EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Chapter 2: Transformers

Function: To convert ac power at one voltage level to ac power of the same

frequency at another voltage level.

2.1 Types and Construction of Power Transformers

Types Descriptions
Unit Transformer • Connected to the output of a generator
• Used to step up generator output voltage to
transmission levels (275 kV)
Substation Transformer • Connected at the other end of the
transmission lines
• Used to step down voltage from transmission
levels to distribution levels (33 kV)
Distribution Transformer • Used to step down the voltage at distribution
levels to final voltage (220V, 110 V)

A transformer consists of two or more windings wrapped around a common

ferromagnetic core.

1) Core-type transformer is made up of a simple rectangular laminated piece

of steel. The windings are wrapped around both sides (primary and
secondary) of the core.
𝑖P (𝑡) 𝑖S (𝑡)

𝑣P (𝑡) 𝑣S (𝑡)
𝑁P 𝑁S

1
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Note that by convention,

Primary side: connected to the input/source
Secondary side: connected to the output/load

2) Shell-type transformer is made up of a three-legged laminated piece of

steel. The windings are wrapped around the center leg.

In either case, both transformer types are constructed of thin laminations

electrically isolated from each other in order to minimize eddy currents.

In a physical transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wrapped one
on top of the other with the low-voltage winding innermost to serve two purposes:

1) To simplify the problem of insulating the high- voltage winding from the
core

2) To reduce leakage flux

Having said so, the shell-type transformer is more advantageous than the core-type
transformer.

2
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

2.2 The Ideal Transformer

Conditions for an ideal transformer:

• Lossless or non-dissipative
• No energy storage

𝑖P 𝑖S

𝑣P 𝑁P 𝑁S 𝑣S

Assumptions made for an ideal transformer:

1) No loss in the winding resisistance
2) No leakage flux
3) Core is infinitely permeable and has no loss

Schematics symbol of a transformer

𝑖P 𝑖S
𝑁P 𝑁S
+ +
𝑣P 𝑣S
− −

𝑖P 𝑖S
𝑁P 𝑁S
+ +
𝑣P 𝑣S
− −

The dot convention in the schematic diagram of the transformer has the following
relationship:

1) If vp= +ve at the dotted end, then vs = +ve at the dotted end. Voltage
polarities are the same wrt the dots on each side of the core.

2) If ip flows into the dotted end, then is will flow out of the dotted end.

3
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Refer to the sketch of the ideal transformer

When an ac voltage vp is applied at the primary windings, according to Faraday’s

Law, a core flux must be established such that the counter emf ep= vp at steady
state. Therefore at steady state,

𝑑∅P
𝑣P = 𝑒P = 𝑁P
𝑑𝑡
The core flux also links the secondary winding and produces and emf 𝑒S , and an
equal secondary terminal voltage 𝑣S as shown,

𝑑∅S
𝑣S = 𝑒S = 𝑁S .
𝑑𝑡

From the ratio below,

𝑣P 𝑒 𝑁
= 𝑒P = 𝑁P = 𝑎.
𝑣S S S

Where a is defined as the turns ratio of the transformer.

If a load is connected on the secondary side, a current 𝑖2 and an mmf 𝑁2 𝑖2 are

present. Since the core permeability is infinite, the net exciting mmf acting on the
core will not change and remains negligible as shown as,

The relationship of current and turns ratio of the transformer is,

Note that the turns ratio of the ideal transformer only affects the magnitudes of
current and voltage phasors. Phase angles are not affected.

In phasor form the voltage and current relationships with the turns ratio are

4
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

𝑉�P 𝑁P
= =𝑎
𝑉�S 𝑁S

and

𝐼P̅ 𝑁S 1
= =
𝐼S̅ 𝑁P 𝑎

2.2.1 Power in an Ideal Transformer

Input power at the primary side is given as,

𝑃in =𝑉P 𝐼𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃P ,

Output power at the secondary side is given as,

𝑃out =𝑉S 𝐼S 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃S ,

where 𝜃P and 𝜃S are the phase angles between the voltage and current in the
primary and secondary sides, respectively.

The phase angles are unaffected by the transformer turns ratio. Therefore,

𝜃P = 𝜃S = 𝜃

Since 𝑽S = 𝑽P /𝒂 and 𝑰S = 𝒂𝑰P , the output power in the secondary side can be
replaced and represented as,

The reactive power Q and apparent power S can be determined in the same manner
to be

𝑄in = 𝑉S 𝐼S sin 𝜃P = 𝑉S 𝐼S sin 𝜃S = 𝑄out

and

5
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

𝑆in = 𝑉P 𝐼P = 𝑉S 𝐼S = 𝑆out

2.2.2 Impedance Transformation Through a Transformer

𝐼�P 𝐼�S

𝑉�P 𝑍L̅ 𝑉�S

The load impedance as seen at the secondary side is given as

𝑉�S
𝑍L̅ =
𝐼�𝑆

The apparent impedance as seen at the primary side is,

𝑉�P
𝑍L̅ ′ =
= =
𝐼�P
The primary-side-referred transformer equivalent circuit is,

6
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

2.2.3 Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformer

Example 2.1
A generator rated at 480V, 60 Hz is connected a transmission line with an
impedance of 0.18+j0.24Ω. At the end of the transmission line there is a load of
4+j3Ω.

a) Calculate the voltage at the load and the transmission losses.

7
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the

transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of
the line. Calculate the voltage at the load and the transmission losses.

To analyse this power system, we need to convert to a common voltage level.

1. Eliminate transformer T2 by referring load to the transmission line’s voltage
level:

2. Recalculate total equivalent impedance at the transmission side:

3. Eliminate transformer T1 by referring the total equivalent impedance to the

generator side:

8
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Now we can calculate generated current,

Having known this, we can work back to find the transmission

line and load currents.
Through T1:

Through T2:

Therefore, the load voltage is:

Finally, the transmission line losses are:

9
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

2.3 Theory of Operation of Real Single-Phase Transformers

A real transformer has:

1. Leakage flux
2. Magnetizing current
3. Core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses)

The basis of transformer operation can be derived from Faraday’s Law (Chapter 1)

𝑑λ
𝑒 ind =
dt

Where λ is the flux linkage in the transformer coil as shown as,

𝑁

𝜆 = � 𝜙𝑖
𝑖=1

The above relation is true provided on the assumption that the flux passing through
each turn is constant. But in reality, the flux value at each turn may vary due to the
position of the coil itself.

Therefore, the average flux per turn can be used as,

𝜆
𝜙av =
𝑁
and the Faraday’s Law can be rewritten as
𝑑𝜙av
𝑒ind = 𝑁
𝑑𝑡

10
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

2.3.1 Transformer Leakage Flux

𝐼P

𝑉P

Not all the flux produced in the primary coil passes through the secondary coil.
The portion of the flux that goes through one coil but not the other is called
leakage flux.

𝜙LP is defined as the primary leakage flux

𝜙LS is defined as the secondary leakage flux

Flux linking both the primary and secondary coils and remains in the core, 𝜙M is
defined as mutual flux.

The total average primary flux 𝜙P(av) is the sum of primary leakage flux and the
mutual flux, where
𝜙P(𝑎𝑣) = 𝜙LP + 𝜙M .

Similarly, the total average secondary flux 𝜙S(av) is the sum of the secondary
leakage flux and the mutual flux, where
𝜙S(av) = 𝜙LS + 𝜙M .

Therefore, Faraday’s Law for the primary side is expressed as,

𝑑𝜙P(av) 𝑑𝜙M 𝑑𝜙LP

𝑣P = 𝑁P = 𝑁P + 𝑁P
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑣P = 𝑒P + 𝑒LP

11
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

and, Faraday’s Law for the secondary side is expressed as,

𝑑𝜙S(av) 𝑑𝜙M 𝑑𝜙LS

𝑣S = 𝑁S = 𝑁S + 𝑁S
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑣S = 𝑒S + 𝑒LS

The mutual flux linkage is common to both the primary and secondary side, where

𝑒P 𝑑𝜙M 𝑒S
= =
𝑁𝑃 𝑑𝑡 𝑁S

The ratio of induce primary voltage to the induced secondary voltage due to the
mutual flux is
𝑒P 𝑁P
= =𝑎
𝑒𝑆 𝑁𝑆

A good transformer design will be have negligible leakage flux., where 𝜙M ≫ 𝜙LP
and 𝜙M ≫ 𝜙LS . So, the total voltage ratio of the primary side to the secondary side
is approximated as
𝑣P 𝑁P
= =𝑎
𝑣S 𝑁𝑆

2.3.2 The Magnetization and Core-Loss Currents

When an ac power is connected to primary side of the transformer with the

secondary side open-circuited, there is a current iP that flows in the primary side
and is known as the no-load current or the transformer excitation current 𝒊𝐞𝐱 .

iP

vP NP NS vS

12
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

The transformer excitation current consists of two current components. They are:
1. Magnetization current iM, which is the current that is required to produce
flux in the transformer core
2. Core-loss current ih+e, which is the current required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current losses.

∴ 𝑖ex = 𝑖M + 𝑖h+e

Let us consider the magnetization current.

We know that in theory the relation between current and flux is proportional since,

𝐹 = 𝜙𝑅 = 𝑁𝑖

𝜙𝑅
𝑖=
𝑁
Therefore, in theory, if the flux produce in core is sinusoidal, therefore the current
should also be a perfect sinusoidal. Unfortunately, this is true only within the
linear region of the flux (𝜙)–magnetomotive force (F) relationship. However, it is
not true for transformer flux that reaches a state of near saturation at the top of the
flux cycle. Hence at this point, more current is required to produce a certain
amount of flux.

We know from before, that an average flux in the core is given as,
1
𝜙� = � 𝑣P 𝑑𝑡
𝑁P

If the primary voltage is given as 𝑣P = 𝑉M cos 𝜔𝑡 V, then the resulting flux is,

The resulting flux is lagging by 90° to the primary voltage.

13
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

𝜙 [Wb]

F [ A. turns]

𝜙
𝑣P 𝜙

𝑣P , 𝜙 t F

𝑉M
𝜙= sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝑁P iM

Based on the flux-time relationship, a sketch of the magnetization current in the

windings can be carried out as shown above.

The magnetization current has the following characteristics:

1. It is not sinusoidal. It has higher frequency components due to magnetic
saturation in the transformer core.

14
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

2. At saturation flux, a large increase in current is required for a small

increase in flux.
3. Fundamental component of the magnetization current lags the voltage
applied by 90°.
4. The higher-frequency components in the magnetization current can be larger
than the fundamental. It can cause excessive heating in the transformer.

Let us consider the core-loss current

Core-loss current is required to compensate for:

1. Hyteresis and
2. Eddy-current losses.

Hysteresis loss is due to work done in the core by the magnetic field.

Eddy-current loss is the loss due to the eddy-current generated in the core.

Eddy current flow in directions such that it produces a magnetic field that opposes
the applied magnetic field. The eddy current is proportional to the rate of change of
flux.

𝑖h+e Total current to make

𝜙 𝑖h+e
up for core losses

Therefore, the characteristics of the core-loss current are:

1. Non-linear because of the non-linear effects of hysteresis
2. The fundamental component of the core-loss current is in phase with the
voltage applied to the core.

15
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

2.3.3 The Current Ratio on a Transformer and the Dot Convention

The dots help determine the polarity of the voltages and currents in the core
without having to physically examine the windings.

A current flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a ‘positive’ mmf,
while a current flowing into the undotted end produces a ‘negative’ mmf .

𝐼P̅ 𝐼S̅

𝑉�S
𝑁P 𝑁S
𝑉�P Load

Now, when we connect a load to the real transformer, the primary current will
produce a positive mmf.

Due to Lenz’s law, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end to produce
a negative mmf: (current flow will be in a direction as such to oppose the core flux
direction).

Therefore, the net mmf in the transformer required to produce flux in the core is
given by,

𝐹net = 𝑁P 𝑖P − 𝑁S 𝑖S = 𝜙𝑅

where R is the reluctance of the transformer core. 𝑅 ≈ 0 provided the core is

unsaturated, hence
𝐹net = 𝑁P 𝑖P − 𝑁S 𝑖S = 0

Therefore, the primary side mmf is approximately equal to the secondary side
mmf whereby,

𝑁P 𝑖P ≈ 𝑁S 𝑖S .

16
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

The expression above can be rearranged so that

𝑖P 𝑁S 1
≈ =
𝑖S 𝑁P 𝑎

In order for the magnetomotive force to be nearly zero, current must flow into one
dotted end and out of the other dotted end.

The first approach in transformer design can be made simple by assuming an ideal
transformer. In an ideal transformer:

1. The core must have no hysteresis or eddy current

2. The net mmf 𝐹net must be zero
3. There is no leakage flux i.e. all flux couples both windings
4. The transformer winding resistance must be zero.

2.4 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

𝐼P̅ 𝑅P 𝑗𝑋P 𝑅S 𝑗𝑋S 𝐼S̅

𝑉�P 𝑅C 𝑗𝑋M 𝑁P 𝑁S 𝑉�S

The transformer model above considers the following:

1. Copper losses–resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer. Winding resistance represented by 𝑅P and 𝑅S .

2. Eddy current losses–resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer.

The loss is proportional to square of the primary voltage.

3. Hysteresis loss–related to rearrangement of domains in core and is a

complex, non-linear function of primary voltage.

17
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

4. Magnetization current–proportional to the voltage applied (unsaturated

region) but lagging the applied voltage by 90°. So it can be modeled as a
reactance 𝑋M connected across the primary voltage source.

Note that: The core-loss current and the magnetization current are actually
nonlinear. The inductance 𝑋M and the resistance 𝑅C are approximations of the real
excitation effect to simplify analysis.

5. Leakage flux–fluxes that escape and do not link both windings are modelled
as self-inductances connected in series with primary and secondary circuit,
𝑋P and 𝑋S

In order to analyze practical transformer circuits, it is necessary to convert the

equivalent circuit with two voltage levels to that of a single voltage level by
referring it to the primary or secondary side.

Primary referred transformer equivalent circuit

𝐼S̅ �
𝐼P̅ 𝑅P 𝑗𝑋P 𝑎2 𝑅S 2
𝑗𝑎 𝑋S 𝑎

𝑉�P 𝑅C 𝑗𝑋M 𝑎𝑉�S

Secondary referred transformer equivalent circuit

𝑎𝐼P̅ 𝑅P� 𝑗𝑋P� 𝐼S̅

𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑅S 𝑗𝑋S

𝑅C� 𝑗𝑋M�
𝑉�P� 𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑉�S
𝑎

Further simplification of the transformer equivalent circuit can be carried out:

In practical situations, 𝑅C ≫ 𝑅P and 𝑋M ≫ 𝑋P

18
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Therefore the voltage drop across 𝑅P and 𝑋P is negligible and the core excitation
branch can be moved to the front as shown:

(a) Referred to the primary side (b) Referred to the secondary side

(c) With no excitation branch (d) With no excitation branch referred to the
secondary side

2.4 .1 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

Open Circuit Test

19
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

The transformer’s secondary winding is open-circuited, and its primary

winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage.

All the input current will be flowing through the excitation branch of the
transformer. The series element RP and XP are too small in comparison to RC and
XM to cause a significant voltage drop. Essentially all input voltage is dropped
across the excitation branch. The transformer equivalent circuit becomes:

Full line voltage is applied to the primary – input voltage, input current, input
power measured. Then, power factor of the input current and magnitude and angle
of the excitation impedance can be calculated.

To obtain the values of RC and XM , the easiest way is to find the admittance of the
branch.
1
Conductance of the core loss resistor, 𝐺C =
𝑅C

1
Susceptance of the magnetizing inductor, 𝐵M =
𝑋M

These two elements are in parallel, thus their admittances add.

Total excitation admittance, 𝑌E = 𝐺C − 𝑗𝐵M

The magnitude of the excitation admittance (referred to primary),

𝐼OC
|𝑌E | =
𝑉OC

The angle of the admittance can be found from the circuit power factor as,

20
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

𝑃OC
PF = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑉OC 𝐼𝑂𝐶

The power factor is always lagging for a real transformer. Therefore,

𝐼𝑂𝐶
𝑌𝐸 = ∠ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 PF
𝑉𝑂𝐶

This equation can be written in the complex number form and hence the values of
RC and XM can be determined from the open circuit test data.

Short-Circuit Test

The secondary terminals are short circuited, and the primary terminals are
connected to a fairly low-voltage source.

The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited windings is
equal to its rated value. The input voltage, current, and power are measured.

Because voltage is so low, negligible current flows through excitation branch.

Equivalent circuit becomes:

The voltage drop in the transformer can be attributed to the series elements in the
circuit.

21
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Magnitude of the series impedances referred to the primary side is

𝑉SC
|𝑍SE | =
𝐼SC

The current angle can be found from the circuit power factor as,

𝑃SC
PF = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑉SC 𝐼SC

The transformer series impedance in phasor form is,

𝑉SC ∠0
𝑍SE =
𝐼SC ∠ − 𝜃

The series impedance in rectangular form is,

𝑍SE = 𝑅eq + 𝑗𝑋eq

= (𝑅P + 𝑎2 𝑅S ) + 𝑗(𝑋P + 𝑎2 𝑋S )

Note that: The short circuit test only determines the total series impedance
referred to the primary side.

There is no easy way to split the series impedance into their primary and
secondary components from these test and the total series impedance is usually
adequate.

The same tests can be performed on the secondary side.

Example 2.2

The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240-V, 60-Hz transformer

are to be determined. The open circuit test and the short circuit test were
performed on the primary side of the transformer, and the following data were
taken:

22
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Open circuit test (on primary) Short circuit test

VOC = 8000 V VSC = 489 V

IOC = 0.214 A ISC = 2.5 A

POC = 400 W PSC = 240 W

Find the impedance of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary
side, and sketch the circuit.

2.5 The Per-Unit System of Measurements

Per-unit system enables:

1. Solving of circuits containing transformers without the need for explicit

voltage-level conversions at every transformer

In per-unit system, each electrical quantity is measured as a decimal fraction of

some base level. Any quantity can be expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation
Actual value
Quantity per unit = ,
base value of quantity

where actual value is a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc.

Customary to select 2 base values at a specific point in the system, typically

• Base voltage 𝑉base
• Base power 𝑃base (or apparent power)

In single phase system, the base quantities can be calculated using electrical laws
such as,

𝑃base , 𝑄base, or 𝑆base = 𝑉base 𝐼base

𝑉base
𝑍base =
𝐼base
For transformer analysis:
• 𝑺𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐞 is the same at both ends since transformer input power = output power
• 𝑽𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐞 changes at every transformer in the system according to its turns ratio
23
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Hence, P.U. system automatically refers quantities to a common voltage level.

Example 2.3

A 480V generator is connected to an ideal 1:10 step-up transformer, a transmission

line, an ideal 20:1 step-down transformer and a load. The impedance of the
transmission line is 20+j60Ω and the impedance of the load is 10∠30°Ω . The base
values for this system are chosen to be 480 V and 10 kVA at the generator.

𝐼G̅ ̅
𝐼line ̅
𝐼load
20 Ω j 60 Ω
1 : 10 20 : 1

𝑍̅load = 10∠30°
𝑉�G = 480∠0 V

(a) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every
point in the power system.
(b) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.
(c) Find the power supplied to the load in this system.
(d) Find the power lost in the transmission line.

If more than one machine and one transformer is used in a single power system,
the system based voltage and power can be chosen arbitrarily, but the entire system
must have the same base. One common procedure is to choose the system base
quantities to be equal to the base of the largest component in the system.

Converting per-unit values from one base to another base can be carried out by
converting them to their actual value.
𝑆base1
(𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑆)pu on base 2 = (𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑆)pu on base 1
𝑆base2

𝑉base 1
𝑉pu on base 2 = 𝑉pu on base 1
𝑉base 2

(𝑉base 1 )2 (𝑆base 2 )
(𝑅, 𝑋, 𝑍)pu on base 2 = (𝑅, 𝑋, 𝑍)pu on base 1
(𝑉base 2 )2 (𝑆base 1 )

24
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

2.6 Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency

The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage
remains constant because a real transformer has series impedance within it.

In order to compare the transformer output voltage variation to the transformer

load, voltage regulation VR is defined.

Full-load voltage regulation is defined as,

𝑉P
Since 𝑉S = , the full-load voltage regulation can be expressed as,
𝑎

For per-unit system the voltage regulation can be expressed as,

𝑉P,pu − 𝑉S,�l,pu
VR = × 100%.
𝑉S,�l,pu

A low value of VR is often desirable.

2.6.1 The Transformer Phasor Diagram

To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is necessary to consider the

voltage drop within it.

Transformer equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side:

25
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

𝑎𝐼P̅ 𝐼S̅
𝑅eq 𝑠 𝑗𝑋eq 𝑠

𝑉�P 𝑅C 𝑋M 𝑉�S
𝑎2 𝑗
𝑎 𝑎2

In determining the voltage regulation,

i. The effects of the excitation branch can be ignored

ii. Consider the magnitude of series impedances and
iii. phase angle of the current flowing in the transformer

Phasor diagrams are used to determine the effects of impedances and current
phase angles. By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the transformer equivalent
circuit above, the primary voltage can be found as

A phasor diagram can be used to represent the equation above. Consider a lagging
power factor. The phasor voltage 𝑉�S is assumed to be at zero angle.

𝑉�P
𝑎

𝑉�S 𝑗𝑋eq 𝐼S̅

𝑅eq 𝐼S̅
𝐼S̅

26
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

At unity power factor, VR > 0

𝐼S̅ 𝑉�S

At leading power factor, VR < 0

𝐼S̅

𝑉�S

2.6.2 Transformer Efficiency

The efficiency of a device is defined as,

𝑃out
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃in

In a transformer, the losses present are:

• copper losses,
• hysteresis losses
• eddy current losses

Hence, the efficiency of a transformer at a given load is,

𝑉S 𝐼S 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃Cu + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 𝑉S 𝐼𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

27
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Example 2.4

A 15kVA, 2300/230 V transformer is to be tested to determine its excitation

branch components, its series impedances, and its voltage regulation. The
following data have been taken from the primary side of the transformer:

Open circuit test Short-circuit test

VOC= 2300V VSC= 47V

IOC= 0.21A ISC= 6A

POC= 50W PSC= 160W

(a) Find the equivalent circuit referred to the high voltage side
(b) Find the equivalent circuit referred to the low voltage side
(c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging PF, 1.0 PF, and at
0.8 leading PF.
(d) Find the efficiency at full load with PF 0.8 lagging.

2.7 Review of three-phase circuits

Three-phase power system consists of 3 generators. Each generator is connected

to a load through a transmission line.

Why three-phase?
1. get more power per kilogram of metal from a machine
2. constant power is delivered at all times

The generators supply voltages that are equal in magnitude but differing in
phase angle by 120°, i.e.
𝑉�A = 𝑉∠0° 𝑣A = √2𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 V
𝑉�B = 𝑉∠ − 120° 𝑣B = √2𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 120°) V
𝑉�C = 𝑉∠ − 240° 𝑣C = √2𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 240°) V

28
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

The voltage waveform for the three phases:

Wye (Y) Connection Delta (∆) Connection

𝐼a̅ 𝐼L̅
a 𝐼a̅ 𝐼L̅
̅
𝐼ca
̅
𝐼ab
𝐼𝜙̅ 𝑉�an 𝑉�ca
𝑉�ab 𝑉�ca
n 𝐼𝜙̅ ̅
𝑉�cn 𝐼b
𝑉�bn
̅
𝐼bc
𝐼b̅
c
𝐼c̅
𝑉�bc
𝐼c̅
𝐼c̅
𝑉�cn 𝑉�ca 𝑉�ab ̅
𝐼ca
̅
𝐼ab
𝑣̅an

𝑣̅bn 𝐼b̅ ̅
𝐼bc
𝐼a̅
𝑣̅bc

29
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

A simple concept that all students must remember is that:

Wye (Y) Connection Delta (∆) Connection

𝑉L 𝑉ϕ = 𝑉L
𝑉ϕ =
√3
𝐼ϕ = 𝐼L 𝐼L
𝐼ϕ =
√3
𝑆3ϕ 𝑆3ϕ
𝑆1ϕ = 𝑆1ϕ =
3 3

2.8 Three Phase Transformers

The primaries and secondaries of any three-phase transformer can be

independently connected in either a wye (Y) or a delta ( ∆).

The key to analyzing any 3-phase transformer bank is to look at a single

transformer in the bank. The impedance, voltage regulation, efficiency, and similar
calculations for a 3-phase transformer are done on a per-phase basis, using the
same technique learnt previously.

For example a Y-∆ transformer connection, the voltage ratio of each phase is,

𝑉�𝜙P
= 𝑎.
𝑉�𝜙S

The overall relationship between line voltage on the primary side and the line
voltage on the secondary side is,

𝑉�LP √3𝑉�𝜙P
= = √3𝑎
𝑉�LS 𝑉�𝜙S

The same method can be carried out for other transformer connections.

The Per-unit System for 3-Phase Transformer

The per unit system of measurements application for 3-phase is the same as in
single phase transformers. The single-phase base equations apply to 3-phase on a
per-phase basis.

30
EEEB283 Electric Machines and Drives Chapter2-Transformers

Say the total base voltampere value of a transformer bank is called Sbase, then the
base voltampere value of one of the transformer is

Sbase
S1φ ,base =
3
And the base current and impedance are

I φ ,base =
S1φ ,base
Z base =
(Vφ , base )
2

Vφbase S1φ ,base

S base 3(Vφ ,base )
2
I φ ,base = Z base =
3Vφbase S base

Example 2.9

A 50-kVA 13,800/208-V ∆-Y distribution transformer has a resistance of 1% and a

reactance of 7% per unit.

a. What is the transformer’s phase impedance referred to the high

voltage side?
b. Calculate this transformer’s voltage regulation at full load and 0.8PF
lagging, using the calculated high side impedance.
c. Calculate this transformer’s voltage regulation under the same
conditions, using the per-unit system.

31