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Physiology - F - Basic Science
Physiology - F - Basic Science
PHYSIOLOGY
SYLLABUS
Introduction
General functional organization of human body
Body fluid compartments (p. 205): Functions of electrolytes, dehydration and overhydration (p. 208)
Define and explain terminology: (p. 210)
Hypertonic , hypotonic, isotonic
Osmotic pressure: Crystalloid and oncotic, Osmosis
Cell membrane transport (p. 211)
Cell to cell and local communication (p. 218)
Intracellular mechanism of signal transduction (p. 221)
Homeostasis (p. 221)
Definition, Maintainance, Control of internal environment, Different regulatory system in homeostasis
Principles of control systems: General characteristics and components of biological control system, concept of
negative and positive feedbackcorrection, error, gain
Hormonal control mechanisms:
Definition of hormones, Receptors and target cell, Role of hormones in homeostasis
Neural control mechanism: Role in homeostasis I
Musculoskeletal
Neuromuscular transmission
Bioelectricity (p. 225)
Terminology: (p. 225)
Excitable cells (p. 225), neurons and muscles and their excitable properties
Functional anatomy of neurons
Resting membrane potential (p. 227), Nernst equation (p. 228)
Action potential (p. 228): Ionic basis of its genesis and propagation, Its refractory period (p. 226)
Receptor (p. 229): Generator potential, Classification and functions
Cutaneus receptors (p. 229): Classification and functions, Generator potential, properties and transduction
PHYSIOLOGY
Daily loss of body water
BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS
1. Insensible water loss
FUNCTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES
- It occurs continually in all living humans though
Past Quesitons:
we are not consciously aware of it.
1. Write briefly on: (2+3=5) [03 July] - Loss of water by evaporation from the
a. Difference between intracellular and extra respiratory tract & diffusion through the skin (≈
cellular fluid 700ml/day)
b. Interstitial fluid (2) [09 Jan] - Independent of sweating; present even in
2. Enumerate the different body fluid people who are born without sweat glands.
compartments and state the starling forces Note:
that determine the net movement of fluid In cold weather, there is dry feeling in the respiratory
across the capillary wall. (2 + 2 = 4) [03 Dec] passages. It is because, as the atmospheric vapour
3. Name the body fluid compartments and state pressure decreases to nearly zero, there is even
greater loss of water from lungs.
the biophysical principles (Starling’s
Hypothesis) that govern the transport of fluid 2. Fluid loss in sweat
in between capillary and tissue spaces. - Depends upon physical activity &
(3+3=6) [11 July] environmental temperature (≈100ml/day)
4. Name the different fluid compartment in the - In very hot weather or during heavy exercise,
water loss in sweat occasionally increases to 1
I
body, the size of each in percentage and liters
to 2 L/hour.
(in a 70kg man). (4) [05 Dec]
3. Water loss in feces
5. Mention the differences between: (2) [07 July]
- Small amount lost ( ≈100 ml/day)
a. Intracellular and extracellular fluid.
- Increases in diarrhoea.
4. Water loss by kidneys
Daily intake of water
- Most important means by which the body
♦ Sources of water in the body are:-
maintains a balance between intake and
1. Ingested in the form of liquids or water in the output of most electrolytes.
food (≈ 2100ml/day)
Total Body water
2. Synthesized in the body as a result of oxidation
♦ In an average 70- kg adult man, the total body
of carbohydrates (≈ 200ml/day) water is about 60% of the body weight or about
Total water intake = (2100 +200) 2300ml/day 42 liters.
♦ Water intake varies among different people & Factor affecting total body water
even within the same person on different days a. Age
depending on climate, habits & level of physical - As a person grows older, the percentage of
activity. total body weight that is fluid gradually
decreases.
For Specific body fluid compartments: Effect of adding isotonic, hypertonic &
Volume Indicators hypotonic solution to ECF after osmotic
equilibrium
1. Total body water 3H2O, 2H2O, antipyrine
22
2. Extracellular fluid Na,125I-iothalamate,
thiosulphate, inulin
3. Intracellular fluid Calculated as:
( Total body water - ECF)
125
4. Plasma Volume I-albumin, Evans blue dye ( T-
1824)
51
5. Blood Volume Cr - labeled red blood cells,
Or, calculated as:
Plasma volume
Blood volume = 1-hematocrit
of high water concentration to one that has a - Osmotic pressure exerted by crystalloids in a
lower water concentration. solution.
- Cell membrane is selectively permeable - Important in relation to the stability of RBC and
membrane as it is relatively impermeable to the size of all the cells in the body
most solutes but highly permeable to water. - When the ECF becomes dilute, the cell swells
- Whenever there is a higher concentration of up & when the ECF becomes concentrated,
solute on one side of the cell membrane, water the cell shrinks.
diffuses across the membrane toward the b. Colloidal osmotic tension
region of higher solute concentration. - Osmotic pressure exerted by colloids in the
Osmolarity solution.
- Number of osmoles per litre of solution. - Colloids are not evenly distributed in the body.
Osmolality - Plasma has plasma proteins, plasma lipids, etc.
- Number of osmoles per kg of solvent but the concentration of these colloids is
Osmotic Pressure: negligible in ECF.
- Osmotic pressure is the force under which a - So, plasma has more colloidal osmotic tension
solvent moves from a solution of lower solute (COT) than ECF which helps to keep water in it
concentration to a solution of higher solute and thus to maintain its volume. It also
concentration when a selectively permeable regulates formation and absorption of tissue
membrane separate the solution. fluid.
- It depends upon the number of particles in the
CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
solution and not on the type or size or
concentration of the substance. Past Quesitons:
Osmotically active particles may be: 1. Draw the structure of cell membrane. Name the
cell membrane proteins and mention their
I
a. Crystalloids
functions. (2+3 = 5) [07 July]
- These particles dissolve in water resulting in a 2. Mention the functions of cell membrane. What is
clear permanent true solution/crystalloid meant by tight junction and its importance?
solution. (2+1 = 3) [07 Dec]
- They form crystals when passed through a 3. Describe briefly with the help of diagram the
parchment paper. structure of cell membrane. Name the different
modes of transport across cell membrane. What
- Size of particles is usually less than 1 mµ.. Eg:
is diffusion potential? (2+2+1=5) [03 June]
sugar, urea, Nacl. 4. Describe briefly with the help of diagram the
b. Colloids structure of cell membrane. Name the different
- These particles form a thick opalescent modes of transport across cell membrane. What
unstable solution when dissolved in water. is diffusion potential? (2+2+1 = 5) [03]
(colloid solution) 5. Name: [03 Dec]
a. Cell membrane proteins and give their
- Size of particles is usually from 1 µm to 200 functions (1+2=3)
mµ. E.g., proteins, starch, glycogen, etc. b. Types of intracellular communications with
c. Suspension examples (1+2=3)
- When size of particles >200µm. 6. a. Name different types of intracellular
According to the above particles, osmotictension/ connections. (1)
pressure also has two component: b. Describe the functions of gap junctions.
a. Crystalloid osmotic tension (2) [11 July]
Ouabain
- A digitalin drug that act as an inhibitor of Na+ -
K+ pump
- Na+ concentration increase in ICF resulting in
increased impulse generation, contractility &
heart rate.
Mechanism
- When 2 K+ ion bind on inside, 3 Na+ bind on
the outside
↓
ATPase function of protein gets activated
b. Counter- transport
↓ - It is the simultaneous transport of two
Cleavage of ATP Into different molecules in the opposite
direction.
Eg, Na+ - H+ counter transport
ADP High energy phosphate bond
↓
Cause a chemical & conformational change in
the protein carrier molecule
↓ I
+ +
3 Na move outside & 2 K move inside
2. Secondary transport [07]
- The energy is derived secondarily from
energy that has been stored in the form of
ionic concentration differences of c. Vesicular Transport
secondary molecules or ionic substances i. Endocytosis
between the two sides of a cell membrane.
• It is the movement of macromolecules
- It uses the concentration gradient created from outside the cell to the inside of the
by primary active transport. cell by the active invagination of the
Types: plasma membrane.
a. Co-transport Mechanism
- It is the phenomenon in which the diffusion - The plasma membrane contains coated pits.
energy of an ionic substance can pull other - These pits can be internalized to form
substances along with it through the cell coated vesicles which contain an ususual
membrane. protein called “clathrin”
Eg, Na+ co-transport with glucose Eg., uptake of LDL by cell
aminoacids, etc.
On the basis of state of the substance taken up CELL TO CELL AND LOCAL
endocytosis is divided into: COMMUNICATION
a. Phagocytosis Past Questions:
• It is the process by which the solid 1. Name: [03 Dec]
materials a. Cell membrane proteins and give their
(E.g., bacteria, dead tissue) are engulfed functions (1+2=3)
by cells. b. Types of intracellular communications with
b. Fluid- phase endocytosis (Pinocytosis) examples (1+2=3)
- It is the process of uptake of molecules 2. a. Name different types of intracellular
in solution connections. (1)
i. Constitutive endocytosis b. Describe the functions of gap junctions.
(2) [11 July]
• Vesicles continuously fuse with the
3. What are the differences between tight junction
cell membrane
and gap junction? (4) [04 Dec]
ii. Receptor - mediated endocytosis
4. Name the types of intercellular communications
• The molecule to be internalized binds
and describe each of them with examples.
to a receptor on the surface of the
cell which then concentrate at (2+2 = 4) [06 June]
clathrin - coated pits. 5. Write short notes on:
ii. Exocytosis a. Tight junction and gap junction
- It is the process by which macro molecules b. Gap Junctions (2,3)
are packaged in secretory vesicles and then [08 Jan, 05 June, 05 Dec, 09 July]
extruded from the cell.
I - It requires both calcium & energy Intercellular connections [11, 04]
Eg: Secretion of homones like insulin, ♦ It means connection between the cells of a tissue.
parathyroid, etc.
♦ These connections are required to hold the cells of
a. Constitutive secretion
a tissue together or for communication between
b. Regulated exocytosis
the cells.
Intercellular connections
Desmosmes Hemidesmosomes
Medulla
Parasympathetic-bradycardia
Sympathetic-tachycardia
NTS : Nucleus of Tractus solitarius
NTS RVLM : Rostral ventrolateral medulla
CVLM : Caudal ventrolateral medulla
IVLM : Intermediate ventrolateral medulla
GABA IVLM GABA : Gamma aminobutyric acid
- acts as inhibitor
Glu Glu : Glutamine
- acts as excitatory reflex mechanism
CVLM
- release due to increased BP
IVLM
IX and X cranial nerve is called buffer nerve
IX
IML I
Carotid
labyrinth Thoracic cord
Aortic arch
Heart
I ↓ Child birth
c. Generation of nerve signals
Renin production ( Kidney)
Stimulation of neuron
↓act upon ↓
Increased leakage of Na+ ions interiorly due to
Renin substrate (Angiotensinogen) more opening of channels
↓ ↓
Creation of action potential
Angiotension I Positive feed back as a viscious cycle
Angiotensinogen ♦ May cause instability & often death
Converting Enzyme (Lungs)
Loss of more than 2L blood from body
Angiotensin II
↓
Blood shortage in body
↓
Renal retention Vasoconstriction Inactivation of Decreased cardiac output of heart
of salt and water angiotensinase ↓
Decreased arterial BP
↓
Cardiac muscle perfusion decreased
↓
↑ Arterial Weakening of heart
pressure ↓
Diminished pumping
iii. Latent period: The time interval between the vii. Accommodation: When a stimulus fails to
application of stimulus and the response stimulate a nerve fibre, it is said to be
obtained is called latent period. accommodated and the process by which the
iv. Electrotonus: Passive change in membrane stimulus is made ineffective by nerve fibre is
potential (MP) due to application of stimulus. called accommodation.
v. Local response viii. All or none law
- The change in MP with active participation - A nerve fibre is said to obey 'all or none'
of membrane (but not AP) is called local law.
response.
- It is true only in case of AP formation.
- Occurs due to entry of Na+ in nerve fibre
after channel opening. - “If AP is produced, it is produced fully only
for a threshold stimulus and it is never
- Also called generator potential/receptor
produced partially.”
potential.
- Defined as change of potential in the - The size of AP formed in a particular fibre is
receptor membrane due to stimulus which always same whatever may be strength of
may generate an impulse in related sensory stimulus provided other conditions remain
nerve. constant.
- Eg: EPSP, IPSP etc. ix. Conductivity
vi. Action potential - Ability to conduct the AP along nerve fibre.
- Is the sequential change of membrane - Velocity of conduction is higher in
potential after application of a threshold myelinated nerve fibres due to saltatory
stimulus. conduction.
- Starts at site of application of stimulus and - Thicker the fibre higher is the velocity of
moves along the membrane in all conduction.
I directions.
x. Refractory period (RP): [07]
Action Potential [08] Generator Potential [08] The time period after an action potential
a. There is change in a. Change in membrane during which a new stimulus cannot be elicited
membrane potenital potentials towards is called refractory period.
and complete firing level. It is of two types.
depolarisation occurs.
a. Absolute RP
b. Impulse conducted b. Impulse remains - The period during which a second action
along membrane locally. potential cannot be elicited even with a
without change in its
strong stimulation is called absolute RP.
size.
- It is initial part of RP and corresponds to
c. Cannot be summated. c. Can be summated. period of AP from the firing level upto
d. Can be caused only by d. Can be caused even by 1
the initial 3rd of repolarization.
threshold stimulus. subthreshold stimulus.
e. Obey 'all and none' law e. Doesn't obey 'all and b. Relative RP
provided other none' law. - After absolute refractory period is a relative
conditions remains refractory period during which stronger
constant. than normal stimuli can excite the fibre.
f. Size doesn't depend on f. Size depends on - During this, tissue is less excitable than
strength of stimulus. strength of stimulus. normal.
where,
I ε = potential difference or Emf in mv
Cinside = Concentration inside cell for an ion
Coutside = Concentration outside cell for same
Firing level
ion
-70
If, membrane is permeable to different ions, Resting
Hyperpolarization
diffusion potential depends on 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
a. The polarity of electrical charge of each ion Time (ms)
b. The permeability of membrane (p) to each ion Action potential
c. The concentration (c) of respective ions on This above graph shows successive changes in
inside and outside the membrane. membrane potential over a few 10,000ths of a
and second illustrating the explosive onset of action
Goldman equation or Goldman-Hodgkin Katz potential and almost equally rapid recovery.
equation is used: The successive stages of action potential are:
CNa+i PNa+ + CK+i PK+ + CCl– OPCl– a. Resting stage/ latent period: This is resting
ε = -61 log membrane potential before the action
CNa+O PNa+ + CK+OPK+ + CCl– i PCl–
potential begins. The membrane is said to be
Where, i = inside polarized during the stage because of -90 mv (-
O = outside ve membrane potential) that is present.
- Within few 10,000th of a second after the - It is defined as a macromolecule or binding site
membrane becomes highly permeable to located on the surface or inside the effector
sodium ions, the sodium cannels begin to close cell that serves to recognize the signal
and K+-channels begin to open more than molecule / ligand and initiate the response to it
normal. but itself has no other functions.
- Then rapid diffusion of potassium ions to Classification I
exterior reestablishes the normal negative i. Ion channel linked receptor: Receptor of ACh,
resting membrane potential. NE etc.
Factors that cause depolarization and repolarization ii. G-Protein coupled receptor: This receptor in
- Transport channels through nerve membrane turn alters ion channels or activity of
- Voltage gated sodium and potassium channels intracellular enzymes
- Merkel's disc, Ruffini end bulbs for touch - Sensation felt depends on type of specific
pressure. receptor.
iii. Encapsulated endings: vi. Receptor potential/Generator potential
- Pacinian corpuscles vii. Adaptation
iv. Specialized cells: viii.Recruitment:
- Rods and cones for light - When intensity of stimulus is increased, the
no. of receptors stimulated also increases.
v. Sense organs:
Function of receptors
I - Taste buds for gustation
a. Biological transducer:
Properties of Receptors
- Sensory receptor can convert/transduce
i. Adequate stimulus:
various forms of energy to AP in nerve
- A receptor is most sensitive to a particular fibres.
type of stimulus which is called adequate
E.g. Light in rods and cones.
stimulus for that receptor. E.g. light for rods
and cones b. Helps to maintain homeostasis
- A receptor is much more specific to their - Can translate different language (pressure,
action. temperature) into electrical language which
nervous system can understand.
- A particular type of receptor responds to a
particular type of stimulus to produce
particular response only.