not interact directly with molecules to induce the
chemical change, as its typical wavelength (in the millimeter range) is
too long compared to the molecules. Instead, the energy causes
cavitation which generates extremes of temperature and pressure in
the liquid where the reaction happens. Ultrasound also breaks up solids
and removes passivating layers of inert material to give a larger surface
area for the reaction to occur over. Both of these effects make the
reaction faster. In 2008, Atul Kumar reported synthesis of Hantzsch
esters and polyhydroquinoline derivatives via multi-component reaction
protocol in aqueous micelles using ultrasound.[61]
Other uses
When applied in specific configurations, ultrasound can produce short
bursts of light in a phenomenon known as sonoluminescence. This
phenomenon is being investigated partly because of the possibility of
bubble fusion (a nuclear fusion reaction hypothesized to occur during
sonoluminescence).
Wireless communication
Audio can be propagated by modulated ultrasound.
See also
Medical
portal
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Further reading
External links
Retrieved from
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title=Ultrasound&oldid=1215531509"