FAMI

LYANDRELI
GIONSTUDI
ES
I
NTRODUCTI
ON TO I
NDI
GENOUS RELI
GION
(
ZIMBABWE)

OVERVI
EW

IRi saf amil

iartermi nUniversit
ies,Coll
eges,Schools;pri
mar yandSecondary,semi naries,
Theol ogicalColl
eges, Bi
bleSchool setc.I
nEur opeandt heUSAt her
earesepar ateinsti
tutes
fort hest udyofI Randcul t
ure.Thi sshowst hatthereisagl obali
nter
esti
nI Rt oday.Asa
result,thereisav olumeofl i
teratureavail
ableinthesubject.Manypeoplehowev er,viewor
treatIRwi thdisdain.Thepeopl eincl
udetheeducat edZimbabweans.Thisdisdainfulatti
tude
stemsf rom:

i
. Thepeopl
e’
sper
cei
vedi
deasaboutI
R,

i
i
. Compl
etei
gnor
anceofI
R,

i
i
i. Faul
tyunder
standi
ngofI
R.

Thesourceoffault
yunderstandingisinheritedfrom ear
li
erEur
opeanwri
ter
sont hesubject.
Despit
etheirf
ault
ypresent
ation,theyextendedsomebenef i
tst
hatweneedtoacknowledge.
Weoweal ottotheseearlywr i
tersont hesubj ect
.Theyproducedawealt
hofi nf
ormat i
on
thatwegatherfr
om thei
rwriti
ngs,fori
nst ance,Zimbabweanway sofl
i
feandthei
rpract
ices.

Untilrecent
ly,Zimbabweanst hemsel
vesdi dnothav ethepenchantt owr it
eaboutt hei
r
systems of t hought.Whatwe know of Zi mbabweans t oday came t o us t hrough
Ethnographers,Anthr
opologist
s,Missi
onar
ies,Expl
orer
s,Trader
sandTr avel
l
er s.Theyputon
recordwhatt heysawAf rcansdoandpr
i acticeaswellaswhatt heyhadAfricanssay .They
alsoINTERPRETEDt hesepracti
cesandsayingsint
heirownway ,hencemisrepresent
at i
ons.

Mi
sint
erpr
etat
ions/
Misr
epr
esent
ati
onsofZi
mbabweanway
sofl
i
fe:

AccountsbyEuropeanTravel
l
ers,missi
onar
iesandcol
oni
alagent
sar
egener
alunr
eli
abl
e.
Theyarebasedoninaccur
atei
nformati
oncentr
edon:

 Cul
tur
alpr
ejudi
ce,

 Bi
asedcompar
ison.

Exampl
es:

TheExpl
orerSi
rSamuel
Bakersay
s:

I
Rhasnobel i
efinaSupremeBeing.I
thasnof or
m ofwor
shi
p.Darknessoft
hei
r
mindi
snotenl
ight
enedbyevenar
ayofsuper
sti
ti
on.Thei
rmi
ndi
sstagnant.
Si
rRi
char
dBur
tonsay
s

IRisst il
latthatr
udedawnoff ai
thcalledf et
ishi
sm .Ithasbar el
yadv ancedto
i
dolatry.Hehasnevergraspedtheideasofaper sonalDeit
y,adutyinl
i
f e,amor al
code,orashameofl y
ing.Itdoesnotbel iev
ei naf uturestat
eofr ewardand
punishment.Peopl
ewhopr act
icethi
sr eli
gion’
sbr ai
nwast oosmallf
orci vil
i
zed
development.

Asaresult
,despi
teeffort
sbyZi
mbabweanSchol
arst
ocorr
ectthewrongimpr
essi
onpeople
haveaboutIR,
West er
nersaswel
lassomeZi
mbabweanscont
inuetoregar
dIRaswort
hless
anddevoi
dofspiri
tualval
ue.

WHATI
SINDI
GENOUSRELI
GION?

I
t has been def ined as TRADI TIONAL RELI GIOUS BELI EFS AND PRACTICES OF
ZIMBABWEANS.( RELI
GION r ef
erst o a system ofbel i
efs,pract
ices,i
nst
it
uti
ons,and
rel
ati
onshi
psbasedonapar ti
cularvi
sionofulti
mat ereal
i
tythatisusedbyacommuni t
yof
beli
ever
stoident
if
yanddi st
ingui
shitselff
rom othercommuni t
ies.
)

WHOI
SAZI
MBABWEAN?

Scholar
ssayaZi mbabweanisonewhoi si ndigenous:bornandbr edinAfri
ca;onewho
i
nhabitsthecount r
yofZimbabwe.Howev er,somear enotnecessari
lybornandbr edi n
Zimbabwe, f
orexample,t
hosewhoar ebornint heDiaspora(UK,USA,etc)
.Forexamplet he
i
ssueoft hewhi t
esbor
nandbredinZimbabwe.Ar etheyZimbabweans?Theycamet hr
ough
coloni
ali
sm,butbornandbredhere.Shouldtheybecl assi
fiedasAfri
cans?Forexample,Ian
DouglasSmi thwasborninShurugwi,Zimbabwe.Themosti mport
antissueisthatthere
shouldbear efer
encet
oancest
ry,physi
callocationmaynotmat ter
.

Samkange:
gener
all
y,aZi
mbabweani
sonewhoi
sbl
ack(
munhu)
.

1.Indigenous:referst o “tr
adit
ional” which i tselfreferst o something t hat is
foundational
;ri
ghtatthebot t
om.I trefer
stot hebase;t hatwhichisabori
gi nal
.Itis
somet hingthatbelongst othepast ,butdy nami c.Itistherefor
ethepastwhi ch
progressesintothepresent.I
tisthepastt hatgoest hepr ocessofdynami sm.Thi s
meanst hatitissubjecttochange.I tisv ersat i
le.I
tist hepastbeingf eltint he
present.Itisa her i
tage;an inheri
tancef rom t hepast.“ I
nt hepast”hasbeen
mi sconstr
uedtomeansomet hi
ngt hatisbackwar d,ol
dfashionedandarchaic.

Mer cyAmbaOduy oy e,(1986:57) :thet ermt r adit

ionalconnot es,“areli
gionthati s
dy i
ng,bei
ngreplacedbyt henewwi thwhi chiti sfruit
lesslycompet i
ng,aconserv at
ive
andconser vi
ngreli
gionbear i
ngli
t t
lerelationshi ptothet i
me” .Thesearejudgement al
perspecti
ves.Howev er,I
ndi genousRel igionsr emai nv i
brantandconsequent i .Thei
al r
view ofthewor l
dcont inuest oinf l
uencet hel ivesofmi ll
i
onsofAf r
icansincluding
thosewhohav econv ertedt omi ssionaryr el
igions.Bi rashav ebeenhel dsincet i
me
 i
mmemor i
al.Bi
ras:Cl
eansi
ngcer
emonies(2000:Nati
onalSport
sSt adi
um af
tert
he
deat
hofZi
mbabweanf ansatamatchpi
tt
ingZimbabwe&Sout hAfr
ica).

2.Rel
i
gion:
(Thenat
ureofI
R):
Whati
srel
i
gion?

Thisisdi f
fi
culttodefine.Thev eryfir
stproblem thatwebat t
lewithi sthequestionof
theterm“ rel
igion”it
self.Afr
icanshav enosepar atefi
eldregardedas“ rel
i
gion”inthe
str
ict
estsenseofot hersoci et
ies.Itisanimposi ti
onont heZimbabweans.Al loflif
e
i
sr el
igiousinsomeway .It
emst hatcompr i
sethedef i
nit
ionofIRi ncludeBelief
sand
Practi
ces,butwecanal soincludereli
giousobjectsandpl aces,v aluesandmor al
s
and religi
ousof f
ici
alsand / orLeader s.No par tbyi tsel
fconst i
tutestheent ir
e
meani ngofreligi
on.Thepar tswor ktogethertogiveacompl etepicture.

Bel
iefs:
-Beli
efsshow thewaypeopl
ethinkabouttheuniv
erseandtheiratt
itudest
owar
ds
l
if
eitsel
f.Therear
eplentyofbel
i
efsy
stems;di
ffer
entcat
egori
esofbel
iefsystems:

a. Anthropologi
calbel
i
efs-t hesearebelief
st hatfocusonthehumanbei ngs;
thei
rstatusintheuniverseandhow t heyr egar
deachother/
percept
ionsof
oneanot her,
howwer egardt hesuper
iori
tyofother
.

b. Sot
eri
ologicalbel
ief
s-thesearebeli
efsthathavetodowithsal
vat
ion.How
humanbei ngsgropeforsurv
ivali
nthecaseofpredi
camentsl
ikesi
cknesses
anddeath.Howcanonebedel i
ver
edfrom thepai
noft
hisworl
d.

c. Cosmologi
calbeli
efs-how thewor l
d bui
l
tcan beexpl
ained.How isthe
univ
ersest
ruct
ured?Theingr
edient
scomprisi
ngt
heworl
dwel iv
ein.Howdid
theworl
dcomet obewhatiti
stoday?

d. Numinologi
calbelief
s-thesearebeli
efsaboutthecoreofexist
ence.There
mustbeaf orce/causerofwhateverweseeintheworld.Thi
shastodowi th
thesuperi
orincompr ehensi
blefor
cesthatgi
vedirect
iontotheli
vesoft he
peopl
e.

Pract
ices:-Thepr act
icesshowhowpeopl eexpressthei
rbeli
efsinpracti
calter
ms.Theyar e
symbolicactions/behaviour.Thesei nvolveAfri
canRitualPract
ices.Theyincludepraying,
making sacrifi
ces and of fer
ings,performing cer
emonies and rit
uals,obser
v i
ng var
ious
ri
tual
set c.Festiv
alsareal sopar tofthepracti
ces.Theseareoccasi onswhenpeoplesi ng,
dance,eatandcel ebrateapar ti
cularoccasionorevent
.Examplesoff esti
val
sarethosethat
areconductedt o:

i
. Mar
khar
vestt
ime,

i
i
. Mar
kthest
artoft
her
ainseason,
 i
i
i. Thebi
rt
hofachi
l
d,

i
v. Vi
ctor
iesoverenemies(
Nati
onalBi
rast
ocel
ebr
atet
hesuccessoft
he
l
andrefor
m programmes)

Rel
i
giousObj
ect
sandPl
aces:

Thesecov erpl
acesandt hingst hataresetapartasbei ngholyorsacred.Thesear enot
commonl yusedexceptf orapar ticul
arr
eli
giouspurpose.Somear emadebypeopl e;ot
hers
aretakenintheirnat
ur alf
or m andsetapartf orr
eli
giouspurpose.Somebel ongtoprivat
e
i
ndivi
dualsandf amil
ieswhi leother sbel
ongt owhol ecommuni t
yinagi venr egi
on.They
i
ncludeplacesl
ikeshrines,sacredhi l
l
sandmount ai
ns,ri
vers,
charms,amulets,masksetc.

Val
uesandMor
als:

Thesedealwi t
ht hei
deast hatupholdthel i
feofpeopl ei ntheirrel
ati
onshipwithoneanot her
andt hewor ldar oundt hem.Theycov ertopicsl i
ketruth,justi
ce,love,ri
ghtandwr ong,good
andev il
,beaut y ,decency,respectforpeopl eandpr operty
,t hekeepingofpr omi sesand
agreement s,praiseandbl ame,cr imeandpuni shment ,therightsandr esponsi
bil
it
iesoft he
i
ndividualandt heircommuni t
y,character,i
ntegrit
yet c.Theyhel ppeoplet oli
vewi thone
another,toset tl
et heirdif
ferences,t
omai ntainpeaceandhar mony,tohavear elati
onship
wit
ht heirenv i
ronment .Therear edif
ferencesi nthev aluesandmor alsfol
lowedbydi ff
erent
peopleinAf ri
ca,butmanyoft hem ar esimi l
ar.Theychangeast hel i
vi
ngcondi ti
onsof
peoplechange, buttheyalway sremainanecessi tyinhumanl ife.

Rel
i
giousOf
fi
cial
sand/
orLeader
s

Thesear epeoplewhoconductr eligi

ousmat t
erssuchascer emoni es,sacrifi
ces,formal
prayersanddi v
ination.Theyar emenandwomenwhoknow mor eaboutr el
igi
ousaf f
airs
thanot herpeopleandar er espectedbyt hei
rcommuni ty.Exampl e:r i
tualleaders,divi
ner s,
medi cinemenandwomen, kings/chief
sandr ul
ers,rai
nmaker set c.Theymayormaynotbe
paidf ort hei
rservices,buti nmostcasespeopl egiv ethem present sandgi f
tstoshowt hei r
grati
tude.Wi thoutt hese figures reli
gious acti
vit
ies woul d neithersur vive norf uncti
on
proper l
y ;muchoft her eli
giouswi sdom oft hepeopl ewillbeforgot ten.Theyar especi al
ists
i
nr eligiousmat t
ers.Theyar et hehumankeeper soft her el
igiousher i
tage.Theyar et he
essent i
al partoftheAf r
icanTr adit
ionalReligi
onwi t
houtwhi chitwi ll
grindt oahalt.

SOURCESOFI
RS(
Mbi
ti
,p69)
:

 Ri
tual
s,Cer
emoni
es,
fest
ival
soft
hepeopl
e,

 Shr
ines,
Sacr
edpl
aces,
rel
i
giousobj
ect
s,

 Ar
tandsy
mbol
s,

 Musi
canddance,

 Pr
over
bs,
riddl
esandwi
sesay
ings,
  Namesofpeopl
eandpl
aces,

 My
thsandl
egends,

 Bel
i
efsandcust
oms,

 Al
laspect
sofl
i
fe.

MI
SLEADI
NGTERMS(
Char
act
eri
sti
csi
nanegat
iveway
)

I
Rischar
act
eri
sedas:

 “Pri
miti
ve”,meaningt hatwhi chisold-f
ashi
oned,si mple,notcont
emporar
y,non-
conformit
y.I
tisseenassobysomer el
i
gionsthatpri
orit
isethemsel
vesov
erothers.
Evenamongt heser eli
gions,div
isi
onsar ealsof ound;somedi st
asteofcertai
n
doctri
neshel
dbyot hers.

 Savage:t
hismeanst
hatwhi
chi
swi
l
d/uncul
tur
ed/
unt
amed/
bar
bar
ic/
inhuman(
inf
.
Hooli
gani
sm).

 Fetishi
sm:t hi
sisat erm usedtorefert
ochar ms/armlets.Thewor dfeti
shderiv
es
fr
om aPor t
ugueseterm“feti
cho”whichrefer
stonaturalorart
if
ici
alobject
s.I
nsome
casesi nanimateobject
s,buttheycanal sobeani mate( wit
horwi thoutli
fe)with
my ster
ious powers.Theyar e bel
ieved to br
eat
h and ar ef ound on bodies or
anywher einthehome.

 JujuHasanel ementofspi r
it
ualpower,especi
altokill
,tosteal(incomprehensi
ble
tacti
csemployed).Itisusedt oenhancesuccessi nsport
ingact i
vit
iesandev enin
termsofsexuali
ty,forexampl e,mubobobo-
usedt olur
ewomeni ntosexualcontact
knowinglyorunknowi ngly.Womenal soapplyjujuwhenj il
tedbymenorwhena
cli
entdefaul
tspay mentf orsexualservi
cesthr
ought hetransplanti
ngoft hemal e
organ.Theter
mi sor i
ginal
lyfr
om aFrenchword:“doll
”or“t
oy”.

 Pagani
sm-assumesapeasant rymentali
ty;bel
ongingtothe“
count
ry”orcount
rysi
de.
The peasants ar
er egar
ded as r et
rogressi
ve.Paganism and heatheni
sm are
synonymous.Fr
om aChr i
sti
anpointofview,paganism i
nvol
vest
hewor shi
poffal
se
gods(str
ongpeasant
ryment al
i
ty)
.

 Animism:ref
erst
obeli
efi
ninani
mat
eobj
ect
s.“
Ani
ma”
-soul
.Schol
arsmai
ntai
nthat
everyobj
ecthasasoul
.

 I
dolat
ry:wor
shi
pof“fal
se”gods.ATRshav
ebeenaccusedofbei
ngi
dol
atr
ous,t
hat
i
s,havi
ngabeli
efi
nthese“f
alse”i
dol
s.

 Pol
ythei
sm-car
ri
estheideaofwor
shi
ppi
ngmanygods.‘
Pol
y”-manyand“
thei
st”has
anel
ementofspir
it
ual
it
y-god.

 Super
sti
ti
on:
por
tray
ingt
hatwhi
chi
sev
il/
sat
ani
c.
  Theshonehav
ebeendescr
ibedasancest
orwor
shi
pper
s,meani
ngt
hatt
heyt
aket
he
ancest
orst
obetheendi
nthemselv
es:Ist
hiswr
ong?

 Wi
tchdoct
or:
denot
esanel
ementt
oki
l
landanel
ementofsav
ingl
i
fe.

Thesewor dshavealotofbi
asandpr
ejudi
ces.Mostoftheter
msaremisl
eadi
ngandmust
bedr oppedintheacademicst
udyofIR.Schol
arsproposethatt
her
eshouldbedev
ised
acceptabl
esubsti
tut
es.

I
RWor
ldv
iew

Dual
i
sti
candTr
ipar
ti
teWor
ldv
iews

Dual
ist
ic-Zi
mbabweansbelievethereisaspir
it
ual r
ealm(t
heabodeofthespi
ri
ts)
.Theexact
l
ocati
onoft hi
sr ealmisnotclear.Theyarer egardedas“Vari
kumhepo.
”TheShonaand
Ndebel
ebeliev
eint heex
ist
enceoft hephysi
calreal
m, t
hati
s,t
heeart
hwithtr
eeanimal
setc.
Whenonedies,theygotothespiri
twor l
d.

TheTr
ipar
ti
tewor
ldv
iew

I
tcompr i
sesbel i
efinhumanwor l
d,thenat uralworl
dandt hespiri
tualwor l
d.Thesethree
wor l
dsarelinked.Thenatur alworl
dpr ov
idest hehabitatforthespiri
tsandsendsmessage
fr
om t hespirit
ualworldtot hehumanwor l
d( ashierophanies)
.Thespi ri
twor ldprov
ides
guidance,punishmentand bl essi
ng t ot he human wor l
d( Haverkor
t,et al )
.Fort he
Zimbabweanev erypl
ant,animalandnat uralphenomenaar eacar r
ierofthedi v
ine.I
norder
toappeaset hespiri
twor l
d,peoplehav etoper for
mr it
ualsandmakesacr i
fices.Thehuman
wor l
dhast orelat
etobotht henatural
andt hespi r
itworld.

Thedi
agr
am bel
owi
l
lust
rat
est
heI
RTr
ipar
ti
teWor
ldv
iew:
Di
agr
am adapt
edf
rom Hav
erkor
tetal

TheIRwor l
dvi
ewdoesnoti ncl
udetheideaofthenatur
alcauseofmisfor
tunes,deat
hand
di
seases.Ther
ear ealwayssomespi r
it
ualcausesformisf
ort
unesthatiswhyt hesacr
ed
pract
it
ioner
saresoughtt
oascertai
nthecauseofil
l
ness.

THECONCEPTOFGODI
NIR
ManyEur opeanwr it
ers, whomadeagener al surveyonAf ri
cant ribalbeliefsint hepast, have
describedAf r
icanRel i
gi onsint hei rownway s.Manyhav emai ntainedt hatGodhasnopl ace
i
nAf ri
cant r
ibal Rel
igions, ort hatbel i
efi nGodi sduet otheinfluenceofhi erarchicalsoci et
y.
Somehav esai dthatGodi nAf r
icant ribalsisnot hingmor ethanagl orifi
edAncest or,orthat
beli
efinGodi st hereflect i
onoft hewor shipofnat ur
e,thatAfricansar eAni mists,thatmagi c
i
st hemot herofAf ri
canRel igions.Ot hershav esai dthatGodi sbel ievedi n,yet,isthoughtof
assogr eatthatnor egul arwor shipi sof f
eredt oHi m.Thesear esomeoft herash
conclusionsdr awnbyt hoseEur opeanwr i
ters:Ant hr
opologists,Expl orer
s, CivilServants,
Missionar i
esandsof ort.All ofthem hav emadet oomanygener ali
sations.I tiscl earthat,
thosewr i
ters,didnotr eal l
yandt rulypenet rateandunder st
andAf ri
canCul tures.

Ther
efor
e, f
rom t
heauthent
icAfri
canpointofv
iew,
all
asser
ti
onsmentionedabove,
si
mplynottr
uesincesuchaf
fi
rmati
onaremadebypeopl
e,whohavehar
dlytakenpainst
o
st
udyAfri
canReli
gionsf
reef
rom pr
ejudi
ces.

Af
ri
canpeopl
ear
evi
gor
ousl
yrel
i
gious.

1BELI
EFI
NGOD

Godisknownandwor shippedal loverZimbabwe.Shonacallhi

m Mwari
andtheNdebelecall
hi
m Unkulunkul
u″ theGreat estoftheGr eat
.″.Peopleacknowl
edgeHim asFat
her,Creat
or,
Eter
nal
,completelyBeneficent,ethi
call
yHoly,andcreat
ivel
yOmnipot
ent
.JohnS.Mbiti
,inhi
s
bookAfr
icanReligionsandPhi losophysays,″Al
loverZi
mbabwepeoplehaveanoti
onofGod
astheSupr emeBeingtheorigi
nandsustenanceofallthings.
″Trul
y,Zi
mbabweanpeopl
es
str
onglybel i
eveinthesupremeBei ng(God).TheSupr emeBeingi sbeliev
edtobethe
ori
ginatorofever
ythi
ng;i
tistheorigi
nalsour
ce,thebeginningofallt
hings.Hei
sthefi
rst
onet oexist
.TheShonapeopler
efertoGodas:

 Muwanikwa,Mutangakugar
a,Musi
ki-Creat
orofal
lther
eisi
nthewor
ld:Peopl
e,
veget
ati
on,ani
malsandtheear
thi
tsel
f.

 Musikavanhu-cr
eatorofhumanity
.Somer ef
ert m as Muumbiwhi
o hi chisan
at
tri
buteofcreat
ion.Iti
salsoexpressedi
nAfricanmy t
hsofori
gins(
Cosmogoni
c
myths).

These namesar e used t

o argue f
orthe exi
stence ofGod bef or
et he comi
ng ofthe
missi
onaries.TheShonaandt heNdebel
ehadabel iefi
nGodt hathasbeenpassedfr
om one
gener
ationtoanotherevenbeforet
headventofmi ssi
onar
ies.

 Dzivagururefer
st oabi gperenni
alpool.SupremeBei ngi sbeli
evedtosust ai
nhi s
creati
ont hr
oughhispr ovi
dence.Heprovidesrains,f
ertil
i
ty(landandpeopl e)other
necessit
iesneeded.Itunderwri
tesGod’sabil
it
ytopr ovi
der ainandisusedt oar gue
forthefemininenatur
eofGod.( I
mageryforawomb-gi v esrati
onal
efortalki
ngabout
godi nfeminineterms).Womenar etheoneswhoar ecl osel
yassociatedwi t
ht he
earthandothersourcesofli
veli
hood.

 Samasi
mba-Hei somnipot
ent
,Omni
present(
ubi
qui
tous,f
oundev
ery
wher
e)and
omni
sci
ent(
all
-knowi
ng)
.

 Somer ef
ert
ohi m asKing.ShonaandNdebel ehadt r
adit
ionall
eaders/
rul
ers.God
rul
estheuni
ver
sejustast heirr
uler
srul
estheirt
err
it
ori
es.Theyequatedthi
st i
tl
eto
God.Hehasinv
inci
blepower sovert
heuniv
erse.

 Someet hni
cgr oupsal so referto Godasgr andmother /Mbuya.Thi
si sdonet o
expresshi sbenev ol
ence/generosit
yt ohiscreatures.Justl i
keagr andmotheris
l
ookedatassomeonewhohashadmanysi blingsalthoughsomeschol arsargue
thatitcanbeseenasaconcept ualpremiseusedt oadv ancefemini
sti
nterest
s;t
hat
Godi sfemaleratherthanexclusiv
elymale.

 Chi
dzachepo-exi
stedf
rom et
erni
ty.

 Chi
rozv
amauy
a/mav
i-hegi
vesandt
akes.Chi
kar
a-sov
erei
gnandmal
evol
entnat
ure
ofGod.

ZimbabweanknowledgeofGodisexpr
essedinprover
bs,shor
tstat
ement
s,songs,
pray
ers,
names,my t
hs,st
ori
esandrel
igi
ouscer
emonies.All
theseareeasytor
ememberandpass
ontootherpeopl
e.

Generall
y,ZimbabweanconceptsofGodarestrongl
ycolour
edandinfluencedbythe
hist
ori
cal,geographi
cal,
soci
alandcul
tur
albackgroundorenvi
ronmentofeachpeople.Thi
s
explai
nsthesimi l
ari
ti
esanddif
fer
enceswhichwef i
ndwhenweconsi derthebel
iefsabout
Godf r
om alloverZimbabwe.

2.THEETERNALNATUREOFGOD
AlloverZi mbawef indconsi der ableexampl esofhowZi mbabweansconcei v eoft heEt er
nal
NatureofGod.Anumberofsoci eti
esconsi derHimt obe: Omni scient(Knowi ngal l
things),
Omni present( bei ngev erywher e) ,andOmni potent(beingal mi ghtyoral l
-power ful)
.Thesear e
essential aspect sofhi sBei ng.Theyar epartofhisuni quenat ureandnoot herbei ngcanbe
describedi nthesamet erms.Al soZi mbabweansconsi derGodt obeTr anscendentand
Immanent .WhenZi mbabweansconsi derGodt obeOmni scient ,theyareatt hesamet ime
conferuponHi mt hehighestpossi bl
eposi ti
onofhonourandr espect.Forwi sdom
commandsgr eatr especti nZi mbabweaansoci eti
es.Insodoi ng, peopleadmi tt hatman′ s
wisdom, howev ergr eat
, i
slimi ted, i
ncompl ete,andacqui red.Ont heot herhand, God′s
Omni sciencei sabsol ute,unli
mi tedandi ntri
nsical
lypar tofHi set ernalnat ureandbei ng.The
met aphorofseei ngandhear ingexpl ai
nst heconcept sofGodasomni scienti naconcr et
e
way .Theyr egar dHi m ast heomni scientfrom whom not hingi shi ddensincenot hingcan
escapeHi sv ision, hearingandknowl edge.Godknowsev erything, observesev erythingand
hearsev er ythingwi thoutlimitat i
onandwi thoutexcept ion.Thi siswhyZi mbabweanscal l
Him as″ theWi seone″or″ onlyGodi sWi se.″Theybeliev ethatGodi s″t
heDi scer nerof
hearts″whoseesbot htheinsi deandout sideofman.

″Hei sev
erywher
e.″Thisideacomesoutfrom ot
herpeopleswhosaythatGodi
smet
ever
ywhere,
thatt
hepr esenceofGodprot
ectspeople,
thatwrong-doer
scannotescapet
he
j
udgmentofGod; orthatGodisli
kethewindorair.

Amongmanypeople, oneoft
henamesf orGoddescri
besHi m as″
theal
lpowerful
″or″
the
Al
might
y.″Hi
spowerisseeninpracti
calter
ms.Fori
nstance,theZi
mbabweansconceiv
eof
God′
spowerinpol
i
ticalter
ms,whichforsuchapowerf
ul nat
ionisf
ull
ofmeaning.

God′somnipotenceisseeninHi sexer
ciseofpowerovernat
ure.Godi
sreferr
edt oas″t
he
onewhomakest hesunset,
″andwhent heShona/Ndebel
emakesacri
fi
cesandpr ayer
sfor
rai
n,t
heyaddressGodast heonewhomakesmount ai
nsquakeandri
ver
sov erf
low.The
wind,
thesunandt herai
nar ebeyondhumanpowerbutnotbey ondGod′
spower ,whoworks
thr
oughthem andothernaturalphenomenaorobject
s.

Accordingtot heZimbabweanconceptt heat tr

ibuteofGod′stranscendencemustbe
balancedwi t
ht hatofHi si
mmanence, sincet heset woareparadoxicall
ycompl ementar
y .
Thismeanst hatHei sso″ f
ar″(t
ranscendent al)thatmancannotr eachHi m, y
et,Heisso
″near″(immanent )thatHecomescl oset oman.I nthi
sway ,Godi sthoughtofasdwel l
ing
farawayi nthesky ,or″above″beyondt hereachofmen.Pr acti
callyallAfr
icanpeoples
associateGodwi t
ht hesky.Somehav emy thst ell
ingofhowmencamef r
om theskyorof
howGodsepar at
edf rom menandwi t
hdr ewHi msel fi
ntothesky ,
whencenobodycoul d
dir
ectlyreachHi m.

Godt r
anscendsal l
boundar ies;Hei somni pot
enteverywhereandatal lti
mes.Yet , i
nspi teof
al
lthistr
anscendenceofGod, Heisi mmanentsot hatmencananddoi nfactestablish
contactwithHi m.Itis, howev er,i
nt hemanyact sofwor shi
pt hatmenacknowl edgeGodt o
benearandappr oachabl e.Suchact sincludesacri
fi
ces,offer
ings,pr ayersandi nvocat i
ons.
Formostoft hei
rlif
e, Af r
icanpeopl esplaceGodi nthetranscendent alplane,maki ngi tseem
asifHeisr emot efrom t heirdail
yaf fai
rs.Buttheyknowt hatHei simmanent ,being
manifest
edi nnat uralobj ectsandphenomenaandt heycant urntoHi minact sofwor ship,at
anyplaceandt i
me.Concer ningtheor i
ginofGod, anumberofAf r
icanpeopl est hi
nkofHi m
asself-
existentandpr e-eminent.From t heZuluwegetacl earexpr essionoft hisconcept .
TheShonasay
sthatGodi
s″HewhoisofHimsel
f″or″
HewhocameofHi msel
fint
obeing.
″
Theyt
hinkt
hatGod,wast
hefi
rst
,whohadal
waysbeeninexi
stence,
andwoul
dneverdie.

Itiscommonl ybeli
evedt hatGodisspiri
t,evenifinthi
nkingortal
kingaboutHim Afr
ican
peoplesmayof tenuseant hr
opomor phi
cimages.Asf arasiti
sknown, ther
earenoimages
orphy si
calrepresent
ationsofGodbyAf r
icanpeopl es:thi
sbeingoneclearindi
cati
onthat
theyconsiderHi mtobeaSpi ri
tualBei
ng.Thef actthatHeisinvi
sibl
ealsoleadsmanyt o
visual
izeHim asspi r
it
ual rat
herthanphysical.

I
nshor
t,t
hisi
sal
laboutt
heEt
ernal
nat
ureofGod.

Weshal
lnowseet
hef
ourmai
ncompr
ehensi
veat
tri
but
esofGodbel
ow.

ATTRI
BUTESOFGODI
NTR

a)GODI
SREAL

Professorldowui nhisbookAf r
icanTr aditional Reli
gionsay sthatGodi s″real
″andt hatis
whyZi mbabweanscal lHim bynameswhi char edescr iptivebothofHi snat ur
eandofHi s
attr
ibute.God′ spr opernamesar eaf urtherev idenceofhowHei sr ealtoZi mbabweans.I n
Zimbabwe, Godi sknownas: Unkul unkulu( TheGr eat -
Gr eatOne) ,( Creator),Mwar i
(Supremebei ng) .Besidest henames, Zimbabwei sv eryr i
chinat t
ributesofGodaswehav e
seenabov e.Thi sshowsunmi stakabl ythat ,tothem Godi stheli
vingonewhoi stheev er-
present,ever-activeandev er-actingrealit
y ,intheWor l
d.Godi s″Spiritofthesky ,
″or″Spiri
t″
whoi sinthe″ sky.″Tot hem Godi sso″ real ″thatHei st houghtofi nt ermsof″ al i
vi
ng
person,″neverint hesenset hatHehasahumanf orm, butbecauseHe″ seesandhear s″all
thathappen.Hei st hefri
endofmenwhohel psthem i ntheirtrouble.Ri t
ual practi
cesalso
suggestanawar enessofapr ot ecti
vepr esenceofGod.Hei switht hem becauseHei sspiri
t:
Andbei nglike″wi nd″or″air
″isev erywher e: Andbei ngev erywhere,ishereandnow.

I
nIR,Godisapproachedeveninti
mesofdi st
ressandasal astresor
twhenotherhelps
hav
efai
led,t
hisprov
esrathert
handisprov
est hefactthat
,toZi
mbabweans,Hei stheret
o
beappr
oachedatanytime,andthatcanonlymeant hatHeis″Real″t
othem.

b)GODI
SUNI
QUE

Thi
sconcept
ioni
scl
ear
lyst
atedal
lZi
mbabwe.Theyexpr
essi
nsev
eral
way
sthatGodi
s
i
ncomparabl
e.

TheuniquenessofGodisoner easonwhyt herearenoi magesofHi mi nZimbabwe.I nthi

s
regar
dtheZi mbabweanconceptofGodi sanemphat ic″Noone″or″ None″t
othequest ion:
″Towhom t henwill
youlikenGod, orwhatlikenesscompar ewi t
hHi m″?Furt
hermor e,the
concepti
onofGodasKi ng, theKingwithabsolutesupremacy ,
emphasi zeshi
suni queness.
OneoftheShonanamesf orhim hastheconnotati
onofonewhowear stheuniquecr own.
Accordi
ngt othem,Heistheonl yGod: heisnotofther ankandf il
eofthedivi
nit
iesand
aboveall
,Hei snotapersoni nthesensethathumanbei ngsare.″Ther
eisnonet oequal God
: ″
Nomat terhowgreatyouar e.

c)GODI
STHEABSOLUTECONTROLLEROFTHEUNI
VERSE

Thi
sist
hef
ocal
poi
ntatwhi
cht
hef
actoft
her
eal
i
tyanduni
quenessofGodi
nIRi
sbr
ought
homet ous.I naway ,thef actofGod′ scont rol oft heuni v erseembr acesal lt
hatexpl ained
andi mpl iedabov e.IRconsi derGodasKi ngandr uleroft heuni ver se.Godi stheabsol ute
cont rolleroft heuniv erse.What ev erpoweroraut hor i
tyt her emaybe, exi stsinconsequence
ofHi m; becausei tder ivesf rom, Hi m andbecauseheper mi tsit.″Godi st heultimat e
fount ain-headofal lpowerandaut horityofal lsanct ionsf oror der lyrelationsbet weenmen. ″
Godi st heul t
imat esour ceofal l powerandoft hemor al order .Al lli
feandact ivit
y ,inbot h
mat er i
al andnon- mat erial sense, der ivesf r
om Hi m.Hecr eatedt hewor l
dandev er ythinginit,
i
ncl udi ngnotonl yhumanbei ngs, animal s,pl ant s, andsoon, butspi rit
sal so.Inaddi t
ion,He
i
nv est edt hewhol euni ver sewi thacer tainnon- mat erial kindofpowerori nf
luencewhi ch
mani fest si tselfinvar iousway sandonspeci ficoccasi onsi nhumanbei ngsandani malsand
eveni nnat uralphenomena, suchasl i
ght ni
ng, wat er f
alls, andmount ai
ns.Hei stheul ti
mat e
sour ceandsy mbol oft hatpowerandi nfluence.Pl acideTempl esi nhisbook, Bant u
Philosophy ,wr i
tes:″ .
...Godi sf or ce, possessi ngener gyi nhi msel f; t
heMov erofal lother
forces.Heknowsal l for ces, thei ror der i
ng,t hei rdependence, t
hei rpotent ialandt heirmut ual
i
nter act i
ons.Heknows, theref or e, thecauseofev eryev ent.Hei st hev er yspiritoft he
univer se.Theuni versei sHi s.Thi sf actoccur sf requent lyi nthei rthoughtandpr ay ers.Hei s
farawaybutatt hesamet i
meact ivelyandef fect i
v elyrul est heuni verseandgov ernshuman
affairs.Hei sthegi ver, andnat ur al l
y ,t
hesust ainerofl ife.Hei nstitutedt hesoci al orderand
i
si tsguar dian.hedoeswi t
houtcompl aint,andev ensees″ blessi ngsi nadv ersiti
es. ″Hei sthe
″Supr emebei nguponwhom menl eananddonotf all
″.

Godistheabsol
utecont
rol
l
erofal
lpower
s.Ev
endi
vi
nit
iesowet
hei
rbei
nganddi
vi
ne
aut
hori
tytoHim.

d)GODI
SONE,
THEONLYGODOFTHEWHOLEUNI
VERSE

Thisisasignifi
cantpartoftheAf r
icanconceptofGodwhi chmustbewel lunderst
oodi fone
i
st ounderstandAf r
icanatt
itudetolif
ewi t
hr egar
dt oper
sonal r
elat
ions.Al
loverAfri
ca,
thereareplaceseachofwhi chisconsi deredt obeasacr edcit
y,asacredgrove,orasacr ed
spot,especial
lybecauseiti
sbel i
eved,accor dingtothepeople′
scosmol ogy,t
hattheplaceis
thecentreofthewor ld,
theplacewher ecr eationbegan,wherethehumanr acehasitscr adl
e,
andf r
om wher etheracedispersedallov ertheearth.

Oneimpor tantaspectofthistopi
cisf oundintheAfri
cansenseoft he″justi
ceofGod.″
Justi
cewi thparti
cularref
erencetothesoci al
andthemor al
order.Bef or
eGod, ther
eisno
favour
it
e.Hei snor especterofpersons;Hemadeeachoneandal lareofequal val
uebefor
e
Him.Di v
inityismadet hefinalj
udgeofr i
ghtandwr ong.
...Divi
nit
yist heguardianoftr
uth.I
f
amanwi shest obeintherightwit
hGod, hemustbei ntherightwithmen.Theconcept
i
mpl i
esalsot hat,
whi l
egoodnesswi ll
nev ermissi
tsrewar dinblessing,wickednesswil
lnot
gounpuni shed.

THEMORALATTRI
BUTESOFGOD

Concer
ningt
hemor
alat
tri
but
esofGod,
manypeopl
econsi
derHi
mtobemer
cif
ul,
showi
ng
kindnessandt aki ngpi tyovermanki nd.Fort hi
sr easonHei sr eferredt oas″ theGodofpi t
y″,
″Godi ski nd″or″ Godi smer ciful″.Themer cyorki ndnessofGodi sf el
ti nsi t
uationsof
danger, diff
iculty ,il
lnessandanxi ety.Whendel iveranceorpr otectionisneededGodi scalled
upont ohel p.Ev enwhensor rowshav est ruck, Godmaybecal ledupont ocomf ortthepeopl e.
SpeakofHi m as″ theGodofcomf ort″.Themaj orityofAf r
icanpeopl eregar dGodas
essentiallygood, andt herearemanysi t uationsi nwhi chHei scr editedwi thdoinggoodt o
Hispeopl e.Fori nst ance, whenav ertingcal ami tiessuppl yi
ngr ain, providingf ert
ili
tyt opeople,
cattl
e,andf i
eldset c.Ther ear e, howev er ,sit
uat ionswhencal ami ties,mi sfortunes, and
suffer
ingscomeuponf amili
esori ndi vidual s,forwhi cht her eisnoexpl anat i
on.Some
societi
eswoul dt henconsi dert heset obebr oughtaboutbyGod, gener all
yt hroughagent s
l
ikespiritsormagi cwor kers,oraspuni shmentf orcont raveni ngcer taincust omsor
tr
aditi
ons.Somepeopl eshol dt hatGodi scapabl eofshowi ngangeri nt hef orm ofdeat h,
drought, fl
oods, locust s,andot hernat ional calami ties.Al lthesear einter pretedast he
mani f
est ati
onsofHi sanger .Howev er ,anumberofAf ricanpeopl esconsi derGodt ohav ea
willwhichgov er nst heuni verseandt hef ortunesofmanki nd.Someconsi derGodt obej ust,
nomat terwhatbef al l
sthem.Bel i
evet hatGodi sal way sr i
ght .Theyhol dt hat ,″
Godr ewards
goodt ot hosewhof ol
lowgoodconduct ,andev il t
ot hosewhof ollowev ilconduct .
″Some
societi
eshol dt hatGodcannotbechar gedwi t
hanyof fencesi nceHei sabov ethel ev el
of
″fault
″,″fail
ure″ ,″wr ong″and″ unr i
ghteousness″ .Int heirey es, Godi s″thepur eking″…whoi s
withoutbl emi sh

TheconceptofGod′ shol i
nessi sal soindicat edf r
om t hef actt hatmanyAf r
icanpeopl es
hav est r
ictrulesi nper formingr itual saddr essedt oGod.Sacr ifi
cial animal s,forinst ance,
hav etobeofonesacr edcol our, andpr i
est s,orof fi
ciati
ngel der smustr efrainf rom sexual
i
nt ercourseandcer tai
nf oodoract ivit
iesbef oreandaf t
ert her it
ual.Theser itual formalit
ies
clearlyshowt hatpeopl eregar dGodashol y.Asf orthel oveofGod, therear epr actical
lyno
directsay i
ngst hatGodl oves.Thi si ssomet hingr ef
lectedal soi nt hedai l
yl i
v esofAf ri
can
peopl es.Iti
sr aretohearpeopl et alkingaboutl ove.Aper sonshowshi slov ef oranot her
mor ethroughact i
ont hant hr oughwor ds.Int hesameway ,peopl eexper i
encet hel oveof
Godi nconcr eteact sandbl essings.Sot heyassumet hatHel ovest hem, other wiseHewoul d
nothav ecreat edt hem.Mor eov er ,peoplebel ievethatmani festationsofev i
l,suchas
sickness, barrenness, death, fai
lurei nunder takingsandt hel i
ke, comef rom mal icious
humanagent s, wher easmani f
est ationsofgood, suchas, health, beget t
ingmanychi l
dren,
fertil
it
y,weal th,andt hel i
ke, comef rom God.Theyar et het okensofHi slov et omanki nd.
Peopl eexper iencet hel oveofGod, event hought heydonotspeakofi tast houghi twere
det achedf r
om Hi sact ivi
ti
es.

Tosum up,theconceptofGodinIRaspr
esentedaboveisonlyafewglimpsesofit
.Iti
s,
however,
inther eal
m ofGod′
sact
ivi
ti
est
hatwef i
ndthegreat
estnumberofexamplesof
whatpeoplethi
nkandsayaboutGod.Moreover,
wefindotherexpressi
onsaboutGodinthe
rel
i
giousacti
vit
ies;namely
,pr
ayer
sandworship.

EXI
STENCEANDFUNCTI
ONSOFSPI
RITSI
NIR

TheShonaandNdebel
eal
sobel
i
evei
napl
ethor
aofspi
ri
ts:

 Ancest
ors(
Midzi
mu)
,

 Al
i
enSpi
ri
ts(
Mashav
i),
  Av
engi
ngspi
ri
ts(
Ngozi
).

Hi
erar
chyofspi
ri
ts

 Nat
ional
Spi
ri
ts-
Debat
abl
e.I
tisapol
i
tical
const
ruct
.

 Ter
ri
tor
ial
/Tr
ibal
/Cl
anSpi
ri
ts-spi
ri
tsofdepar
tedr
uler
s/chi
efs.

 Fami
l
yAncest
ral
Spi
ri
ts

Ancest
ral
Spi
ri
ts(
Midzi
mu)

Thesearethespir
it
soft hedeceasedmember softhefamil
ywhower edecentlyburi
edand
now exi
stinspir
it
ualform.Deathmar ksatransf
ormat i
onoft heAf r
icanpersonfrom the
physi
caltothespir
it
ualform.Mbi t
i(1969)call
sthem thelivi
ng-dead;whil
sttheyaredead
physi
cal
ly,t
heyarealiv
espi r
it
uall
y.Thedeadar est i
l
lpartofthef ami l
yandt heli
vi
ngst i
l
l
havememor i
esofthem.Howev er,notever
yonewhodi escanachi eveancest
or-hoodstat
us.
Therearecert
ainprer
equisi
tes/r
equir
ementsf oronet obecomeanancest r
alspiri
t.These
are:

 Oneshouldbeamarriedpersonwithchi
ldr
en.Thisi
sdonef orpurposesofconti
nui
ty;
suchpeoplehadpar
entalresponsi
bil
i
tysotheyhavetolookaf t
ertheli
vi
ngusingthe
exper
ienceofpar
ent
al r
esponsibi
li
tyt
heygather
edinthepreviousli
fe

 Necessar
yr i
tual
sshouldbeconduct edf orapersontobecomeanancest r
alspi
ri
t
(kur
ovaguva/umbuyi
so).Befor
et heserit
ualsareconduct
edt hespir
itisbeli
evedto
bedangeroustothel
iv
ing.Theri
tualinaugurat
esthedeadint
ot hespi
rit
ualrealm,

 Moralupr
ight
ness.Anti-
soci
albehaviour,forexample,wi t
chcraf
t,sorcery
,steali
ng,
soci
alout
casts,mental
lyderanged,lepersetccannotbecomeancest r
alspiri
ts.I
n
somecasesev entheimmoralbecomeancest ralspir
its,butthespir
itisbeli
evedto
havel
essimpactbecauseofthefail
uretobeexempl aryintheprevi
ousl i
fe.

Funct
ionsofAncest
ral
spi
ri
ts

 Theyareintermedi
ator
s/ mediator
sbetweenthepeopl
eandt
heSupr
emeBei
ng.
M.F.
C,Bourdil
l
onarguesthatancest
orsar
ebil
ingual
.

-Theyspeakt
helanguagethatGodhearsandthel
anguagetheli
vingcanunderst
and.
--
Theyknowwhatt hepeopleareaf
tersincet
heyhadbeent her
e,andsincetheyare
nowi nt
hespir
it
ualworl
d,t
heyknowbesthowt oapproachGod,

-Zi
mbabweansf
eelsmalltoapproachGoddir
ectl
ysot heneedt
ousetheancestral
spi
rit
sasawaytoshowrespectandcourt
esytowardsGodwhomustbeapproached
wit
hhumil
it
yandrever
ence.

-
AnZimbabweanper
sondoesnotappr
oachanel
derdi
rect
ly,
butdoessot
hroughhi
s
j
uni
or.
 -
Ancest
ralSpi
ri
tsareal
waysappeasedwi
thsomecer
emoni
essoast
oper
for
mthei
r
i
nter
mediar
yrolesat
isf
act
ori
l
y.

 Theyarepr ot
ectorsandguardiansofthepeopl
e.Zi
mbabweansbel
i
evetheworl
dhas
mysteri
ousf orceswhi ch beyond humanit
yconcept
ion,f
orexample,ev
ilspir
it
s,
natur
aldisaster
s,sorcer
ersetc.

-Humanit
ycanonlycopewiththesefor
cesonl
ywi
ththeguar
dianshipandsecur
it
y
pr
offer
edbytheancestr
alspi
ri
tsthatcanwadeof
fthesefor
cest hatthr
eat
enthe
wel
lbei
ngoft
heli
vi
ng.

 They do notcause har m,butmisf

ortunes happen when t
hey wi
thdraw t
hei
r
protect
ioninprot
estorasasi
gnoft
heirangerandthefamil
ybecomesvulner
abl
eto
theseforces.

-
Ritual
sareconduct
edtoplacat
ethem sothatt
heywon’
twi
thdr
awt
hei
rpr
otect
ion.
Theyalsomai
ntai
npeaceandharmonyinthefamil
y.

 Theyfightevilspi
rit
sanddri
vethem awayfrom thei
rfami
lydescendantswherethey
oncebel onged.Peopleareuni
tedthroughcer
emoni eshel
dint hei
rhonour.People
gatherinfri
endly,
peacef
ulandhappyceremoniestovener
ateancestor
s.

 Theyinfl
uencepropermor albehavi
ouronpeopl e;t
heyshapet hemor al
i
tyoft
he
peopl
e.Thisisdonethroughtheissueofrewardandpuni shment
.Thosewhoabi
de
bytherest
ri
cti
onsarerewardedandt hosewhobreaktaboosarepuni
shed.

 Theymeettheexpect
ati
onsofpeopl
eint
hei
rev
ery
dayl
if
e.Theyensuref
ert
il
it
yboth
ofthel
andandofthepeopl
e.Whenawomanbeget
schi
l
d,theancest
orsar
ethanked.

 Theypr ot
ectpeople atdanger
ous worki
ng places,academic endeav
our
s,good
yi
elds/
bumperharvest
s,andmarri
ages(et
c)invari
ousenterpr
ises.

 Somear eguar
diansandprot
ectorsoftheland,forexampl
e,t
err
it
ori
alspi
ri
ts.They
arebel
i
evedtoguardagai
nstf
oreigni
nvasion/enemies.

Al
i
enSpi
ri
ts

Thesearespir
it
sofst r
angers/al
ienswhodiedawayfr
om homeandusuall
yarethespir
itsof
theyoungandt heunmar ri
ed.Thespiri
tsofthesepeopl
ewouldnothavereceiv
edpr oper
funer
alceremonies;hencetheyseektoexpressthemsel
vesthr
oughtaki
ngpossessionof
unrel
atedpeopl
e.Theyar eunknowntothecommuniti
esfr
om whi
chtheychoosehosts.

Some oft hese spir

it
s are spi
ri
ts ofsocialoutcast
s/devi
ances,forexample,wit
ches,
sor
cerers,
suici
dev i
cti
ms,thementall
yderangedetc.Theycannotbeadopt
edintotheworl
d
ofancestr
alspir
it
sandsoenduppossessi ngunrelat
edpeople.Theycanalsobespir
it
sof
ani
mals,forexample,baboons,snakeset
c.Thehost sbehaveint hewaytheanimaldoes.
Theshavicul
tisaquestf orrecognit
ion.I
tisastr
uggl
eagai
nstobl
i
vioncausedbydeat
h.
Si
ncetheycannotbeancestr
alspiri
ts,
theyhavet
obesomewhere.

Exampl
e:

 Maz unguspi ri
t-thesear espiri
tsAfri
canpeopl efrom Por t
ugueseeastAf r
ica.They
camemanyy earsagoi nsear chofsomemi neral
sandgameandmanydi edinthese
str
angel andsandt heirspiri
tswanderedunt i
ltheyset t
ledonsomeal i
enhost s.The
spi
ritisassoci at
edwi thcleanli
nessandhy gi
ene.Manyr efl
ectabiaspi
ctureofwhite
people.Thehostbehav esinthewayt hewhi t
esdo.Awomanhostwashesherbody
andcl ot
hesr egular
ly.Theper soni salwaysspot lessl
ycl ean.Thespi
ritdemands
westernf oodst affsuchaseggs,r icespaghettietc.ThepossessedspeaksEngl i
sh
andanyot herEuropeanl anguagesevenifthepersonhasnev erbeent
oSchool .

Thesi
gni
fi
cance

Theyconf
erpar
ti
cul
art
alent
s/ski
l
lst
othei
rhost
sei
thernegat
iveorposi
ti
ve.

Posi
ti
veSki
l
ls/
Tal
ent
s

 Theycanconf
erhunt
ingt
alent
stothei
rhost
.Onecanbecomeanexperti
nhunti
ng.
Thehosti
sknownas“Mudzimba”
.Suchty
peofspi
ri
tspossesses“
men”f
orexampl
e,
KhumaloShav
i.

 Theybest
ow heal
ingt
alent
s,forexample,Sivi
nda Shavi.Thistypeispopularwi
th
women.Thehostisabletotr
eatv ari
ousdiseases,conv
ulsi
ons,dif
fi
cul
tlabouret
c.
Theyi
mpartt
hisexper
ti
setotheirhost
.

 MadzukwaShav iexper
tintr
eat
ingmanydiseasessomeoft
hewest
ernmedi
cine
cannott
reat
,forexampl
e,l
epr
osy,epi
l
epsyet
c.

 Chi
punhafav
oursyoungandunmarri
edwomenasi t
shost
.Itconf
erscur
ati
veski
l
ls
oni
tshost
.Itcur
esdiseasest
hatat
tacksmal
lchi
l
dren.

 NyamandeShavi-Conf
ersdivi
nator
ytalents.Thehostcanforeseeint
othefut
ureand
maywar naper
sonofani mpendingdisasterandadvisesthepersonofthedi
vinert
o
consul
ttoaver
tt hedi
saster
.TheBaboonspi ri
tcandivi
neill
ness.Itcanal
sohelp
fi
ndlostpr
oper
ty,somethi
nghidden(Seership).

 MasanganoSpir
itspeci
ali
sesindanci
ng.I
tcanconf
erdanci
ngskil
l
sont hehostand
t
he per
son can enter
tai
n peopl
e atceremoni
es(forexample,Chakandi
wana in
Gar
andi
chauya)
.

 Zvi
penziShavienableshosttoper
for
m duti
esregar
dedarduoust
oper
for
m under
nor
mal ci
rcumstances.Theper
soni
sindust
ri
ous/har
dworki
ng.

 Shav
ireMhondoroisknownt
opossessl
i
ons.Thel
i
onguar
dst
hechi
efdom by
movi
ngaroundatni
ght
.

 Sangomapr
oduceswar
ri
orsst
rongandbr
avei
nbat
tl
es.I
tconf
erst
heabi
l
ityt
oki
l
lin
 batt
leandprotectst
hewhol
eter
ri
tor
yfr
om i
nvader
sorenemi
es.Thespi
ri
tcanal
so
provi
deent
ertainment
.

Possessi
onbyal ienspiri
t senhancest hesoci
alstatusofthehosti
nthesoci et
y.I.
M Lewis
posit
sthatthefav ouri
tev i
cti
msofpossessi oncultsarewomenwhoar edepriv
edofpower
i
nmal edominatedsoci eties(pat
riar
chy )ordown-troddencat
egor
iesofmen.Theset wo
groupsaresubjectt ostrongdiscri
mi nat
ioninri
gidl
yst r
ati
fi
edsoci
eti
es.Possessionavail
s
thechanceforthem toexpr esstheincli
nati
ontheymaynotundernormal ci
rcumstances.

Negat
iveQual
i
ties/
Att
ri
but
es

 Shav
irour
oyi
-Wi
tchcr
aft
:forexampl
e,Mzi
l
ikaziShav
i,

 Shav
irechi
pfambi
-Pr
ost
it
uti
on,

 Shav
ireumbav
ha-St
eal
i
ng,

 Shav
ireusi
mbe-l
azi
ness,

 Shav
ireur
ombe-Vagr
ance/pov
ert
y.

Av
engi
ngSpi
ri
t

Thisisaspi ri
tofsomeonewhodi eswi t
hagr i
evanceandcomesbackt oseekr ev enge
againstthosewhowr ongedit
.I tisthemostf earedtypeofspir
itamongt heShona/Ndebel e
becausei tcausesillness,misfortunes,suf
feri
ngandev endeathtot heof f
ender’
sf ami l
y.
Theet ymologyoft hewor d“ ngozi”isaKar angaterm“ nj
odzi”whichmeansacci dent s,
sorr
ows,dangert ohumanl if
e,mi sf
ortuneetc.Thetermi scharact
eri
sti
coft heactionsof
thespiri
t.I
tattacksthemember soft hefamil
yoft heoff
enderbecauseint heAfr
icansoci ety
i
ngener alsini sseenasacol lecti
vesocialerrorandt hewhol efamil
yi ssuscepti
bl eto
punishment.

Var
ioust
ypesofav
engi
ngspi
ri
ts

 Murder
edper
sons,especi
all
yaf
orei
gner
/mut
orwa.Thespi
ri
tcomesbackt
oseek
r
evenge,

 Parentalspiritagainstitsoffspring.Thiscoul dbeduet oilltreatmentdur ingl if

e-ti
me.
Ifachi l
dbeat suporscol dsoneofherpar entsandt akesnost epst or emedyt he
sit
uati
ont hr oughst ri
kingr econciliati
on,thespi ri
toft hepar entcomesbackasan
avengingspi r
it.Itisnotnecessar il
yangozi ,but“ kupf uka” .Themi sfortunesar e
dir
ectedt ot hespeci f
icchildwhowr ongedt hepar ent.Shemaycomebackasr esult
oftamper ingwi t
hhercooki ngut ensils.Theseshoul dber eplacedwhi l
eshei sst i
l
l
ali
veot herwiseshemaydi ewi t
hagr ievance.Non- pay mentof“ mombey oumai ”by
theson- i
n-law cancour tthespi r
itoft hedeceasedmot her .Themot her’sspi ritis
mor edanger oust hant hatoft hef atherbecauset hemot heri snotofone’ sr el
ations;
notoft hesamet otem.Chi ldr
encanper formr i
tualstopl acat eher .Thev ictim goes
thr
oughahumi li
ati
nglifethati ncludeswi thdrawingintot heout sidewor ld( Kutanda
botso).Maycausef er
til
ityproblemsi nthegirlchil
dren.

 Themostdr
eadedonei
stheav
engi
ngspi
ri
tofadeceasedpr
egnantwomanora
 womanwhodi essoonaftergiv
ingbir
thasaresul
tofthein-
laworhusband.Ithasa
tendencyofquant
if
yingi
tselfbycausi
ngorcal
li
ngother“
ngozi”i
ntot
hef amil
yofthe
offender
.

 Spi
ritofa servant( Mushandi
)/sl ave(Nhapwa)can al so come backt o seek
compensati
on,especial
l
ywhent heydiedwi
t houtbei
ngpaidtheirdues.I
ftheperson
wasi l
l
-tr
eat
ed,theymaycomeseeki ngrevenge.Itdemandsawi fe/
vir
gingi
rlasa
for
m ofcompensation.

 A spi
ritofaspouse/part
nerwhodi
edt
hroughnegl
i
genceofori
l
l-t
reat
mentor
unfai
thful
nessoft
heot
herpar
tner
.

Anav engi ngspiri

tcanbesel f-
generat
ive.Thismeanst hatitcancomewi thoutbeing
provoked.Buti tcan al so be i
nit
iat
ed.The r el
ati
ves ofthe deceased can invoke t
he
deceased’sspiri
t.Theycanuseher bsatt hedeceased’
sgravetomaket hepersonwreak
havocint hefamilyoftheoffender
.Somepeopl etakemedici
newhi l
est i
llali
vetobeableto
takerevengeiftheirdeat
hiscausedbypeopl e.

Peopl
etakest
epst
ogetr
idoft
heav
engi
ngspi
ri
t,f
orexampl
e,

 “
Kurasi
ra”
.Ablackanimalorfowldedi
catedtoanavengi
ngspiri
t(ngozi
)isleftto
wanderi
nthebush.Onewhotakesawaytheani
malaut
omatical
l
ytakesthe“ngozi”
,

 “Kutsi
pika”Thisi sar itualthati
smeantt odriveawayt hespi
ri
twi ththehelpofa
n’angawi t
houtpr opi
tiatoryrit
esbeingdone.Thest epmaythreatenevent hel
ifeof
then’angabecausei tincurstheangeroft hespiri
t.Thi
sisnotaper manentsolut
ion
tocount erngozi . Theonl ysol
utioni sreparati
on/
compensat i
on.Thisisapt l
y
descri
bedi nt heShonaadaget hat“Mushongawengozikur i
pa.”Thev ict
imfami l
y
consultan’ angaf orappr opri
atemeasur estot aketoappeasetheav engingspiri
t.
Thespiritmayr equir
ebeer ,wife,
cattl
eetc.

Someschol ars,forexampl e,M.Gel f

and,notedthatt hesespi ri
tsaresignifi
cantbecause
i
tact sasanet hicalcodeofconduct .Iti
sast rongdet errenttocrime.Aper sonshoul d
desistf r
om engagi ngi nl i
fet hr
eateningacti
on.Thef earcompel speoplet orespect
humanv alue.St ernpunishmentf ort aki
ngone’ slif
e:t her eisjusti
ceev enbey ondt he
grave.Theav engingspi r
itsareagent sofsoci aljustice.Ev enancestralspirit
scannot
protectthei rown;t heytur ntheirbacksbecauset heyar ekeent oseej usti
cedone.
Howev er,theseav engingspi r
itsalsomi l
it
ateagai nstt herightsofot herpeopl e.For
exampl e,theuseofagi rlasawi feforthespiritascompensat i
on/propit
iatoryfineto
placatethespi r
itinfr
ingesont herightsofthegirlchild.Thei ndivi
duali
sdeni edther i
ght
tochooset hei
rpar t
ner.Mar r
iageright
sarev i
olated.Thi scausesani mosity,
disunit
yet c.
TOTEMSANDI
NDI
GENOUSI
NDENTI
TIES

Whati
sit
?

Iti
sthebel
i
eft
hatpeopl
ear
edi
scer
nedf
rom ani
mal
s,pl
ant
sandot
hernat
ural
obj
ects.

-t
hesenatur
alobj
ect
sar esy
mboli
zedast
otemswhichareassoci
atedwi
th
cl
ans/gr
oupsoffamil
ieswit
hcommondescent(
ancest
ry)

-however,
Shonaculture’
sdoesn’
tbel
iev
et hatpeopl
enecessar
il
yori
ginat
ef r
om
animalsandotherobject
sbuttheyi
denti
fythemselveswi
thcert
ainanimalspeci
es
forthepurposeofsociali
dent
it
y.

-
Tot
emi
sm happenst
obeasol
dasShonacul
tur
eit
sel
f.

-
Acl anl
ivesonlar
geextendedf
ami
lywit
hi t
smembersshar
ingcer
tai
ndutiesand
obl
igati
ons.eachcl
anhasitsownt
otem usual
l
yani
malandanimalbodypart
s,the
tot
em actsasasy mbol
.

-
thet
otem i
stheemblem oftheclanasDurkei
nput
sit‘
iti
sit
sfl
agI
,i
t’
sthesi
gnby
whi
chit
sclandi
sti
nguishi
tselff
rom ot
hers’

-Dur
klei
nnotedthatat
otem i
smor
ethanamer
esy
mbol
iti
srat
herar
eli
gious,
sacr
edsy mbol
.

-
Shonasoci
etyi
sdi v
idedint
omulti
pli
cit
yofcl
ansandsub-
clanswhi
chdi
sti
ngui
shes
t
hemsel
vesfrom eachotheront
hebasisoftot
ems.

-t
heseuseatl
east25i
dendi
fi
abl
etot
emsShonasoci
etywi
thatl
east65pr
aise
names

-
thet
otemsi
ncl
ude:

shoko,moyo,shava,ngara,gumbo,t
siv
o-gushungo,gwayi
,mbi
zi
.Nzou,Shumba,
bonga,ny
ati
,dzi
va,nheta,beta,
gar
we,mbev a,mbano,mhembwe,ngur
uve/humba,
shi
ri
,mhar
a,mhar
i,mv
uue.
tc

Shoko/sokohas6prai
senames,mukany
a,bv
udzi
j
ena,
wachemuka,
mur
ehwa,
mutadza,Gumere,
mudy av
evana

-
prai
senamesar
eusedt
oident
if
yasub-
clan

-
Moy
o,t
siv
oandGumboar
enotani
mal
sbutor
gansofani
mal
s.

WHYADOPTI
NGTOTEMS?

-
iti
sdiff
icultt
oexplainwhytheshonapeopl
eadopt
edtot
ems,howev
er,
from our
obser
vationsaboutthefunct
ionsoft
otemswecanhypot
hesi
s.

-
itappear
stot
emswer
east
rat
egyofsur
viv
al

-i
tseemsf
rom hi
sori
ginmanhasdrawni
nspir
ati
onforsur
viv
alfr
om natur
e-i
nany
casemani
sdependentonnat
uref
orsurv
ival
e.g.Food.
,shel
ter
,cl
othi
ng,medici
ne

-
manf
indal
lsol
uti
onst
opr
obl
emsf
rom nat
ure

-wit
hthei
ncreaseinpopulat
iont
her
ewasneedt ohavesoci
ali
dent
it
y,wesawthat
theani
mal ki
ngdom i
smadeupofdi st
inctspeci
esofani
mal
sother
sv er
yaggr
essi
ve
andother
sf r
iendl
yandotherssi
mpl
yshy .

-i
tmaybebecauseoft hi
st hatt
heearl
i
estancestorsdeci
dedtoadoptcer
tai
n
animal
sast hei
rtot
emsinor dertor
epresentt
hesocialdi
ff
erent
iat
iont
hatwas
taki
ngplaceinthei
rsoci
etyandtheywereincr
easinginnumbers.

-par
ti
cularani
mal
swer
echosenast
otemsbecauseofcer
tai
nat
tr
ibut
eswhi
cht
hey
possessed.

-
theat
tri
but
eswer
efoundt
obev
eryusef
uli
fimi
tat
edbyhumanbei
ngs

-t
heseattri
but
emadehumansoci etymorestabl
eandorgani
zedtoachi
evethei
r
dail
yneedse.gmonkey sli
veasagr oupwhichtr
ansl
atei
ntoaclan/f
ami
ly.Monkey
s
careforeachotherandtheyf
ighttoprot
ectmembersofthei
rgroup.

-
monkey
shav
eacl
earsoci
alst
ruct
urewer
ethey
oungeronesr
espectt
heel
der
s

-
elephant
srepr
esentst
rengt
hi.
ethecl
ani
sagai
nstl
azi
ness

FUNCTI
ONOFTOTEMS

1.Theyarethebasi
sofsociali
dent
it
y .Theydon’
tonl
yidenti
fypeopl
esoci
all
ybut
al
sohi st
ori
cal
lyandcul
tural
l
y.e.
g.t
hest udyofShonatotemsisanavenuei
n
knowingandapproxi
matingShonahistoryandcul
tur
e.

2.Totemsareimport
anti
nasocietybecausetheyarethebasi
sforsol
i
dar
it
yand
uni
ty.Peopl
eofthesametot
em arebasical
l
yrelat
iveswhoshareacommon
ancest
ry.Asar
esul
ttheyal
way
sseeeachot
herasone.

3.theyhav earel
igi
ousfunct i
on.t
hebeli
efintot
emism emphasi
ssomeofthe
centralt
rait
sofreli
gione.g.amongsttheShonatot
emism i
soneofthef
undament
al
pil
l
arsoft hei
rrel
igi
on.weuset ot
emsandpr ai
senamestocommunicat
etomwari
andt hedepart
edones( familyspi
ri
ts)

4.Tot eni
sm isani
mpor t
antbasisforsocial
izat
ionnotonlyamongmanbutal so
betweenmanandwomen.Tot enism r
egulat
esgenderr el
ations.eachandevery
i
ndividualt
hrought
otemicidentit
yisgivenaparticul
arsocialpositi
onwhichis
respectedbymember sofhis/herclanaswel lasmember sofot hercl
ans.

5.Totemsal
soregul
atemar r
iage.MostShonapeopl
eareEXOGAMOUS.Awoman
canonlymar
ryi
ntoadiff
erentclanwhereshewil
lbeconsi
der
edMutor
wa.

6.totenism pl
aysani mport
antrolei
nthesolvi
ngofconf l
ict
.InShonasocietywhen
peopleoft hesametotem wrongeachothertheyarepersuadedtoforgi
veeachother
becauset heyarechi
ldrenofthesameclan.-si
mil
arl
ypeopl eofdi
ffer
enttotemsare
persuadedt osolv
etheirdi
ff
erencesbecauseoffearofngozi.

7.Totemsalsoserveasthebasisfordi
vidi
ngr
olesandresponsi
bil
i
tiest
omember
s
ofdi
ff
erentcl
ans.Peopl
enegotiatethei
rrol
est
hroughtot
ems.

8.Totemsalsoregul
atet
heenv
ironment
.hunt
ingi
sregul
atedbycl
anst
heydonot
huntoreatt
hei
rtotems

TOTEMI
SM I
NCONTEMPORARYSOCI
ETY

-Asknowledgeformt ot
emi
sm isfastl
osingi
tssi
gnif
icancealt
houghShonapeople
stil
li
denti
fythemselv
esusi
ngt ot
ems.-someoftheimportantri
tual
sandbel
ief
s
associat
edwi t
htotemshavebeenabandoned-al
lcul
turalval
uesarefoundi
ntotems
-tot
enism i
sapackageofvalues

-i
tappear st hattodayt ot
emi sm isasy mbol t
hathasbeenempt i
edofi tscont ents
duet ot heencr oachmentandembr aceofwest erncul t
ural val
uesbyAf ricans.-
totemi sm isani mpor tantaspectofShonar eli
giousbel i
efswhenChr istian
mi ssi
onar iescamet heydeni gr at
edAf ricanr el
igiousbeliefsbrandingt hem pagani st
practices.-withmanyAf r
icansconv erti
ngt oChr i
stiani
tywi t
hthepassageoft imet he
signif
icanceoft otemi sm begunt odecl i
ne- casesofpeopl ewiththesamet otem
whomar ryeachot herareont herise.-eli
teAf ri
cansandt heirchi
ldrenhav et otall
y
l
ostknowl edgeaboutt ot
emi sm andt heirculturalvaluesingener al-i
ncr eased
phy si
cal mobi l
ityamongAf r
icansmeanst hatmanyhav emov edfrom t heir
tradit
ional homest ogot omi ningandcommer cialfarm areasandci t
iesast heyseek
empl oy ment.-Af r
icansnol ongeri dent i
fythemsel veswitht hei
rclans-Pr ost i
tution,
menwhoi ndulgei npr osti
tutiondonotbot hertoaskaboutt heprosti
tut e’stotem -in
spiteoft heimpactofwest erncul turetotemi sm t osomeext endisstillbei ng
celebrated.
WAYSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
NGWI
THTHESPI
RITS

I
nIRpeopl
ecommuni
cat
ewi
tht
hespi
ri
tsi
ndi
ff
erentway
snamel
y,

Whent
heyper
for
m

1KUROVAGUVACEREMONY/
MAGADZI
RO

{
SETTLI
NGTHEDECEASED’
SSPI
RIT}

Theceremonyisknownbydi f
fer
entnames amongtheShonasub-cul
tur
algr
oups
e.
g karanga—magadzi
ro,
kugadzi
ra mudzi
mu,Zezur
u-kurova guv
a( t
o beatthe
grav
e),
korekor
ekut
ambamudzi mu,kut
oramudzi
muorbona.

-
Somerit
esmaydif
ferher
eandt her
ebutthefunct
ionofr
it
uali
sthesamei
.et
o
i
nvi
tet
hespi
ri
toft
hedeceasedi
ntothefamil
y.

-I
ttakespl
aceay
earaf
terbur
ial

-
Whenapersondi
estheShonabebel
i
evesthatt
hespi
ri
toft
hedeceasedwonder
sin
t
hewi
lder
nessawait
ingt
hekurov
aguvacer
emony .

-Theceremonyishel
ddur
ingt
hedr
yseason(
August
)dr
yseason=r
eli
giousand
soci
alacti
vi
ti
es.

PROCEDURESTOBETAKENI
NTHEKUROVAGUVACEREMONY

-
Ther
it
ual
sdi
ff
erf
rom pl
acet
opl
aceandr
egi
ont
oregi
on.

-Theyconsul
tan’angat
ofi
ndoutt
hepr
ocedur
etheyshoul
dtake.(
Ccommuni
cat
ion
wit
hthespiri
ts)
-Consul
ti
ngan’angaisdonetomakesur
ethatt
her
it
ualwi
l
lbeper
for
medi
naway
thati
saccept
abl
etothespir
it
.

-
From t
hisst
ageal
lthest
epswi
l
lbedone wi
thamul
tat
ionwi
tht
hedeceased’
sspi
ri
t.

-
ther
it
ual
shoul
dhav
etheappr
oval
oft
hef
ami
l
yspi
ri
ts.

-
ifonewant
stomar
ryt
her
eshoul
dbeconsul
tat
ion.(
communi
cat
ionwi
tht
hespi
ri
ts)

-Mil
letbeerwi
l
lbebr ewedbyelder
lywomanwhoar
ebey
ondchi
l
dbear
ingst
age
wit
hnosexualr el
ati
ons(
kupedzaUr
a)

-
shewi
l
lbehel
pedbyt
hesmal
lboy
sandgi
rl
s(pr
epubescentboy
sandgi
rl
s)

-member
soft
hef
ami
l
yar
eadv
isednott
ohav
econf
li
ctwhenpr
epar
ingf
ort
he
cer
emony.

-Ontheeveni
ngbefor
etheceremonythebeeri
sconsecr
atedt
othespi
ri
toft
he
deceasedbyt
heel
destmemberofthef
amil
y.

-Theconsecr
ati
onmarksanal
lni
ghtcel
ebr
ati
ont
hati
nvol
vessi
ngi
nganddanci
ngi
n
honourofthespi
ri
t.

-Musi
cisimpor
tantbecausei
tenabl
escommuni
cat
ionbet
weent
hel
i
vingandt
he
deadper
son.

-
Thenextmor
ningi
nvol
vesr
it
eofi
nvi
ti
ngt
hespi
ri
tfr
om t
hegr
ave.

-
Thi
sri
tev
ari
esf
rom ar
eat
oar
ea

-I
nsomear
eas por
ri
dgeandbeerar
epour
edont
hef
rontoft
hegr
avet
oinv
itet
he
spir
it
.

-Theeldermemberofthe f
amilywhowillbe l
eadi
ng wi
l
lspeak t
othe deceases
aski
ng t hespi
ri
ttoacceptthei
nvi
tat
ion t
ocome home.(
communicat
ionwiththe
spir
it
s)

-
aft
ert
his,t
heent
our
ager
etur
nhomet
odanceandf
east

-
somet
imest
hespi
ri
tissy
mbol
i
zingbr
oughthome.

-amongthe Karangapeopl
ethereisneedtogotthegrav
eearl
yinthe mor
ning t
he
spir
itisinv
ited bymembersoft hefami
ly bypouri
ngwateronthebackofagoat
addressi
ngthespiri
tofthedeceasedtocomehome.

-i
fthespi
ri
taccept
sthei
nvi
tat
iont
hegoatwoul
dshakei
tsbodyv
igor
ousl
y.

-
Thegoati
ssl
aught
eredandt
hemeati
sroast
edandeat
enwi
thoutsal
t.

SI
GNI
FICANCEOFTHECEREMONY
1.I tbr
ingshopeandconf idenceint
ot hefami l
yconsideri
ngtheunpredi
ctabil
i
tyof
thespiri
tofthedeceased.2.Itmarkstheendofmour ningint
hehomesteadwhi ch
i
sr efer
redtoasmushamut emaThewi dow wil
lnolongerv ei
lherheadwi t
hblack
clot
horweart hesymboli
cbl ackdr
essofmour ni
ng–r eturnt
omour ni
ng.

3.I tresol
vespr oblemsand t ensionscaused bydeat h by…. .t hespiri
toft he
deceasedamongt hef amily’sspiri
tguar dians.Thel i
vi
ngandt hedeadwoul dhav e
restr
engthenedtheircowar dicerelati
onshi p.4.I tal
lowsoneoft hemosti mpor tant
ri
tualsinShonacul tur
et otakepl acei.e.inher it
ancecer emony“ NHAKA”5.f rom a
generalpointofv iew the cer emony cel ebrates shona reli
gious pract
ices and
communi ti
esandr eunitest hepeopl etot hef undament altr
adit
ionoft hei
rcultur
e6.
i
tst r
engthensrel
ationship–t iesasbot hcl oseanddi stantr
elat
ivesconv er
geatone
placeforacommonpur pose.Soi treaffi
rmssoci alt
ies.CHANGE-t heceremonyhas
beenr epl
acedbymemor ialservi
ce-Chr i
stianity.

Besi
des,
theyal
socommuni
cat
ethr
ough,

2RAI
NMAKI
NGCEREMONI
ES

Rai
n-maki
ngrit
uali
spartoft
heagr
icul
tur
alri
tes.Amongt
heShonapeopl
eitwas
cl
osel
yconnectedt
othenoti
onofancest
ral
spiri
ts.

I
nIRt
heybel
i
evei
nrai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
els.

-Theybel
ievei
nt hei
rsuper
nat
uralpowersandf
orthepr
ocessofr
ainmaki
ngthey
dependonRAI N SPI
RITSandtheirTRI
BALorSPIRI
TS(e.
gUngwal
i)amongstthe
Ndebelepeopl
e)

-They
eartheyperfor
m somerainmakingceremonieswhi
chareknownbydi
ff
erent
names i
n t
he dif
fer
ent areas e.
g.
mukwerer
a.ukuphehl
a.i
zul
u,
makasva(
many i
ka0,
rukato(
kor
ekor
e),

-Remindi
ngt hem t
hespir
it
ualhi
erar
chy–MWARI
,
UNKULUNKULU-Tr
ibalspi
ri
ts–
clanspir
it
sfamil
yspir
it
s

-Themhondor
ospeakst hr
oughthei
rmedium andtheyar
eprophet
swhofor
eseet
he
futur
eandeverychi
l
drenshouldhaveitsownt r
ibalort
err
it
ori
alspi
ri
twhomeddl
e
betweent
heli
vi
ngandt hespi
ri
tualwor
ld.

-
Int
heti
mesofdr
oughtt
heChiefshoul
dsummont
her
ainpr
iest
sort
het
ri
balspi
ri
ts
t
oholdt
her
ainmaki
ngri
tual
s.

Al
thoughmanypeopl
ewi
thi
nthatr
ainmaki
ngr
it
ual
sar
ecar
ri
edoutdur
ingt
het
ime
ofdr
oughti
nact
ual
factt
heser
it
ual
shoul
dbecar
ri
edoutev
eryy
ear
.

THERAI
NMAKI
NGPRACTI
CES

-
ther
ainmaki
ngr
it
ual
sar
eoutofsi
ngl
eev
ent

-I
nsomecasesadomesti
cani
malwil
lbeslaught
eredandal
lni
ghtcer
emonywi
l
lbe
heldwer
etheywi
l
lbedanci
ngandspi
ri
tpossessi
on

-
speci
alr
aindancesandmusi
cwi
l
lbesung

-
thepl
acewher
ethi
scer
emonyandr
it
ual
wil
lbecar
ri
edoutdi
ff
ers.

-
e.g.speci
fi
ctr
eesshoul
dbesel
ect
edont
heper
ipher
yoft
hev
il
lageeggmuhacha
ormukamba.

-
amongstt
hemany
ikai
twi
l
lbehel
donasacr
edmount
ain

-
lot
sofbeerwi
l
lbel
eftatcl
erkt
reesandsacr
edmount
ainsf
ort
hespi
ri
tst
odr
ink.

-danceandsongarear
eani
mpor
tantv
ehi
cleofcommuni
cat
ionbet
weent
hel
i
ving
andspir
it
ualwor
ld.

-t
herai
nmakingceremonyincl
udessexualsongsa,andsexualini
ti
ati
vedancesasa
symbol
icwayofseduci ngtheancestorstor el
easetherain.– Thereisal otof
symbol
ism whi
chincl
udeferti
l
ity
,manhood,semenandwet nessetc.

-ot
her ceremonies i
ncl
ude the FI
RST FRUI
TS CEREMONY (
usual
l
y hel
d i
n
Januar
y/Februar
y)andHARVESTCEREMONY(Apri
l
/May)

3(
KUPEMBEDZAMASHAVI
)

Itwaswi del
ybeli
evedintheI ndi
genousrel
i
gionthatwhentheshav espi
ritsel
ectsi
ts
hostandi ft
hehostr ecognizedandacceptedtheshavear i
tualact
iontookplacein
orderforthespir
ittooperateinharmonywi t
hitshost.Themedi um r
ecognizedthe
shave since some oft hese broughtskil
ls and abi
li
ti
es in allforms ofl i
fe
(Bourdi
ll
on1990).

4TRADI
TIONALHEALERS(
N’ANGA)

AmongtheShonapeoplet
hetradi
ti
onalheal
eri
sknownasN’ anga.Gel
fand(1959:
99)
def
inesn’
angaasaninter
mediarybetweenancest
ralspi
ri
tsvadzimuandt heli
ving
membersofthef
amily
.Inthi
srespecttheposi
ti
onofthen;
angav i
-a-
visthefami
lyis
equiv
alentt
otheposi
ti
onoft
hemedi
um(
svi
ki
ro)oft
het
ri
balspi
ri
t(t
etegur
u)v
i-
a-v
is
tr
ibe.

Theyarespi
rit
ualconsul
tantsendowedwi t
hextraordinar
yknowledge;
theyar
e
guar
diansofesoter
icknowledge(beyondtheordinar
y).Theypr
esideovermost
tr
adi
ti
onalri
tualsof
feri
ngguidancefortheproperexecuti
onofri
tual
s.

Then’
angaisconsultedduri
ngfamilysicknessorwhent hereisanordeall
i
ket hatof
wit
chhunt
ing,orexorcisi
ngtheavengingspirit
.Thetruen’angaisendowedwi ththe
powerofheal
inganddi v
ini
ngthecauseofani l
l
nessori ndeedofanydiff
icult
yby
meansofthespir
itofanancestorwhowasal soan’angadur i
nghisl
if
etime.

∙BecauseATRsdonothav ewr i
tt
enscri
ptur
eoft heirownt heyarenotconcer ned
aboutort
hodoxy(RIGHTBELI EF),t
heyputmoreemphasi sonor thopr
axis(RIGHT
ACTION).Knowledgeiscoll
ectedandstoredinthememor yofAfri
cans.Tr
adi ti
onal
heal
ersaretheReservesecti
onofATR.Theyar et heintel
lectualhub;
champi onsof
ort
hopraxi
s:Bur
ial
-t
imeoft akingthebodytothegr ave,andthatofcutti
ngt heRupa
saetc.Duri
ngkurova guvacer emonyconsul t
ancyser v
icesaresoughtf r
om
then’
anga

5Spi
ri
tMedi
ums(
Masv
iki
ro)

Theyarepossessedbythespi
ritofthosewhodiedl
ongback.Heyar
e
i
nducedbyecst
acyandcoul
dspeakint
heaccent
oft
hedeceased

6Spi
ri
tPossessi
on(
Kusv
iki
rwa)

Musi
canddancemakesonet
obespi
ri
tual
l
ypossessed.Oncei
nthi
sst
ate
communi
cat
ionbegi
ns
SYMBOLI
SM I
NIR

WHATARESYMBOLSI
NIR

Symbolsr
epresentt
hemostsuper
fi
cialandv
aluet
hedeepestmani
fest
ati
onsof
cul
tur
e,wi
thheroesandr
it
ual
sinbetween.

Symbol sarewor ds,gest

ures, pi
ctures,orobj
ect
sthatcar ryaparti
cularmeani ng
whi
chi sonlyrecognizedbyt hosewhoshar eapart
icularcult
ure.Newsy mbolseasi
l
y
devel
op, ol
donesdi sappear.Sy mbolsfrom onepar
ticulargroupareregularl
ycopied
byothers.Thi
siswhysy mbol srepresenttheout
ermostl ayerofaculture.

SYMBOLSI
NIR

1Ki
tchen

Mostoftherit
ualsareper f
ormedi ntheki
tchen.Bodyoft hedeceasedawai ti
ng
buri
alwil
lbeinthekitchen.Cookingisdoneinthekitchen.It
sal soameetingplace.
Paymentoflobolaisdonei nthekit
chen.Inthekit
chent hat
swher ewefi
ndchikuva
whichisanimportantassetinIR.Whenawomandi es,thekitchenconti
nuetobe
usedbecauseoncecl oseditsbeli
evedthattheywouldhav elockedintheancestors
(
kuv
har
ir
avadzi
mu)

2Reedmat

Peopl
eperf
ormri
tual
swhi
lesi
tt
ingonareedmat.
Onburi
alt
hecof
fi
nisputona
reedmati
nthegr
aveandsomepeoplear
eburi
edinar
eedmat

3Ruser
o

Foodpr
epar
ati
oni
sdonei
nruser
o.Thesameappl
i
est
omedi
cinepr
ep

4Tsv
imbo

Akingr
uleswi
that
svi
mbo.
Oni
nher
it
ance,
theonet
otakeoft
hedeceasedf
ami
l
yis
gi
venatsvi
mbo

5Mukombe

LI
FEAFTERDEATH

‘
I
sther
eli
feaf
terdeat
hinI
R?’
and‘
wher
eist
heabodeoft
hedead?
’

I
nI R,thereisacommonbel i
efthatdeat
hdoesnotmar ktheendofone’sexi
stence,
ratheritusher
sthedeadintoanotherr
ealm ofexi
stence.Thust
hefuneralri
tes
performedatone’sdeat
hser veassomeki ndofri
tesofpassage.I
nthiscaseafter
death, onecanconti
nuebeingactivei
ntheliv
esoft heli
vi
ngasanancestororthe
‘
liv
ingdead’ asMbit
ical
lstheli
vingdead

Fort heShona/Ndebel e,deathist he‘graduati

on‘ orachangeofst atusasone
mov esfr om childhoodt oancest orhood.Thusaf t
erone’sdeat h,ri
tualsare
perfor medatone‘ sdeat htoensur et hatthespiri
tofthedeadi swel comedi ntothe
respect edcat egor i
esoff ull
yachi evedancest orsinthespir
itwor l
d.Forexampl e
amongt heShonat heKur ov
aguv a(Br i
ngingthespiri
thome) ceremonyi sper f
ormed
afteray earormor eofone’ sdeat h.Itisthemosti mportantofal l
funerary
ri
tes( Bour dil
l
on, 1973).Thi sceremonyi sper f
ormedwhent hereisamat ureperson
whowoul dhav ediedint hefamilyanday earhaspassedaf terthedeat h.Thebel i
ef
whi chiswi delyheldamongt heShonai sthataft
erthedeathofaper son, hisorher
spiritisnotbur i
edt ogetherwitht hebodybuthov ersaroundi nthebushunt ilthe
wel
cominghomeceremonyi
sper
formed.Pri
ort
othi
sri
tual
thespi
ri
tisbel
i
evedt
o
bedanger
ous.Thewayinwhi
cht
hisri
tuali
sper
for
meddiff
ersf
rom onear
eatothe
ot
her.

Afteragr eeingont hedayonwhi chthecer emonyi st obehel d, thef ami l

yoft he
deceasedconsul tat raditi
onal divi
nerforthepur por seoff indingouthowt hi
s
ceremonyi st obehel dandwhet hertheyhav et hebl essingoft heancest ors.After
getti
ngt heassur ancet heythenpr oceedt omaket henecessar ypr eparations, most
i
mpor tanti sbr ewi ngofbeer .Ont hedayoft her i
tual r
elati
vesandnon- r
elativ
esof
thedeceasedspentt hewhol eni ghtcelebratingthel if
eoft hedeceasedt hroughson
,danceet c.Int hemor ningapr ocessioni smadet othegr aveoft hedeceased.The
sahwiraormuzukur uoft hedeceasedappr oachest hegr avet of i
ndouti fthegr av
e
hasnotbeenbur nt( i
nShonai tisknownasKupi saguv a)Ifanant hil
l i
sseenont he
gravetheni ti sful levidencet hatsomebodyf rom thedeceasedf ami lyhasdone
somet hingt hatanger edt hespi ri
tofthedeceasedandwar rantscor r
ection(inmost
casest hewi fe, husbandandchi l
drenoft hedeceasedwer edi scour agedf r
om
engagingi nsexual rel
ationshipsbef or
et hecer emonywashel d)Thei mplicationis
thatthespi ri
ti snothappyandi ftheculpritdoesn’ tpayaf i
neusual l
yanoxt he
spiri
tcannul li
fyt hewhol ecer emonyandpeopl ehav etost artall overagai n.Inthe
eventthatt hegr av ehasnotbeenbur nt, t
hespi ri
tist henwel comedhome.Beeri s
pouredont hegr av einabi dt oquencht hethirstoft hedeceased.Ast hepeopl e
retur
nf rom t hegr avet heysymbol ical
lybr i
ngbackt hespi ri
thome

Onget t
ingt othehomest eadt hoseoft henear estofkingat heri ntheki t
chenand
addresst he2spi r
itafterwhichbeeri si sgi vent opeopl etocel ebr at
et hecomi ng
homeoft hespi ri
tAbeast ,usual l
yanoxi ski ll
edbyt hedeceased’ ssons- in-l
aw.In
Shonai tisknownasny amay epf ungai dzo( meatt obeof feredt ot hespi ri
tand
usuallyiti
seat enwi thoutsalt)Itisbel i
evedt hati fsaltisusedt hespi ritmaycause
troubleinthefami l
y(Magav a1973)Thei nher i
tancecer emonyt henf ol l
owsandt he
fi
rstbornsonoft hedeceasedi sri
tuallygiv enthenameofhi sf ather.Thespi ri
tis
thent ol
dt hatheisbei ngnamedonhi sson.Tr aditi
onallythedeceased‘ sspear
swor dandknobker ri
ewer egiv entot hissont osy mbol i
zet hatthesonhasi nheri
ted
thenameofhi sf ather.Thesonaut omat i
cal l
ytakest her esponsi bil
i
tyofhi sfather’
s
family.Howev er,tr
aditi
onall
yhi smot herr emai nedf r
eet ochooseahusbandf r
om
herhusband’ sr el
ativesiebrothersandnephews.Tr adit
ionallyifshedi dn’twantany
oftheseshecoul dchoosehersont ober esponsi bl
eov erherl if
e.Howev erthetwo
woul dnothav esexual r
elati
ons.Thi spr act i
ceofkugar anhakahassi ncedi mi ni
shed
duet othei mprov ementoft hesoci o-economi cst atusofwomenandHI VandAI DS
pandemi c

NATUREOFMEDI
UMSHI
P

MEDI
UM

I
tsahostf
orspi
ri
tsofdi
ff
erentcat
egor
ies.I
tisbel
i
evedspi
ri
tsmustf
indahostor
medi um i nwhi cht oest abl i
sh' ahav enandt hr oughwhi cht or ev eal itswant sand
adv ice.Usual lythesel ect edmedi um becomesi llandonl ygr adual lyr ealiseswhat
hasbef allenhi m.Hemayonl yst arttodr eam ort hei llnessanddr eamsmaybe
simul taneous.Thenat ureoft hei l
lnessi sev ent uallyr ecogni sedbyan’ angaand
oncet hemedi um accept st hespi ri
tandagr eest ocar ryoutt her itual requi rement s,
suchast hewear ingofspeci al cl
othesoncer emoni al occa-si ons, thehost ·recov ers.
Ther eaf t
ert hespi ritent er shi m whencal ledupont odosoorwheni twant st orev eal
amessaget oot her s. .Theusual Shonat er mt odenot eamedi um i ssv ikiro.St r
ictly
speaki ng, thi swor dr ef erst ot hemedi um oft hemhondor o,'buti scommonl y
empl oy edf ort hemedi um oft hemudzi mu( fami lyspi ri
t).Amongt heVakar angat he
term mhondor oi snotusedf orat utelaryspi r i
t, buti nst eadt hewor dsv i
kiro,
althoughi tst ri
ctlyr ef er st ot he"medi um andnott hespi rititself.Ot her ssomet i
mes
uset hewor dmudzi mu( fami lyspi r
it)fort het ribal spi ri
t, whi lstamongt heVakar anga
thesv i
kirooft hemudzi mui sr eferredt oasv alele( pat ernal aunt ).Ihav enotof t
en
hear dt het er m usedi nt hi sconnexi on.AsIhav eal readyment ioned, angangai st he
per sonwhobecomesendowedwi ththegoodspi ritofheal i
nganddi v i
nat ionandt hi
s,
i
nmyey es, isamedi um.Si mi l
ar l
y,Iconsi dert hemur oy i themedi um f oranev i
lspi ri
t
whi chhashumandest ruct ionorant i
-soci alact sasi tsobj ect.Eachoft hese
medi umsmaybecomepossessedwi tht heirspi ri
tsatanymomentev ent hough
possessi onmayoccurr ar ely .Themedi um i st heser v antofi tsspi ritandmust
alway sber eadyt oser vei tspur pose.I nt hecaseoft het ri
bal medi um ( mhondor o)or
fami lymedi um ( mhondor oormudzi mumudi ki wapamusha)possessi onhasa
speci al r
easonsuchasi ncestort hemi sbehav i
ourofonememberoft hef ami l
y
towar dsanot her.I nt hi si nst ancet hespi ritof tenent erst hemedi um i nt heear l
y
hour soft hemor ning.Hei shear demi tti
ngnoi seswhi chwakenot her swhohur ryi nt
o
thehutt oseewhati shappeni ng.Thent hespi ritspeakst hroughi t shostand
expl ainst her easonf ori tsconcer n.Eachoft hemedi umshasi tsownf av our ed
met hodofi nduci ngpossessi onandt hespeedandconst ancywi thwhi chi toccur si n
thedi fferentmedi umsv ar ygr eatly.Fori nst ancei nt hemal en’angapossessi on
usual l
yoccur sassoonashest artsthr owi nghi shakat a( diviningbones) .Thusi tis
thedi viningspi ri
twhi cht urnst hehakat ai nt heai rcausi ngt hem t of allinsuchaway
ast or eveal thespi rit'smessage.Buti nt hosengangawhodi vineonl yt hrought hei r
spiritsandnotwi tht heai dofhahal a.possessi onmayt akesev eral mi nut esandhas
tobei nducedbymusi c.Depossessi onoft hemedi um usual lytakespl aceassoonas
ther ei snof urtherneedf ort hespi ri
ttobeconsul tedorf ori ttoaddr esst hepeopl e.
Thel ossoft hespi ritmaybeaccompani edbygr eatphy si cal effor tandev en
exhaust i
on.Car ehast obet akenwhensuchef for t
soccur .Itmaybenecessar yf or
someonet ost andbyandpourwat eront heconv ulsi vemuscl esoft hemedi um' ashe
becomesdepossessed( Fi g.7) .Buti nt hengangaf ori nst ance, depossessi onmaybe
i
nst an-t aneousandhar dl ynot i
ceabl e.Themor eexper iencedt hemedi um, thelessi s
hedi stur bedast he·spi ri
tl eav es.Onet ri
bal medi um whom Iobser ved, star t
edt o
wav ehi sar msl i
keabi rdi nf lightwhenev ert hespi r i
tl efthi m.I nconcl usionIwoul d
l
iket ocal lat t
ent i
ont oav erysi gnifi
cantel ementi nShonabel i
ef .Asmaybeseen
from t heaccountj ustgi v en, ther eisast rangei nter-dependenceoft hel ivingont he
spi
ri
tsandofthespir
it
sont heli
ving.Fort
hosei
nthiswor
ldli
fei
sincomplet
e,
unpr
oducti
veanddanger ouswit
houtcontactwi
tht
hespir
it
s.Spi
ri
tli
fe,
too,i
s
i
ncomplet
ewithoutcontactwit
hthel i
vi
ng.

MEDI
UM SHI
PANDPOLI
TICS

Accordi
ngtoMbiti
-rel
i
gionpermeatesal
laspectsofli
fe(
anAfr
icanisnot
ori
ously
rel
i
gious)
.AnAfr
icantakeshisrel
i
giontoParl
iament.I
ntr
adi
ti
onalsoci
ety
,rel
igi
onis
pol
iti
csandpol
i
ticsisrel
igi
on.

AfeAdogame( Nigeria):I
nAf ri
caweseet her el
igionizat i
onofpoliticsandt he
pol i
ticizationofreligion.I
nt radi
ti
onal Soci ety,r
eligiousf unct
ionaries
are“ Kingmaker s”
.Theonusi supont hesacr edpr act i
tioners(part
icul arl
y“M asv i
ki
r
o”)t omakeki ngsi ntermsofpr omot ingar eli
giousi deology.Theirsol emandat eis
toi dent if
yt heKingorChi efwithancest r
al revelations.Ancest r
alrev elati
onsare
sacr edor acles.“
Thussayt heancest ors..
.AorBshoul dinher
itpower ”.Poli
ti
cs:Artof
claimi ngandmai ntaini
ngpower ;
thecr aftofmaki ngi mpossiblepossi ble.I
ncasesof
ri
v alryf orpowert hesacr edor acl
eisconsul tedt osol vethesituati
on.I tconsulted
throughdr eamsorpossessi on( t
rance)andmakepr oclamation:forexampl e,
they
maysay -
“theancest orshav echosenXt obet hel eader .Mostpeopl earenotabl eto
conf irm ordenywhatt heoraclehassai d.

Thecoloni
al st
atealwayssoughtt oco-optthetradi
tionalrel
igi
ousandpoliti
cal
l
eaderstoitsside;i
nparti
cularchiefsbecamesal ar
iedof f
ici
alsoft
hest at
e.Some,
however,r
esisted,f
orexampl e,ChiefRekaiTangwena( conferr
edwithherostat
us).
Nati
onali
stsandt hei
rarmedwi ngs(ZANUandZANLAandZAPUandZI PRA)often
condemnedchi efsassell
-outs.ZANLAf orcesexecutedmanychi ef
sf oral
legat
ions
ofhavi
ngsol doutthestr
uggle( GunsandRai n)
.

From 1980t her ewast her ehabil

itat
ionofchi efsinZimbabweandwer eco-opted
i
ntost ructuresoft her uli
ngnat i
onalistsandt heybecameagent sfort hepreserv ati
on
ofcul t
ure,par ti
cularthrought heinstrumentoft heChi ef’
sCouncil(2000–t othet hir
d
Chimur enga)undert hel eadershipofChi efJonathanMangwende) .On2002
Presidentialelecti
onst hechi efsunambi guousl y,
arti
culatel
yandwi thv ervedecl ar
ed
Mugabeashav ingbeenchosenbyt heancest r
alrevel
ationstocontinuet obet he
presidentofZi mbabwe.I n2010Chi efsatKar ibaretr
eatunanimousl yagr eedt o
conferMugabewi thalifepresidentst atus-theyhadat radi
ti
onalunder standingof
l
eader ship.Tr adit
ionall
yachi efisnotr emov ablefrom powert i
l
ldeat h,asituation
associatedwi thPresidentRober tMugabe, hail
ed
byhissuppor tersas'Ki
ng','
Moses' or'
Messi ah'(T.Shoko).

TheLandquest
ionwaspackagedi
nrel
igi
oust
erms.Af
ri
canTradi
ti
onal
Reli
gion
resur
gedwhenlandr
efor
m wasgather
ingmoment
um.Therewasanati
onalret
reat
fr
om Chri
sti
ani
ty;t
heperiodexper
iencedtherepackagi
ngofATR.Thesur
viv
alof
ATRtolar
gerextentdependsonAfricanpol
it
ici
ans.Theyar
ewill
i
ngtore-
appropr
iat
e
ATRs.

In2003t herewast heemer genceofurbanresistancet onat

ional
ist
poli
ti
cs.
Fromt he1990st herewasamassiveshi
ftofsupportfr
omZANUPFt oopposit
ion
poli
ti
cs,MDCi nparti
cul ar
.Theruli
ngparty’
sresponsewast ocloseof fal
ltherur
al
areasas“prest i
nesacr edspace”(Mugabe, I
nsidetheThi r
dChimur enga).Hecall
ed
theMbarer esidents“totemlesspeopleboughtwi thgrainsofsugarbyBl ai
r”.Chief
s
becameappr ov edall
iesoft hestat
e//rul
ingpar t
y/government(diff
icultt
oseparate
i
nZi mbabwe) .Thiswast oensurethatopposit
ionpartieswouldnothol dthei
rral
li
es
i
nr ur
alareas.

Thr
eet
hingshappened:

1.Chief
sbegantobepaidsalar
ies(guar
diansofancest
ral
rev
elat
ions)hi
ghert
han
thoseofthewarvet
eransandotherprof
essional
s.

2.El
ect
ri
fi
cat
ionofhomes:
Thepr
ogr
ammesbeganatt
heChi
efs’
home,

3.Par
cel
l
ingout
ofVehi
cl
es:
B1800.

Stat
eaut hor
iti
espr esi
deovertheenthr
onementceremoni es(DrChombo’sMi
nist
ry)
.
ThereistheinvolvementoftheD.Ainchoosi
ngchiefs-thi
si si
ntendedt
oensur
ethat
thestatehasitsstakeintheoperat
ionsoft
hesefigures.TheChiefs
weretoendor
set heagendaof
thest
ate.

Nat
ional
Bir
as:
Rel
i
giousI
nnov
ati
on?

Bir
a-cer emony:Usual
lyforhousehold/domesti
cl ev
el.Biraconcept-heri
tagefr
om
thepast .(
Bir
a-kuyam buka; movingfrom t
hewor ldofphy si
calobjectstoa
spir
it
ual worl
d).Howev er
,September2005mar kedt hemagni fi
cati
onoft heBir
afor
thenationalagenda-
consolidat
ionofthelandreform programme( Chikowore:
Chronicle31.10.
2005“Asit
was,wewil
lalwaysbe”
.

Pur
pose?

Thanksgi
vi
ngforsuccessst
ori
esindif
fer
entspher
esofl
i
fe(2005-
2006agri
cult
ural
seasonbumperharvesti
nmostpart
sofZimbabwewasattr
ibut
edtothenat
ional
Bir
a).

Thecurrentexhumationoft
hebodiesinMashonal andCent r
al,
thatarepurpor
tedto
betheremainsoft hefal
l
enheroesoftheliberationstruggleofthelate1970sfor
decentburi
alaccordi
ngtotherel
igi
ousbeliefsoft heAf r
icans,i
sanotherareawhere
theappropri
ati
onofATRt onat
ionall
evel i
swi tnessed.Howev er,cr
iti
csofthe
progr
ammedi smissthi
sascheappoli
ticki
ng; polit
icsofthedeadbody .

Ri
tual
visi
tst
ocount
ri
est
hathar
bourt
her
emai
nsoft
hef
all
enher
oes,
forexampl
e
tosit
esinMozambiquesuchasChimoio,
Nyadzonya,Chi
bawaandtoZambi
ato
sit
essuchasFreedomCamp,Nampundwe,
Mkushi,
Mulungushi
,
Kabanga,
Kavalamanj
a,
Sinde,
Sol
weziet
c.

Pr
obl
em:

Whopr esi
desov ertheseceremoniesandwhatwor dsareutter
edandtowhi ch
ancest
orsaret
hey addressed?Dowehav easingl
eancestor
?Isi
tt
heappropr
iat
ionofATR
tothenati
onallevel?ATRandet hnicit
y-arethespir
itsofMbuy aNehandaand
Chaminukainfl
uent i
aloutsi
detheirterri
tor
iesoforigi
n?

MARRI
AGEI
NSTI
TUTI
ONS

Mar
ri
agei
sknownasmat
ri
mony
.Iti
sasoci
all
yandr
it
ual
l
yrecogni
seduni
onor
l
egal
mar
ri
agecont
ractbet
weent
woi
ndi
vi
dual
s

Ini
ti
ati
onisapr eparat
ionf ormarri
age.Marri
ageisviewedasasacr eddutywhich
everynormal personmustper for
m.Fail
uretodosomeansst oppingthefl
owofl i
fe
thr
oughthei ndividualr
esul t
inginthedi
minishi
ngofmanki ndupont heear
th.Those
whoseekt oev adet hedutycommi tamajoroff
enceagainstsocietyandpeoplewil
l
beagainstthem.Peopl ewhodon’ tgetmarri
edar eregar
dedassoci alout
castse.
g
tsvi
mborumeormbongor orithi
sisusual
lyexpl
ainedasami sfor
tuneorcausedby
evi
lspri
tse.ganechi t
sinha/Chinzvi.

Somer it
ualsar edonet ocombatt heev i
lspir
itssuspect edofst andingint hewayof
theev adermar ri
ageist hemeet ingpointforthet hr
eel ayer sofhumanl i
fein
Indi
genousr eli
gion:thesear ethedepar ted, theli
vingandunborn.The
departedar et her oot
sonwhom t heli
vingstand.Thel ivingar ethelinkbetween
deathandl i
feandt heunbor naret hebudsi ntheloinsoft heli
vi
ngandmar ri
age
ensurest heirger minati
on.Fai l
uretogetmar r
iedmeanst hatonei scutti
ngof fthe
vit
alli
nkbet weendeat handl i
fe.Throughmar riagetheef fect
sofdeat harereduced
andneut rali
zed.Mar ri
ageandchi l
dbearingaremedi cineagai nstdeat h.Iti
stheonl y
meansofhumansur vivalandthatbeingt hecase, marriagei sar el
igiousobligati
on.
Mar r
iagei satt hev er
ycent reofhumanofhumanexi stence.

Itisthecust om i nsomear easfort hewi f

eorbot hwif
eandhusbandt obesecl uded
forsev er al
day saf t
ertheiniti
alweddi ng.Thesecl usi
oni nthehouse,foll
owedby
exposur et ot hepubl icafterwards,isasy mbol i
cwayofshowi ngthatthecoupl eis
beingbor nintoanewl if
e; t
hattheyar ecomi ngoutoft hewomb( ofthehouse) .Thei
r
‘
birth’ i
ntomar riedstatusi sgreetedwi thjubilat
ion.Ritualsandcer emoni es
accompanyorf ol
lowt heoccasi onoft heweddi ng.Theai mistoprayforwel far
eof
thenewcoupl e,toblesst hem sot hattheywi l
lbearchi ldrenandtogivet hem
i
nst ructionsandr ul
esonhowt oconductt hemsel vesasmar ri
edpeopl e.Atthese
rit
ualst helivingdeadoft hef ami l
yarecal ledupont owi tnesstheoccasionandt o
givet heirblessi ngstot henewhusbandandwi fe.

≠Att
hisjunct
ure,i
tisi
mpor
tantt
oest
abl
i
shhowt
hismar
ri
ageswer
efor
medand
howtheyfuncti
oned-

-marr
iageshav
ev ari
etiesoffor
ms, r
ightandcust
omsindif
fer
entpar
tsoft
he
count
ry.Theproceduresforgett
ingmar r
iedv
arywidel
y.

NBthemar r
iageisessenti
all
yACONTRACTBETWEENTWOFAMI LI
ES.Amar r
iage
i
snotacontractbetweentwopeople(
Bourdi
ll
ion1987,
40),peopl
emar r
yint
o
f
amili
esandt husmar r
iagebecomesafamil
yaffai
randnotanaffai
roftwo
i
ndi
vidual
s

QUESTI
ON:
Whydower
egar
dmar
ri
ageasacont
ractbet
weent
wof
ami
l
ies.

-
Tezv
arai
sat
ezv
arat
othewhol
eoft
hegr
oom’
sfami
l
y.
-
peopl
eusual
l
ysaywehav
emar
ri
edsuchandsuchaf
ami
l
y

-
negoti
ati
onsf
ormar
ri
ager
equi
repar
ti
cipat
ionbyseni
orr
epr
esent
ati
vesofeach
f
amily
.

PROCEDURESTHATAREFOLLOWED

Thepr ocessofmarri
agevari
eswithstatus,
r egi
onandcul t
uralbel
ief
s.Normal
proceduresofmarri
ageareasfoll
ows; i
tallbeginswi t
hinf
ormalcourti
ngwhichcan
alsoinvolv
epri
vateengagementi.
e.theexchangeofl ovet
okens(nduma)between
theagreedparti
es.Thelovet
okensincludedt hepiecesofundercl
othingf
rom the
girl

-Thi
shaslargel
ybeenr
epl
acedbypubl
i
cagr
eementwher
eengagementr
ingswi
l
lbe
exchanged.

-Thi
swi l
lbef
oll
owedbythefor
malandpubl
icengagementi
nthi
scaset
hesui
tor
approachest
hegir
l’
sfamil
ythr
oughamessengerthati
smunyai
wit
hsomegif
ts.

-
Thebr
idepr
icei
sthennegot
iat
edandpai
dbutnoti
nful
l

-
mukushashoul
dremai
nindebt
.

-Ter
msi
ncl
udedi
nthebr
idepr
icei
ncl
uder
utsambo,
mombey
ehumai
,roor
a

-
Rut
sambowasassoci
atedwi
thsexual
right
sandwasonl
ypai
dforv
irgi
ns.

Roorawaspai
dint
hef
orm ofcat
tl
e;t
hisgav
ethehusbandr
ight
sov
erchi
l
drenbor
n
tothewoman

-
Mombey
ehumai
–cowofmot
her
hoodwascommi
tt
edt
othemat
ri
li
neal
ancest
ors

-Thebr
idepr
iceshoul
dnotbeequat
edt
oot
hert
ranscat
ionse.
gbuy
ingahomeora
car

-thewif
eisnotasuppl
yboughtaspr
oper
tyorasl
avewhomi
ghtbeboughtandsol
d
again

-
thehusband’
sfami
l
ymaynotpassheront
oat
hir
dfami
l
y

-
int
hecaseofdi
vor
ceshemustbeof
fi
cial
l
yret
urnedt
oherki
n.

OTHERTRADI
TIONALFORMSOFMARRI
AGE

1.Elopementi.
ekuti
zir
a2.childmarri
agei.ekuzvar
ir
a/ kuzvari
rwa3.
servicemar
ri
agei.
ekut emaugari
ri4.churchmarri
agei .
et hi
swas
borrowedfr
om t
heEur opeanmarri
agecust oms5.cour tmarriagesi
.e
thiswasborr
owedfrom theEuropeanmar ri
agecustoms
 *
Musengaber
e

*
Kukumbi
ra

*
Kut
emaUgar
ir
i/Ser
viceMar
ri
age

*
Kuzv
ari
ra/Chi
l
dmar
ri
age

*
Chi
mut
samapf
ihwa

*
Kubat
ir
a

EXPLAI
NTHEABOVETYPESOFMARRI
AGE

NB-Thi
sinsti
tut
ionhaslar
gelybeenaffectedbyt heWester
ncultur
eandt he
conver
sionofAfri
canpeopleint
oWest ernreli
gionsl
ikeChri
sti
anit
y-How?Lesbi
ans
andGaysandal sodedi
catedbrother
sandsi stersi
nthecaseofCat hol
i
cs
DI
VORCE

Accor
dingt
oMbi
ti(
1965)Di
vor
cei
sadel
i
cat
eacci
denti
nmar
it
alr
elat
ionshi
p

Marr
iageasdiscussedear
li
erinv
olv
esmanypeopl
e,i
tisacommuni
tyact
ivi
tyand
notj
ustanyacti
vit
yofthehusbandandt
hewif
e.

Thusi
tisext
remel
uydi
ff
icul
ttodi
ssol
vei
t

I
fdi
ssol
uti
ondoescomeabout,
theni
tcr
eat
esagr
eat
ersoari
nthecommuni
ty

CAUSESOFDI
VORCEI
NZI
MBABWEI
NDI
GENOUSCOMMUNI
TIES

 I
nfer
ti
li
tyorBar
rennessespeci
all
yont
hepar
toft
hewi
fe

Thisi
sthegreat
estcauseofdi
vor
cesi
ncet
hei
nabi
l
ityt
obearchi
l
drenbl
ocks
thest
ream ofl
if
e

Ifthemani sster
il
eorimpot
ent,
hisbr
othercanperf
ormt
hesexual
dut
ies
andf ert
il
izethewifeonhi
sbehal
fandt
hussav i
ngthemar
ri
agefr
om
breakingdown.

I
nsomecasesifthewifeisbar
rent
hemantakestheyoungersi
steroft
he
bar
renwi
feoranotherwif
eorkeepthef
ir
stonethussavi
ngthefi
rstmarri
age

 I
ncaseswher
ethehusbandabusest
hewi
fecont
inuousl
yandi
spr
ovi
ngt
o
becr
uel

Aftesever
alappeal
stotheauntorrel
ati
ves,t
hewif
emayr eachsuchapoi
nt
whereshedecidestoendthemarri
ageforherownpeace,
saf et
yand
securi
ty

 Marr
iagesal
sobreakdownduet
osuspi
ciousofmagi
corwi
tchcr
aftont
he
par
tofthecoupl
e

Onceoneofthepar
tner
ssuspectst
heot
herofwi
tchcr
aft
,itbecomesdi
ff
icul
t
fort
hemarr
iagetobesust
ained

 Cont
inuedunf
ait
hful
nessf
rom oneoft
hepar
tner
sorf
rom ei
therpar
tneri
s
 al
soacauseofdi
vor
ce

Zi
mbabweIndi
genoussociet
iesv
aluethepr
act
iceofmenhav
ingmor
ethan
onewif
eandt
heyareexpectedtobefai
thf
ultot
hem

Howev
erawi
fewhoi
smar
ri
edt
oapol
ygami
sthast
oremai
nfai
thf
ult
othe
man

Suspi
ci
onofunf
ait
hful
nessmayl
eadt
odi
vor
ce

DI
VORCEPROCEDURE

Oncethecl
oserel
ati
veshavef
ail
edtoaddr
esstheindi
catorsofdi
vor
ceand
dependi
ngonthegravi
ty,
somet
imesthevi
ll
ageheadisinvolv
ed

I
nthi
scasei
tbecomesacust
omarylegalmat
terandt
hev
il
lageheadmay
managet
oreconci
l
ethewar
ri
ngpart
ies.

I
fthev
il
lageheaddoesnotmanaget
oresol
vet
hei
ssuei
tgr
aduat
est
otheChi
ef

TheChiefi
susuall
ythel
astsol
uti
oni
nthedi
vor
cepr
ocedur
eandhei
stheone
whograntdi
vorce.

Thepart
ywishingtodi
vorcewill
presenthi
s/herev
idenceshowi
ngt
hatt
he
marr
iagehasreachedi
rretr
iev
ablelev
els

Oncethi
sisdonether
eisadi
vor
cet
okenknownas‘
gupur
o’whi
chi
sgi
vent
othe
par
tnerbei
ngdiv
orced
STATUSOFWOMENI
NIR

I
Rhav
einf
luencedt
heshapeo

WOMENPARTI
CIPARTI
ONI
NPOLI
TICS

FAMI
LYRELATI
ONSANDETHI
CALCONDUCT

Aunt
/Tete

Shei
sconcer
nedwi
tht
hegi
rl
satpuber
ty.Theyconsul
t

tetet obeinductedintoadul
thood(menstr
ual per
iod).Atmarri
agethegirl
i
ntroducesherpartnert
oteteandndum ai sexchanged.Sekurudoesthesame
rol
eforboys:teachingofski
ll
sabouthunti
ng,farmingandalsoinmar ri
ageissues.
Atpubertyt
heboy skeepinclosetouchwit
ht heuncles.

Sahwi
ra/
Fami
l
yfr
iend

Par
ti
cipat
eatf
amil
yev
ents,
forexample,
celebrat
ionsareconductedi
nthepr
esence
oft
heSahwi ra.
Thel
astbathandthedressi
ngpar tofi
tisdonebytheSahwira
(kunem era/kutukira) .Kurovaguvacer emonyi sdonewit
htheai
dofthe
Sahwi ra.

El
der
/Mbuy
a/Sekur
u(VasharukwaVem um usha)

Thesear
ecust
odi
ansoft
radi
ti
onsandt
heyar
econsul
tant
s.
Babaavai pwerechai yo-theper
sonwi
l
lbel
acki
nggr
eatdeal
of
r
esponsi
bil
i
tythatshoul
dgowit
hmat ur
it
y.

Muzukur
u(m wanawatete/m wanawehanzvadzi
)

Presidesov ert
herit
ualsathi
ssekuru.
,forexample,bi
rt
h, marri
ageanddeathrit
ual
s
-Kugovanhaka( compet
ingwit
htheSahwi r
awher ethelaterof
fi
ceare
recognized).Takesoversekuru’ s“tsv i
m bo” .Maturepeopleshouldhave
knobker r
iesandzv i
yo(dororasekuru)becauset heyareexpectedto
becomeam udzi m u.

RESPECTFORELDERS

InIR, t
herei stheconceptofr espectf orelders.Ther earevaluesandmor al
swhi ch
needt obef oll
owed.Thesev al
uesandmor alsdeal withtheideast hatuphol dtheli
fe
ofpeopl ei ntheirrel
ationshi pwi thoneanot herandt hewor l
dar oundt hem.They
cov ertopicsliketruth,justice,love,r
ightandwr ong, goodandev i
l,beauty,decency,
respectf orpeopl eandpr oper t
y ,
thekeepingofpr omi sesandagr eement s,praise
andbl ame, cr
imeandpuni shment ,
ther i
ghtsandr esponsibi
liti
esoft heindivi
dual
andt heircommuni t
y,char acter,int
egrit
yet c.Theyhel ppeopl etoli
v ewi t
hone
anot hertoset tl
etheirdi f
fer encestomai ntainpeaceandhar mony ,tohav ea
relati
onshipwi t
htheirenv ironment .Therear edi
fferencesint hevaluesandmor al
s
followedbydi ff
erentpeopl einAf ri
ca,butmanyoft hem aresimi l
ar.Theychangeas
thel i
vingcondi ti
onsofpeopl echange, butt heyalway sremainanecessi tyinhuman
l
ife.

COMMUNI
TYANDSOCI
ALRESPONSI
BILI
TY

LANDI
NINDI
GENOUSRELI
GION

TheShonashar ewi t
hmostAf r
icanst hebel i
efinlandassacr ed.Itisancest ralland.
Landi ssacredbecausei tbearst heremai nsoft heancest or
spar ti
cularlyinthef orm
ofgrav esoft hechief
s.Shonar eli
-gioni sbasedont hegrave.Inthecent r
alritualsof
kumut sami dzimu( ri
tual
si nhonourofancest or
s)t hepointofent r
yist hegrav e.In
otherritual
slibati
onsar epour edont heground.I nthelandisal soburiedt he
umbilicalcordofpeopl e.Itistheabodeoft hedead.Whencount i
ngmember soft he
familytheShonaal waysincludev ar
ipasi(thosewhoi nunderwor l
d).Asr esultlandi s
personifiedinsay ingssuchaspasi rat-samwa, pasipanodya(thel andi sangry ,t
he
l
andcanki l
l).Aswehav enot edabov eancest r
al spi
ri
tsandchi efsownt heland.At
hi
sinst
all
ati
onthechiefhol
dsinacl
enchedfistsoi
lmi
xedwi
tht
hebodyflui
dsoft
he
l
atechi
ef/j
ustsoi
lfr
om hisgrav
e.

Primar i
lyitist hechiefdom thatst andsinspeci alrelati
onst ot heland.I
tistheland
bequeat hedt ochiefbyt heancest ors.Landbel ongst othelivi
ng, t
heunbor nandt he
dead.Thechi efactsast hetr
ustee.Heal locatesl andt opeopl e.Thelanddoesnot
haveamar ket ablevalue.Landright sarevestedi ncooper -at i
vegr oupsthathave
overr
idingr ightoverthoseofi ndividual
s.Soi tcannotbesol dort r
ansferr
edt o
another.Thechi efal
soensur est hatpeopl efoll
owcer tai
nt aboos.Forexampl ethere
i
sat aboot hatf or
-bidscommoner stoeatt hefleshofanant bearbecausei t
burr
owst hel and.Butt heantbeari sadelicacyoft hechief.Anot herexampleisthat
thechief’shousehol dr eserv
est hefleshoft hesi deofanel ephantonwhi chitli
es
wheni tdropsdeadf orconsumpt ion.

Furthert hechi efal soaut hor i

zest hroughr itualthegat heringofwi l
df ruit
sinf or ests
regar dedassacr ed.Heal so, asweshal l seei nthedi scussi onbelowpr ohibi
tst he
cuttingofcer t
ai nt reesandt hehunt ingofcer t
ainani mal sandt hepol luti
onofcer tai
n
wat erbodi es.45Weneedhowev ertonot eatt heout sett hateachShona
group/ chiefdom hasi tsownr estrict
ionsandt aboost owar dspar t
icularanimal s,
treesorwat erbodi esaccor d-ingt oitsrel i
giousbel i
efsy stem andv aluesrelat edt o
i
tshi st or i
caldev elopment .Wecandr awaf undament al att
itudet olandf rom t he
abov e.Land( ny i
ka)wi thitsnat uralr
esour cesi sownedbyt heancest ralguardi ansof
thel and( vari
dzi v eny i
ka).At t
itudesar est rongwhenat tachedt oances-t ral
owner shi pofl andandt hebel iefinsacr ednessoft helandser vesasacommon
histor yt hatuni teal l generationsoft hesameShonasub-gr oup.TheShonabel ieve
thati fonedoesnotr elatet osacr edaspect sofnat ureaccor di
ngt opr escri
bed
taboosandr est r
ict ionst heancest or
swoul dbeangr y( kutsamwa)andasr esul t
somemi sfortune, suchasdr oughtandepi demi cs, mightbef al
lthecommuni ty .So
thef undament al at titudetol andi sar eli
gi ousoneandi sbasedonf earofmy st i
cal
sanct ionbyt heancest ors.Thi sunder li
esal latt
itudest oot heraspect sofnat ur eli
ke
animal s.Wecanal soseet hatt hereisadi scr i
minat i
veat ti
tude.Thel andout sidea
particul archief dom maynotbesacr edf orpeopl eofanot herchi efdom.Thechi ef’
s
fami lymaypr otectev ensomeani malsofr eli
-gioussi gnificancef orconsumpt ion
only.Sot hechi efandhi sf ami l
ymayhav eapr ivil
egedaccesst onat uralresour ces.

REVERENCEFORNATUREANDKI
NSHI
PWI
THNATURE

TRADI
TIONALSHONACOSMOLOGY

Thefoll
owingquesti
onsareraised:I
sthereaShonareligi
ousbasisforconser
v at
ion?
Whatdoest heShonarel
igi
onof fert
hesearchforenv
ironmentalprot
ecti
on?Isa
di
aloguepossibl
ebetweentradit
ionalr
eli
giousl
eader
sandmoder nconservat
ionist
s?
Domodernparadigmsforconser
vat
ionandShonar
eli
gionconf
li
ct,
compl
ementor
cr
it
ici
seoneanother?

Therearemai nl
ythreeaspect
stoconsider:i.TheTranscendent-Consi
stsofMwari
,
AncestralSpi
rit
s,andtheAli
enSpi
ri
ts,ii.Humanity-
embr acesthosewhoar eal
iv
e,
thoseabouttobebor nandthedead,ii
i.Nature-
biol
ogical,t
hatis,t
heanimaland
plantli
feandthephenomenaandobj ect swi
thoutbiologicall
i
fe,t
hati
s,sacr
ed
places,
stonesetc.

ManyShonaacknowl edgethei
nfluenceoftheancestralspir
it
s.Asaresultt
herei
sa
cent
ralbeli
efthatancestr
alspi
ri
tsar etheownersofthecosmos.Wear enotsure
whethertheybeli
evethattheancestral
Spiri
tsarethecreatorsoft
hecosmos
(nat
uralenvi
ronment).TheShonabelievethatal
lthi
ngsar etheworkofgreat

ancest r
al spir
it
s.Theancest r
al spir
it
sar eregar dedt obei nal lthingsi .
eintrees,
stones,gr ass,ri
vers,mount ains,animals( f
ourl egged)andi nt hewi ngedcommuni t
y
(bir
ds).Itisbel i
evedt hatancest r
alspiri
tsar eabov eev erything.
Everythingisexperiencedasafami l
y.Wear epartofthecosmosandt hecosmosi spar tof
us.Thel andonel i
v esisrespectedandknown.TheShonadonotbel i
evethatthe
naturalenv ir
onmenti st obeusedanddomi nated.Theyhav ebeent aughttbe
caretakersoft heirenv i
ronment .Theyar edistressedbyt hedest r
uct ionofthenat ur
al
environment .Inanimat eobjectsareper sonifi
edasl i
vingt hingsbyi ndigenouspeople.
Beforeonecansuccessf ul
lycli
mbamount ain,
onemust askf orper mi ssi
on( Nyanga
Mount ains).Allcreaturesareper ceivedaski n.Theassumpt i
oni sthatt heyare
endowedwi t
hconsci ousnessandt hepower soft heancest ralspiri
t s.Someani mals
conveycer t
ainmessages, forexampl e,snakes, hyena,bir
ds,owl areassoci at
edwi th
somemy stery(mashur a).

Traditional peopleareconsci ousoft hei nterdependenceofal lthi

ngs; t
hatallthings
dependoneach.Theyt hereforehavear eciprocalratherthanadomi nati
ngwi thall
beings.Tr ees, animals,insectsetcar eal l
tobeappr oachedwi thcaut i
onand
consider ation.Ifonemustcutdownat reeorki l
lanani mal theymustf i
rstexplain
theirintentions.Therei sneedt obeaj ustif
icati
onandaskf orforgivenessf r
om t he
ancest ralspiri
ts.TheShonar el
ati
onshi pwi ththeenv ir
onmenti sacar etaker
rel
at i
onshi p.Incertainplacesandbei ngst hepowerofancest ralspiri
tsisbelievedto
behi ghlyconcent r
ated.Asar esult
,therear esacr edsitesrecogni sedbyt hepower
thatbel i
everf eelthere.Certainareasar ekepti ntactbecauset heyarer egardedas
sacred; t
heyr emai nvirgi
n.

Whent heShonaareforcedoffthei
rancestr
all
andstheyfeelt
helossofaccessto
thei
rsacredpowersi
tesasagr eattragedy
.Speci
alstoneandani
mal ar
tefact
smay
alsocarr
ypower,f
orexample,
leopardorpythonski
n.Theseareusual
lyputonbyn’a
ngasandchi ef
s.Notevery
bodygoesoutt olookforaleopar
dorsnake;ther
eisa
l
imitedcommuni t
ywhichhasaccesst otheseani
mals.

Fort
heShonat
her
eisneedf
orr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
orbot
hthei
ndi
vi
dual
andt
he
communi t
y.Landandnat uralresourcesar econsideredacommunal propert
y
bel
ongingt ot hel
ivi
ngandt hedead.Chi efs,sub-chiefsandspiritmediumsov er
see
mattersrelatedtolandandnat uralresour ces’pr
operuse.I tismor al
l
ywr ongt ocut
downt reesinsacredplaces.Itisalsofor biddent ogatherfrui
tsingravesites.
Reverencet owardsnatur
eandnat uralplacesi sar eli
giousatti
tudeandpr acti
ce.
Taboosar edev el
opedaroundt hedest ruct i
onoft rees.Theyarealsodev eloped

aroundcertai
nshr ubs,sacredplaces,forests,ri
versandwells(metalobjectsar
enot
all
owedatsomewel ls)
.Somet aboosar edev elopedaroundparti
cularanimals,f
or
example,anowl isabadomen.Ther eisalsot heideaoftotems.Mostani malsare
preservedbecauset heyaretot
emi cani mals.Religi
oustaboosandr est
ricti
ontake
theplaceofafforestati
oncampai gnsunder takenbyt hegovernmentofZi mbabwein
partner
shipwithnon- gover
nment alorganizati
ons.

Animal specieswerepr eser vedf orgener at

ionsasar esultofthesystemsof
rel
igi
ousv aluesandbel iefs.Shonar eli
giousbel i
ef sseem t oteachstewar dshipand
responsibi
li
tytowar dsnat uralresour ces.Howev er,Shonasoci eti
esareunder going
greatchangesduet ot hei mpactoft hewest er
nv aluesy st
emspar ti
cularl
yt he
westerneconomi csyst em.Themoneyeconomyhasal t
eredsocialrelat
ionsamong
theShona.I thasalsoaf fectedt heShonapeopl e’sattit
udet onatureandnat ural
resources.Naturalresour cesar enowseenasobj ectsf orexploi
tati
onandpr ofit
making.Economi cactiv i
tieswhi chseem t othreat enShonaeconomyar edonei nthe
nameofdev elopment .Thei ntr
oduct ionofst atecont rol overnat
uralresourceshas
destroyedindigenousbel iefsystem.

TheRomant i
cschool tendt ocel ebratet heShonar eli
giousbel i
ef sandv aluesasa
rall
y ingpoi ntf orenv i
r onment al ethic.Ther eisneedf orcaut ionsi ncet heat t
itudesof
traditional reli
giont onat urei sambi valent .Forexampl e, ev erythingconnect edt o
totemi sm ispuzzl ing.Ext remeopposi t
escoi nci de:goodandev i
l,accept edand
forbiddenpr acti
ces.Someani mal speci escanbepr eser vedf orgener ati
onsasa
resul toft otemi sm whi l
eot herswi l
lnot .Thesi tuati
oni swor sefort hosespeci esthat
seem t of alloutsidet heShonasy stem ofr el
igiousv aluesandbel ief
s.Thi samount s
todi scr i
mi nativeat t
itudet onat ure.At t
itudest oapar ticularaspectmayl eadt oa
privilegedaccesst onat ural resour ces.Forexampl e,therei sat aboot hatf orbids
commoner stoeatt hef leshofanant bearbecausei tbur rowst hel and.Butt he
antbeari sadel i
cacyf ort hechi ef .Thechi ef’
sf ami l
ymaypr otectev ensomeani mal s
ofr eligioussi gnifi
cancef orconsumpt i
ononl y.Sot hechi efandhi sf amilymayhav e
apr iv i
legedaccesst onat ur alresour ces.Wor sest i
ll
,totemi cani malsbyv ir
tueof
taboosat tachedt ot hei rpar tsar eopent okil
ling.TheShonaki l
l t
hem f orspeci al
ri
tual sorf orusingt hei rski nsf orcer emoni aldr essforchi efsorwhendi viners
perf ormr itualsf orpubl i
ci nterest .Regar dingt hel and, t
hel andout si
deapar ticul
ar
chief dom maynotbesacr edt opeopl eofanot herkingdom sameappl i
est owat er
bodi es.Thi smeanst hatt reesandwat erbodi esar epronet ofalli
ngv icti
mt o
expl oitati
onbypeopl ewhodonotat tachanysacr ali
tyont heset hings.
Thereisadi fferentunderstandi
ngofnatureint ermsofitssacr edness.Some
aspectsaredisregardedandtreat
edwit
htheleastf
ear /
careandreverencebecausethey
arenothierophani cinanysense.Thoset r
eat edashi er
ophaniesorasendsi n
themselvessuf fertheleast.Thi
smeanst hatShonaat t
it
udest onat ur
eare
ambivalent.Extremeat ti
tudescoinci
de:ecologicall
yresponsibleandecological
ly
harmful.

SACREDPHENOMENAI
NTHENATURALENVI
RONMENT

Sacr
edPl
acesandObj
ect
sinAf
ri
canTr
adi
ti
onal
Rel
i
gion(
s)

Sacr edplacesareplacessetasidet hatar

eeitherinthehumanwor l
dorbey ondt
he
reachoft hishumanwor l
d.Theyar edwel l
i
ngplacesofancestors:
Ny akadzimuor
Malindidzimu.Theyareli
kethatbecauset heyofferresi
dencetospir
itsthatar
ehol
y.
Anysacr edplaceisasholyplace.Theconceptsacr edisderi
vedfrom theLati
n
conceptsacermeani ngholy.Thereforesacredplacesarehol
yplace.

(
Ancest
orsar
ebeli
evedtoint
eractwit
hhumanbeingsusingsomespecifi
cplacesin
i
ndi
vi
dualhomes,
perenni
alpools,
stonesandbi
gtreesasthei
rresi
dent
ialar
eas.)

Howev er,t
her ear emanypl acesthatar er egardedasmor esacredt hanothers.For
exampl e,hill
s,mount ains(egBuchwaMt s,NyangaMt s,MatoposMt s,
MtSel i
ndai n
Chipinge).Somepeopl ewhoar eregar dedaspower ful suchast radi
t i
onalhealers
andchi efscanbebur i
edinsuchmount ains.Thesepl acesar esur r
oundedbyt aboos.
Forexampl e,thecut t
ingdownoft reesispr ohibi
ted.Somepl acesl i
keMat oposand
Mat onjenihavebecomecent resofpi l
grimage.Somewel l
sandpool sareregarded
assacr edandt hesear eperennialandmostoft hem ar eassociatedwi thmermai ds.
Exampl esofsacr edpoolsandwel l
si ncludeManapool s,Chinhoyipool (Chirorod
ziva) ,
andHot spri
ngsinNy anyadzi.

Waterthatisfoundinsuchpl acesi
sassociatedascur ati
ve.Somecodeofconduct
i
sgiventosuchpl aces.Forexample,peoplearenotsupposedt owearbl
ackand
l
ewid/vulgarareprohibit
ed.Someobj ect
sliketrees,pl
antsandstonesarealso
r
egardedassacr ed.Forexampl etr
eessuchasM ut i
usinazitawhichprovides
f
oodint i
mesofneed, theMuhachat r
eeunderwhi chpeopleri
tual
sareverysacred.
Dom boram war iinEpwor thi
salsoasacr edfeature.

Naturalthingshavereli
gioussignif
icance.Gr avesandgr avey ardsarealsoregarded
sacred.Peopl ecanconsultancestralspiri
tsint hegravey ard.Thegr aveisthe
meet i
ngpoi ntbetweentheliv
ingandt hedead.Forexampl e,theum buy i
so/
Kurovaguv aceremonymakest hegrav ecentral
inthewhol eprocess.Somef or
estsare
al
sor egar dedassacred.Theycanbeusedi nr ainmakingcer emoni es.Amongt he
Lel
et hefor esthasi
mmensesacr edsi gnif
icance.Itprov i
desf ood,andisthesource
ofmedi cine.InmostAfricansocieti
est heyhar bourthebur ial pl
acesforchiefs.
Thetradi
ti
onalkit
chen,t
hehutconstit
utesasacr
edplace.TheChi kuvaconst i
tut
es
themostsacredpartinthekit
chen.I
tsrai
sedposi
ti
onsy mbol
izesthedignit
yof
ancestr
alspi
ri
ts.I
tistheplacewheredial
oguewit
htheancestral
spir
it
st akespl
ace.

DETAI
LEDEXPLANATI
ON

ChotoasaSacr edPl ace

Itisst r
onglybel i
evedt hatev er
yhome’ sf i
repl
acel ocatedi nt heki t
cheni sa
sacredplace.Thesacr edpr acti
ti
onerwhocansuccessf ull
yandef fecti
veuset he
fir
eplaceisthewi feormot herwhoownst hekitchen.Unf ort
unat ely
,thewi feor
mot herwhoownst hekitchenmanyt imesuseschot oformal evol entpurposes.I f
awi f
eormot herdi r
ectsherbr eastont hef i
repl
aceandut terani nv ocati
on
againsthersonordaught erthenthev erysonordaught ermayf acechal lengesin
one’slif
e.Ift
hei nvocati
oni ssaidbyt hesamusha:husbandorf atherofaf amil
y
thenbenev olencepr evail
sont hesonordaught erto who t hei nvocationis
direct
ed.Int ermsoft raditi
onalbel i
ef,iti
si mpossi bl
ef oraf at hertouset he
fir
eplacetocausehar m orcur seonhi sownchi ldr
en.Thef i
replacecanonl ybe
rit
uall
yabusedbyt hefathert ocallhischildrenbackhome.Oneexampl ei sa
casewher eaf at
hermayhav eani l
legalchil
dt hathewant st ocomehome.He
woul d di
recthi serectr eproducti
veor gan on t hef i
replaceand sayoutt he
invocati
on.Thechi l
dwoul dcomehomeonhi s/herown.

Makuv
aasSacr
edPl
aces

I
fsacr edplacesar eplacessetasi deashol ypl acesort heabodesoft heUlti
mat e
thengr aveyardsar esacr edpl acesi nShonacul turalbeli
efs.Inruralsoci
et i
es
graveyardsareconsi deredher oes’ acr
es.Theyar eeitherfami l
ybasedgraveyards
orv i
ll
agebasedgr aveyards.Theyar esacr edpl acesbecauset heyar eanaxi s
mundiwher ef amil
y /
v i
ll
ager esideandi nteractwi tht heguar di
ansoft heland.
Theyar ealsosacr edbecausesuchgr avesar et hespeci all
ydesignat
edplaces
wher eadagev il
l
ageorf amilypr ogenitorslivei nspi ritf
or m.Thisisthepl ace
wher eanumberofpubl i
corni chodimusr itualsar eenact edtoappeaseorsay
i
nv ocati
onst othespi r
itworld

Themostr ever
edgr aveyardsarethosewher echiefsar ebur iedcalledninga.
These ar e usual
lyl ocated in mountain caves.Chi efdom r it
uals are usuall
y
enactedinsuchpl aces.Raininduci
ngrit
uals:mi kwereraarealsoenact edatsuch
places.Masv iki
roandmhondor ousuallyfrequentt hesepl aceswhenev erthey
vi
sitchiefdom toappeaset hechief
’sspir
it
sandseekgui danceanddi recti
onson
whatt heywantt odoi ntheseareas.Thechief’smeet i
ngpl aceorcour ts:zumwe
arealsoconsi deredsacr edplacesthatarepr esidedov erbyt hedumbukuny uka
especiall
yamongt heMany okapeople.
 Extensi
ver esear
ch has been under t
aken to describe t he sacredness and
si
gnifi
canceofMat onjenit
ot heShona/Ndebelepeople.I.M.Daneelwr oteabook
‘
TheGodoft heMat opos’wher ehehi ghli
ghtedthef actt hatMatonj enii
st he
nervecenterofMwar icult
.Thef emalevoiceinthecavei ssai dtheguidingvoice
i
nZi mbabweansoci o-pol
it
icalandeconomi caffai
rs.Thisv oicehasthepowert o
exerci
sethepowert oheadphy si
caldeformit
iesandt oi nducer ai
nt hroughout
Zimbabwe.

Opposedtot hegeneralvi
ewt hatDaneelt akesupi nhisanalysisof‘mukwerere’
wherehetransl
atestheconceptt or
ainmaki ng,therei
saschol arl
ydiscont
enton
theuseofthisconcept.Rather,ther
eisschol arl
yconsensust hatfavourstheuse
oftheconceptrai
ninducing.Ear l
yanthropologistsusedt heterm“ rai
nmaking”as
aployt ocondemnt heAf ricanpeopl ef orbel i
evingthatancest orsmaker ain.
Theref
oreitispropertosubst it
utethet erm“ r
ainmaking”witht heconcept“rai
n
i
nducing”

Mhandar
a(Musi
kav
anhuar
eai
nChi
pinge)

Thisisasacr edpl acef orthepeopleofMusi kav anhuandChi warapeople–

Vaduma.I tisapl acewher eav i
rgi
ndaught erwasgi ventoaMudumaChi ef
consolidatether el
ationwi t
hintheDumaConf eder ati
onashi ghl
i
ghtedbyMt et
wa,
A.Chi gweder e’sexpl or
ativewor konearlyset t
lement sinZimbabweandt he
part
it
ioningofZi mbabweal ongtot
emicli
nesal sot akesupt hei
ssue.I
tisargued
i
nt r
eat i
se that t he Mhandar a hi
ll
s became sacr ed mountai
ns aft
er the
afor
ement ionedMusi kavanhuandt heDumaChi efev ent.

Dzi
mbabwe

Therei scont r
oversyast owhot hecust odiansoft hiswor l
dwonderwer e.A
Chigweder esay st heDzi vapeopl econst ructed it.K Muf ukaar guesf ort he
Hungwepeopl e.AndDNAbr aham ar guesf ortheShokopeopl e.Whathascome
upofl ateisthatitisaquest ionofone’ shistoricalar gumentt hatonei sobl i
ged
totakeonet heoryatt heexpenseoft heot her.Thesy mboloft hebi r
disar guedt o
representt heweal t
hoft heDzi mbabweki ngdom.Thi sismadet ot r
anslatei ntoa
symbol torepresenttheHungwepeopl east hear chit
ectsoft hismonument .ButI.
M.DaneelandMt etwaar guet hatt hecent r
ewasusedast hecent r
ef orr ai
n
i
nduci ng.Thi sisalsosuppor tedi ndifferentt extswr it
tenbyAChi gwedereandD
N Beach.I tisr easonabl ether eforet opost ulatet heNemanwapeopl eoft he
Shokodescendant sast hedev elopersoft hismonument .Butt heissueofweal t
h
andt radet hatcharacteri
zethef oundat ionanddev elopmentoft hi
smonumentas
arguedbyKMuf ukacanoutr ightlymaket heDzi vapeoplet hear chit
ectsoft he
monument .Thiswast hecapi talcityoft heDzi mbabweki ngdom.I tser v
edasa
met ropolit
anci t
ypr ov i
dingpol iti
cal,economi cmi l
i
taryandr eli
giousaswel las
social functi
onst othekingdom.
 Poli
tical
l
y,decisi
onswer epr omulgatedandenfor cedinthiscapit
al.Economicall
y,
theMusl i
msandPor tugueset r
adershadt ov isitthi
spl acetodobar tertr
ade
betweenclothesandi v ory,gunsandgol d,bull
etsandsal t.Rel
igiousl
y,thispl
ace
servedasasubr ainmaki ngcent retoMalindi
dzi mu.Itissaidthatitwasi nthe
greateracropoli
st hatr ai
ni nducingrit
ualsaswel lasst atebasedr i
tualswere
enacted.Social
lythisplacewast he

homelandoftheroyalfami
l
yapl acewherether
uli
ngli
neagewast opresi
dein
cont
rasttootherli
neagesthatweresupposedt
ol i
veont heper
ipher
yoft he
cosmopoli
tanci
ty.

ZambeziRi
ver

A numberofmy t
hsandl egendsar esai daboutt hisperenni alriver.Itisar iver
belongi ngt ot heBaTongapeopl e.Thisi sther easonwhyt heBaTongapeopl ear e
calledt her iverpeopl e.Int hi
sr i
verresidest hegodoft heTongapeopl ecal l
ed
Ny ami nyami .Iti sal egendarysnake.Ny aminyamii ncarnatesi nt wof orms.I none
wayt hesnakeappear si nthesubst anceofasnakeandt hef ormsar emal eand
femal eNy ami ny ami.Itsmy steri
ouswor kr esult
edi nt hedeat hsofanumberof
mi grantwor ker s,someofwhohav enamesi nKar ibaCat hedral
.Ar gument sar e
therefor e made especi all
ywi thi
nt he t r
aditi
onalci rcl
es wher e earthquakes and
tremor st hatusual l
yv i
brateintheZambeziescar pmentar esai dtot hefightoft he
mal eNy aminyamiagai nsttheDam wal l,soast obeuni t
edtohi swife..Thereforethe
Zambeziescar pmentser vedasaneconomi cpur poset houghasacr edpl acef orit
prov i
dedf i
sht ot heBaTongapeopl e.Religi
ously,theBaTongauset heMusi atuny a
fall
sf orr i
tualcleansingorsomeot herpar ti
cularri
tual.(washi ngawaymi sfortunes)

TheZambeziRi verwasal sosaidtopr ovi

desomepower f
ulmedici nesfrom its
under
groundwor l
d.Andthesemedicineswereknownt hroughoutGuruuswal eading
someShonapeopl etosayi
ng“ndokuenderakumaroro”meani ngIwil
lgetmedi cines
fr
om the Baroro peopl
e meaning the BaTonga people.The medi cines ar
e so
powerf
ulthateventheli
onsareafr
aidofhumanbei ngs.AndifaTongaget sint
ot he
ri
vert
ocatchfish,al
lcr
ocodil
esrunawayf r
om thef
ishmonger .

Funct
ionsofSacr
edPl
aces

Sacredpl
acespl ayav i
talrol
einthelif
eandhi storyoft heindigenes.Thesepl aces
playacent
ralroleinthesocio-
poli
ti
calandr eli
giousl i
vesofthei ndi
genes.Theyal so
playacentralroleinnaturalconserv
at i
on,culturalpreserv
at i
onandper petuati
on.
Theyarer espected pl
acest hatprovidet ranquil
ityand unityofpur poset ot he
communiti
est hatreverethem.Thef unctionsi ncludebutar enotexcl usiv
eoft he
foll
owi
ng:

Ther
eli
giousf
unct
ionsofsacr
edpl
aces:
Suchpl acesar eusedasr ai
ni nducingcenterswher eraininduci ngspecialist
s:jukwa
usual l
yr esi de.Sacr ed practiti
oners occasion these pl aces t o geti nspiration,
encour ageandpr ofessionalrenewalf rom t
hesepl aces.Ritual st hatusuall
yembr ace
ther egionoft hepl ace’slocationar eperfor
medwi thintheconf inesofsacredpl aces.
Theyar epi lgrim cent er
swher et helocalcommuni t
yf requentt ogetspiri
tandhuman
i
nspi rati
on.Theyar ebur i
alplaces:ni ngafort hemostat onedmedi calandspi rit
ual
pract i
ti
oner s.Ofol d,thesepl acesusedt obeusedashi dingpl acesf ortreating
forcesi nt hef aceofanadv anci ngenemyf orce.Thoset hatwer ekil
ledi nt hese
placeswer ehonor ifiedasher oesoft hestrugglet herei
nt urningt heplacei ntoa
Her oes’acr e.Piacul arrit
esforl andpr eserv
at i
onwer eenact edi nsuchpl aces.Any
talkaboutt hecommuni t
y’
suni onwi ththespi ri
twor ldachi evedi t
sapexwhen
activit
iesr elatedt oant ecessor i
alvenerati
onwer edonei nthesepl aces.

Thesoci
alf
unct
ionsofsacr
edpl
aces

Suchpl aceswer edesi gnatedforcel ebrit

iesinthecommuni t
y.Theat onementof
Chiefs,Kr aalheads and ot heropi nion leadersi nt he community was usual ly
punctuatedbycel ebrationsper formedi nt hesacredpl acesasawayofdedi cati
ng
the elected tot he spi ri
twor ld.Cel ebrati
ons such as r equestsforr ainf r
om
antecessor s:mikwer ere,thanksgivingr it
uals:matatendaandt heChiefs’coronati
ons
weredoneorf i
nal i
zedi nt hesacredpl aces.Thedeci si
onmaki ngassembl y:zumwe
formostChi efswasl ocatedinsacr edpl aces.Thi
sway ,theel
ectedmember softhe
Chief’
sr uli
ngcl assusedsacr edpl acesasameet ingplacet oadjudi
cateov ersocio-
poli
ti
cal issuesandr eligiousconsider ationsrelat
edt otheircommuniti
es.

Thepol it
icalfuncti
onsofsacredpl aces:Sincesacr edplacesaret heburialpl
acef or
the forbearers ofthe l
and,i nspirati
on related t
ol and revol
utions and spiri
tual
reforms wer e many times moot ed from sacr ed places.Mostoft he politi
cal
decisions thatwer etaken byt he Chiefs wer e usual
lybor n outt he dir
ecti
ons
presentedt ot heChiefsbyt hev oicet heyusedt ogetf rom thesacr edpl aces.
Instr
uctionsr el
atedtowar sinit
iationorst oppageswer eal waysdi r
ectedf r
om the
sacredpl aces.Thisway,sacredpl acesplayi mportantpol
iti
calrol
est othelivesand
experiencesoft hecommuni t
iesar oundthem.

Theeconomi
cfunct
ionsofsacr
edpl
aces:

Sacredpl acesusedt obet heeconomi char boroft raditionalsocieti

es.Mostoft he
goldmi ned,saltcoll
ected,ivoryet ct hatcommuni ti
eshadatt heirdisposalusedto
bet r
adedwi thi
ntheconf i
nesofsacr edpl aces.Tr adingwascent er
edandconf i
ned
totheDzi mbabwedur i
ngt heMut apady nasty.Bartert radeneededt heblessingand
dir
ectionoft hespiri
tsofthelandt hatr esidedinthesacr edpl acessoal lt
radi
ngwas
poli
cedbyt heChi efwhousedt ol iv
ecl osetothesacr edpl aceswher ehegothi s
i
nspirati
on.Communi tygranaries:mat urawer esituatedi nsacr edplaces.Seedt ofi
l
l
thegranar i
eswer esour cedf r
om t hecommuni t
yf i
elds:zunder aMambot hatwere
presi
dedov erbytheChi ef.Orphans,wi dowsandwi dower scouldgetf oodsupport
f
rom suchgr
anari
esasashowoft
hecommuni
ty’
scommi
tmentt
othepl
i
ghtoft
he
v
ulner
ablegr
oups.

Theecol
ogi
cal
funct
ionsofsacr
edpl
aces:

Sacredpl acesusedt obepl acessetasi def ornaturalconser vancies.Nopersonwas

all
owedt oembar konanyenv i
ronment all
yunf r
iendlyact i
vi
tyinsacr edplaces.Et hno-
medi calpl antsandi ndigenousf ruittr
eecoul dbesuccessf ull
ypr eser
vedwi thi
n
sacredpl aces.I twasat aboof oranyper sont ocutdownt reesinsacr edplaces.No
medi calpr acti
ti
onerorassi st
anttot hepract i
ti
onerwasal l
owedt osourceanyher bal
medi ci
nef rom thisplace.Whent hepeopl ewer eallowedt ocent erthesacredpl ace,
theywer ei nstructedt oobser vet heetiquettesoft hepl aceorf acemy sterious
disappear ance.Nov ulgarlanguagewasal lowedi nsacr edplaces.Badbehav iorsand
envir
onment al
lyunf r
iendlyact i
vi
tieswer edi scouragedi nsacr edpl aces.Thi sway ,
sacredpl aceswor kedasecol ogical conservancies.

Sacredpl acesasculturalpr
eser v
ati
onandperpetuat
ioncenter
s:Si
ncesacredplaces
weret he places wher e cult
uralcompetit
ions and cult
uralobservances were
reki
ndled,t heplacesr emaint hecentert
ocheckandbal ancecultur
aldy namics.
Tradit
ionalist
sknewv erywellt
hatcult
urei
sdy namic,theusedthesacredplacesto
poli
ceordet erminet hedynami sm ofcul
turebysol i
cit
ingtheguidancef r
om the
spir
it
ual practi
ti
oners.

Sacred places as pi lgr

image centers:Sacred places used t o places where
communi tyleaders,thesickandordinarypeopleseeki nggui
dancev i
sitedannually
togetinspir
ation,heali
nganddir
ectionastothedev elopmentalneedsoft hepeople.
Somesacr edpl aceswer etot
emi
ccent erswheremember sofatotem longedtovisit
oncei nthei
rlifeti
met obeonewi t
ht hei
rtot
emi cpat hfi
nder
sbur i
edint hesacred
places.

Al
i
stofsacr
edpl
aces

1. Chot o
2. Chikuva
3. Makuv a
4. Hozi
5. Zumwe
6. Ninga
7. ChinhoyiCaves
8. Mat onj
eni-Matopohi
l
ls
9. Nev anaculti
nGokwe
 10.Mhandarahill
sinChipi
nge
11.Muti
usinazi
tain
12.Ruguhunehill
sinChi
mani mani
13.Marandurehil
lsi
nBocha
14.GombeMount ai
ninBuhera
15.RasaMount ai
ninGutu
16.BuhwainMber engwa
17.Dzi
mbabwenowcal l
edGr eatZi
mbabweMonument
s
18.Nyangamount ai
nsinNy anga
Zambezi Ri
ver

Inconclusi
on,sacredpl
acesar emanyamongt heindigenouspeople.Theyser
ve
vari
ous purposes.Some purposes ar
e ofa spiri
tualnature.Others ar
e ofan
ecol
ogicalnatur
ewhil
eother
sar eofasoci
o-cul
tur
alnature.

TABOOSANDTHENATURALENVI
RONMENT

I
tisar guedt hatShonat aboosprovidemor alsanctionsthathelpinshapinga
person’sunhu( vi
rtue)i
nt hehumancommuni ty
.Itisthroughsuchi ncul
cati
onof
properbehav i
orint hey
oungandt hegr own-upthatsocial or
derisenhancedina
Shonasoci ety.Therearetaboost hatintendtopromot egoodheal th,pr
eventbad
habit
sandt hosethatdiscouragecrueltytootherli
vingcreatures.However,byand
l
arge,Shonat abooshelpi nshapinghumanconductandf oster
ingeco-f
ri
endly
behavior.

Gel f
and(1973)
,says“theShonapossessmucht hati
swor thret
aini
ngandt he
prospect
sarethattheywill
saveagooddeal ofi
tinsucceedinggenerat
ions.”I
ndeed,
amongt heShonapeople’str
easuredcul
tur
alaspect
sthathav e,
forgenerat
ions,
helpedtoshapetheconductofitspeopl
earetaboos.

Shonat aboos( zviera)arequi t

er i
chbecauseoft hei repi stemi c, paternali
sti
cand
mor aldimensi ons.Theyar eoneamonganumberofsanct ionst hatar eemploy edin
ordertoensur epr operbehav i
orintheShonasoci ety .Zv ieraar est rongsanctions
thatdiscour agecer t
ainformsofhumanbehav i
or( Tat i
ra, 2000b; seealsoTat i
ra,
2000a) .Itisthrought heuseofsuchsanct i
onst hatpeopl ecomet oknowoft he
goodt raitstoincul cateandbadt rai
tstoavoid.Int hisl i
ght , Gelfand( 1973)affi
rms
that“theShonahav eclearconcept sofvi
rtuesandv icesandt heyhav emucht osay
aboutaber r
at i
onsofper sonalit
y.”Thismeanst hat ,forGel f
and, t
heShonahav ea
clearideaofwhatconst i
tutescor r
ecthumanbehav iori nsoci etyandi tsimpor t
ance
i
nenhanci ngagoodl if
edev oi
doft hevi
cest hatwoul dr endert heirsociet
ychaot ic.
Onlythr oughcor r
ectchar actertrai
tsshouldther elat ionshi pbet weenhumanbei ngs
becomepossi ble,otherwisesoci alst
abil
it
yisami ragei nasi tuationwher epeopl e
arenotcor rectl
ydi sposedt oactmor all
y.I
tisinl i
ghtoft hisquestt hattheShona
(Tati
ra,2005)hav edev i
sedway softryi
ngtoenf or ceaccept ablebehav ioramong
t
hem.Inordertoensurethatpeopleadheret
otheShonamor
alcode,
taboost
hat
t
hreat
enseverepunishmentandmi sfor
tunesar
eusedtot
amethosewhomaybe
t
emptedtoperfor
m anti-
socialact
ions.

SI
TUATI
NGTABOOSI
NTHESHONAWORLDVI
EW

TheShonapeopl ehav eanobsessi onwi tht hedesi ret oi nculcat eri

ghtet hosi nan
i
ndi vidual.Taboosar eamonganumberofmet hodst hroughwhi cht hechar acterof
ani ndividual i
sshapedi nt heShonacosmol ogy .Taboosoft heShonahav ea
teleological natureint hatt heyar esanct ionst hatar emeantt oincul cat
et hemost
appr opriatet r
aitsint heper sont hatwoul dmakehi m awor thymemberofhi s
communi ty.Accor dingt oChi gidi (
2009) ,“Theseav oidancer ulesarer estri
ctiveand
notdi rectiveint hesenset hatt heyonl ytell t
hei ndividual whatnott odoandnot
whatt odo”andbyi mpl icationonei smadet opi ckupdesi rablebehav i
oraltrait
s
other wiseact ingcont r
ar ytot hedi ctatesoft aboosi nv itesnast yconsequences.A
goodchar acterisasol idweaponagai nstv ariousant i-soci albehav iors.Theout come
ofgoodchar act erisgoodr eput ationwher ebyaper sonbecomest heenv yofmany
becauseofhi scommendabl edi sposi tions.Thought hei ncul cationofcommendabl e
char actert r
aitsinindi vidualsi sal ifelongpr ocess, i
ti sbel ieved, amongt heShona,
thatsuchmor aleducat ionmakesani ndel ibleimpr essi oni none’ sf ormativey ears.I
n
thislight,childrenar et aughtt hedi fferencebet weengoodandbadbehav iorandt hey
alsol earnt oav oidanumberoft aboos.St rongandsev erewar ningsf orthosewho
violatetheShonamor al codear equi tev isibleint hetaboos.

Theact ualityofpuni shmentandahostofot hernast yconsequencesi fonedar esto

viol
atet hemor alcodehel ptoinst i
ll
commendabl emoralbehav iorintheShona
society.I tisinlightofthisfactt hatGel f
and( 1979)cont endst hat“thepurposeof
theset aboosi st oi
nst i
ll
asenseofdi scipl
inei ntot hechil
drenaswel lasoneoff ear.
”
Theaspectoff earthatisnor mal l
yassoci atedwi thShonat aboosi sawayof
dissuadi ngpeopl efrom performi ngimmor al acts.Hence, i
thasani nstr
ument al
valuei nt hatitdiscouragespeopl efrom cer tainsuchbehav iorsthatruncont r
aryto
theet hosoft heShonasoci ety.ThoughShonat aboosar efearinducing, t
hisfear
hasnoi nt r
insicwor th,butisameanst oanend, thatis,pr
omot i
onofgoodbehav i
or.
Thought hi
smeansofachi ev i
ngav i
rtuousl ifeismor al
l
yquest i
onable,the
philosophyi nShonat aboosist hattheendj ust i
fiesthemeans.Fearmaynotbet he
bestandet hicall
yappr opri
atetool toachi evet heendofav irt
uouslifeintheShona
society, butt hegoodnessoft heendt ri
viali
zest hebadnessoft hemeans.

TheShonabel i
evethatancest ral
spir
it
shelpinensur i
ngthatone’scharacteri
sgood
provi
dedthatthatpersondoesnotof f
endthem through,amongot her
s,fail
ureto
perf
orm peri
odicri
tualsintheirhonoraswellasahostofot hersocial
misdemeanorssuchasi ncest(makunakuna).Therefor
e,thevi
olati
onoft abooscan
beseenasadi rectprovocationofancestr
alspir
itswhoar ethecustodi
anoft he
mor al code.Tat ir
a( 2000b)concur swi thGelfandwhenhenot est hat“ anactt hat
breachesat aboot ri
gger sar eactionsupposedl yatt hesuper nat urallev el
.Thi sis
effectivesi ncechi ldreneasi lyoper at eatmake- believ el ev el
.Wi thoutt hi sfearoft he
unknown, y oungpeopl ear egener allyadv ent
ur ous, f ullofdoubt sandquest ions, and
l
ikeexper i
ment i
ngwi t
ht hings.”Her ightl
ynot est hatt aboosar eef fectivemor altools
becauset hei rv i
olati
oni nv i
testhei reofancest ral spi ri
tswhoar eoneoft hekey
pill
arsofShonar eli
gion.Howev er,heseemst oi gnor et hef actt hatt aboosi nthe
Shonacosmol ogyar enotonl yrel
ev antamongchi ldr enbuti ndispensabl ethroughout
one’ scour seofl i
fe.Fort heShona, ukagar apadur i
, vakadzi vosev aunor oorav anof a
(i
fy ousi tont hemor tarinwhi chgr ainispounded, all thewi vest haty oumar r
ywoul d
die).Suchat aboodi scour agesbot hy oungandol dmal esf rom doi ngsuchabadact
becausei tt hr eatensv er yseriousconsequencest ot heonewhomaybet empt edt o
violateit.Ev eni none’ sadul thood, suchamor al sanct i
onr emai nsr el
ev antbecause
noonei spr epar edt ot hreatent hel ifeofhiswi febysi ttingont hemor targivent he
Shonabel iefi nngozi (avengingspi r i
ts).FortheShona, i
faper soni swi ll
full
yki ll
ed,
hisspi ri
twi ll comebackt ohauntt heki ll
erandhi sr elat i
v es.Sincet hel ossofone’ s
wifet hroughwi l
lf
ul act i
onsi sat r
agedyt hatinv it
esngozi ,thisbadhabi tofsi t
tingon
themor tari sav oidedbecauseoft hef earofngozi .Thus, t
aboosar eaf or m ofmor al
educat iont hatonei si ntroducedt oi nt heformat ivey ear sofone’ char acterandhav e
l
ifetimer elev ance.

ForGelfand( 1979) ,t
hr oughi nformal i
nstr
uct i
onathome, they oungar etaught
“…whatt aboost heyshoul dknow…”i ntheli
fe-longShonasy ll
abi.Suchinformal
teachi
ngi sexper tl
yschedul ednott ointer
ferewi t
hotherimpor tantpreoccupat i
ons
ofhumanl i
fe.So, ni
ght saf termeal sandcompl et
ionofhousehol dchor esaswel las
spri
ngwhent her eisrel ativelyli
ttl
ewor ktobedonei nthefieldsandgar dens, f
urni
sh
theidealti
met oinculcat ecommendabl etr
aitsofconductint hey oungsot hatthey
becomemember soft hecommuni tythatexudeswi thunhu.Unhuasunder stoodby
theShonaent ai
lsast at eofchar act erthati
saccept abl
enotonl ybytheper son
concernedbutmor eimpor t
ant l
ybyhi ssociety(seeMenki t
i,1984).Such
commendabl etraitsar eder ivedfrom mor al educati
onadmi nister
edandi nf
luenced
by,amongot hers,parent s,fami l
ysagesandgr ouppracti
ces.Thus, asoundmor al
educationadmi nisteredt hrought abooshel pi nprepari
ngandper fecti
ngt heyoungt o
earnanet hicalli
feext er nal tothef ami l
yconf i
nesandint hepubl i
cdomai n.

Unli
kepr overbsandr i
ddleswhosemet hodofi mpar ti
ngi s,tosomeext ent,
dial
ogical
,
taboosar eteleologi
cal commandst hataremeantt oshapet heconductofaper son,
ashei spercei v
edasamemberofacommuni t
y.Gel fand( 1979)woul dwantt ocall
taboos‘avoidancer ules’pr
eciselybecauset heyimpl oret hei
rr ecipi
entst odesist
from cert
ainbehav i
orsbecauseoft hei
rundesirabletendenci eswi t
hinacommuni ty
ofotherbeings.Forhi m, avoidancer ul
esortaboosar eoneoft hethreeShonapi ll
ars
thatprepareonei nt
oawhol epersonwhohasanunder standingofr ealit
yandwhose
conductisadmi rabl
e.Theot hertwopi ll
arsareprov erbsandr iddles.Thesepill
ars
aretaughttot hey oungunt i
ladulthood.Almostal way s“ …whenachi l
dhas
misbehavedi
nsomeway ,
anappropriat
e…avoidancerule…maybeci t
ed”(Gelfand,
1979)asawayofcor r
ecti
ngthatimmor al
act.Thus,theShona’spenchantfora
goodlif
edevoi
dofbadhumanqual i
ti
esisachievedpartlybytherol
etaboospl ayi
n
regul
ati
ngtheconductofmembersofsoci et
ygiventheact ual
it
yofconfl
ict
ing
i
nterest
swhenandwher evert
herearemor ethanoneper soninagivenphysical
space.

Ther ichnessofShonat aboosasexhi bi

tedinitsmor al andpat ernali
sticdimensi ons
under l
inest hecent rali
tyofunhuamongt heShona.Unhuf ortheShonai sexhi bi
ted,
amongot hers, t
hroughone’ sint er
actionwithfellowhumanbei ngs,theenv i
ronment
andt hewayhecat ersforhi shy gi
enicrequir
ement s.Fort hi
sr eason,therefore,the
paperi sgoi ngt odiscusst aboosaboutheal th,goodandbadhabi t
sandt hoset hat
discour agecr ueltynotonl yt of ell
owhumanbei ngsbutal sotot hewhol ecommuni t
y
ofsent ientbei ngsandt heenv i
ronmenti ngener al.Thet otal
it
yoft heset aboosput
togetheri scr uciali
nincul catingdi sposit
ionthatmakesaper sonwel l
-disposedt o
exhibitunhut hroughhi sut terances, wordsanddeeds.Thoughschol arshiphas
tendedt ocomeupwi t
hv ar i
ouscat egori
esoftaboos( Gelfand, 1979;Tat i
ra,2000b),
thispaperar guest hattabooshav eonecent ralgoal int hattheyai mt owar dsthe
perfectionofone’ schar acteri nallfacetsofhumanl ife.

Onekeyat tr
ibut
eofShonat aboosi sthattheyhavesubl i
memor alimport.Themor al
i
mpor ti
snotappar entfr
om af acev al
ueanal y
sisbutrequi resapassi onate
exposi t
ioninordertouneart
ht hereal moralsancti
onsbehi ndt hem.Anot her
attr
ibuteofShonat aboosisthatinor dertoincul
catecorr ectchar actertrai
tsi
nan
i
ndiv i
dual,oneisprevent
edf r
om doi ngcertai
nactionsbyr eveal i
ngthenast yand
fear-
inducingconsequencesofdoi ngso.Gr antedtheact ual i
tythathumani tydesi
res
agoodl if
eandloathesami serableone,throughmor alsanct ionst hattell
apprenticesthatifonebehavesi nacer t
ainway ,
hisli
fewi l
lbeaf f
ectedinanegative
way ,peoplewouldt endt
oav oi
dv i
cesandoptf orav i
rtuousl ife.

Shonat aboosdonotr evealt

hecor r
ectconsequencesf orperformingcer t
ainact i
ons
butgiveaconsequencet hatahumanbei ngnat urall
yl oathesandfear s.Therefore,
foronet ocompr ehendthecompl exit
yofShonat aboos, onehast olookatt heir
commonandhi ddenmeani ng.Forexampl e,theShonapeopl earediscouragedf r
om
sit
ti
ngonhear thstonesont hecommonunder st
andi ngt hatdoingsowoul dl eadone
tomur derhiswi feorone’ swifewi l
ldie.Throughf earofl osi
ngawi feasar esultof
suchanundesi rablehabitofsitt
ingonhear thstones, onewoul davoiddoi ngso.
Howev er,t
her eal reasonwhypeopl earediscour agedf r
om sitt
ingonhear t
hstones
hasnot hi
ngt odowi thcausingdeat htoone’ spar tnerbuti sasanct i
onmeantt o
i
nculcatevir
tuesofcl eanli
nessini ndivi
duals.

Iti
sinlightoftheint
ri
cacyofShonataboosthatapprent
icesareshapedintoa
peoplethatcheri
shal i
feofunhuasopposedt oalif
eofunhuhwakai pa(vi
cious
charact
er).Thus,Shonaethi
csasref
lectedi
nt aboosemploysacarrotandst i
ck
approachinthatapprenti
cesaremadetobelievethatf
ail
uretoli
veal i
feofunhu,
badt hi
ngswi llvi
si
tthem.Thought heendj ust
ifi
est hemeans, t
hemeansi s
problemat i
cinthatiti
nst i
l
lsunhuinpeopl ethroughmeanst hatoutsi
dersofthe
Shonasoci etywouldr egardasunethicalandcont rover
sial
.Howev er,
suchamet hod
ofinculcati
ngunhui nt heyoungachievesitsdesirableresul
talbei
tthroughuseof
uncoutht acti
csthatthreatensnast
yper sonalandf amilyconsequencest otheone
whodar estoviol
atethem.

TABOOSTHATPROMOTEGOODHEALTH

Shonapeopl ear ewel l

knownf ort heirpenchantf orahy gieniclivi
ng,cleanli
nessand
env i
ronmentalconsciousness.ForTat i
ra(2000b) ,“zvi
eraarev i
tali
ntransmi t
ting
valuesonissuesper tai
ningt ohy giene…cr uel
ty,precautionandgoodbehav ior”on
member sofsociety.Theirtraditional housesar egener all
yneat lybuil
t,decorated,
thatchedandkeptcl ean.Thi spenchantf orcleanli
nesst ranscendst heupkeepoft he
i
ndi vi
dualtocoverone’schar acterasexhi bit
edt hroughhi sinteract
ionswi t
hot her
beingsandhi srelat
iontot hewor l
dext ernaltohimi ngeneral.ItisaShonaact ual
it
y
thatone’sunhui salsoexhi bitedbyt hemanneri nwhi chhedeal swithnotonl y
humanbei ngsbutal soot herl i
vingcr eaturesandt heenv i
ronmenti ngener al.

Accor di
ngt othetradi ti
onal Africanmet aphysical outlook,humanbei ngstendt obe
cosmi cal
lyhumbl eand, therefor e,notonl ymor er espectfulofotherpeoplebutal so
morecaut i
ousi nt heirattitudest opl ant s,animal sandi nanimatet hi
ngs,andt he
vari
ousv isibleforcesoft hewor ld( Tangwa, 2006; seealsoDur i&Mapar a,2007).
Thus, oneisat tractedt ot heShonapeopl e’shar monywi thnatureandsust ainable
useofnat ur alresour cest hrough, amongot her s,theirpoleanddaggahousest hat
arethatchedwi thgr ass,andneat lyarrangedi nal inearorderalongmount ainsand
ri
vers.Howev er,despi tetheShona’ senv i
ronment alconsciousnessandquestf or
soundhy gi eni
cst andar ds, therear emember soft heirsocietywhomaybet empt ed
toengagei nact i
viti
est hatgoagai nstt hesev irtues.Becauseoft heShona’ s
obsessionwi t
hmai nt ai
ninggoodheal tht hroughhy gi
enicliv
ingandpr eventionof
anti
-social acti
viti
est hereof ,anumberofzv i
eraar eputinplace.Onet aboot hat
att
empt st oent renchgoodhy gieni cst
andar dsamonghumanbei ngsisthat:Ukagara
papfihwa, unour ayamukadzi (Ify ousitonahear thstone,youwi l
lkil
lyourwife)

Thistabooi sdirectedatsomeonewhohast hehabi tofsi tt

ingonhear thstonesthat
formthepi l
l
arsofaf ir
eplace.AShonaf ireplacei smadeupoft hreest onest hatare
meantt oanchorcooki ngpot s.Thehear t
hi s,thus,av eryimpor tantplacei nShona
cosmologybecausei tdefineswomanhoodandsy mbol i
zesaspect sofShona
sexuali
ty( Ashwanden, 1982).Iti
sthewoman’ st err
it
or ythathasasacr ednessthat
mustber espectedbecausei tsymbol i
zeshi ssexual par t
s.Thepr esenceofmot o
(fi
re)i
nmanamongt heShonameanspr esenceofpr oduct i
v esexual activ
ityandits
absencemeansl ackofproduct i
vesexual acti
v i
tybetweent hemanandt hewomen.
Themanmustbeabl et o‘causeaf i
re’ont he‘ heart
h’ l
iteral
lymeani ngthathemust
beabletomakeawomanpr egnant.Thus, thet aboogi vessanct ionstot hosewho
maybet empt edt osi
tont hepill
arsoft hisimpor tantandsacr edpl aceint heShona
wor
ldvi
ew.I
timplor
espeopl
enott osi
tonhearthstonesbecausedoi ngsowould
l
eadonetoki
llone’
spart
nerorthepart
nerwoulddiemy st
eriousl
y.Thet aboo
t
ouchesonaverydeli
cat
easpectofli
fe.Amongt heShona,forapersont obe
r
espect
edasamunhu, heorshemustbemar riedandhavechi l
dren.Thus,anyt
hing
t
hatthr
eat
ensthedemiseofone’spar
tnerbr
ingsal otoff
eartohi m.

Howev er ,t
heact ual reasonf orsuchamor al sanct i
oni sthati ti
sunheal t
hyt oseat
onapl acewher ef oodi sprepar ed.Byt heirv erynat ure,
hear thstonesar esoot yand
whoev ercomesi nt ocont actwi tht hem risksbei ngcor r
uptedbyt heirsoot .Thus,
seati
ngonhear thst onesmakesone’ sbuttocksbl ackishasar esultoft hesoot .
Anotherr easonf orsuchamor al sanct i
oni st hatonecangetbur nti
ft he
hearthstonesar ehotandoneal somaybet empt edt omov ethem awayt hereby
destroyingthef i
repl ace.Ther efore, thereisasensei nwhi chseat ingon
hearthstonesisanaf fronttoShonaet hos.Themor alsanctionisst rongly
emphasi zedespeci all
yonmenwhohav ethehabi tofsitti
ngonhear thstones.Men
arerequi r
edtobeasf araspossi blef r
om t hecooki ngplacesoast oal l
owwomen
enoughspaceandt imet oprepar ef oodf ort hefami l
ywi t
houtunnecessar y
i
nterference.So, ifamanhast hehabi tofsi tti
ngonhear thstoneswhenawomani s
cooking, heistempt edt omakecomment sabouthowsheoughtt opr eparef oodthat
mayev entual
lyof fendhi swi f
e, par entorsi sterwhowoul dbecooki ng.Fort hat
reason, t
heShonahav edev i
sedcl everway sofdi ssuadi ngpeopl ef r
om si tti
ngon
hearthstones.

Thesecondtaboounderthi
scategoryi
s:Ukai
ti
ratsvi
namunzi
ra,
unoitamamot
a
kumagaro(I
fyouexcret
eont heroad,y
oudevelopboi
lsont
hebuttocks)

Ev ent hought heShonahav eapenchantf orcl eanliness,therearesomeamongt hem

whomayshowal ackofunhubyexcr eti
ngonpat hway s(nzir
a)notonlybecause
theyar enotawar eoft hebadnessofdoi ngso, butal soforsadisti
creasons.Such
viciouschar act ersmaybemot i
vatedbyt hedesi ret omakepasserby esstepon
them andgetannoy edt her eof.Inaddi t
ion,y oungpeopl ewhoar e,
byandl ar
ge,
target soft hisav oidancer ulemaynotknowt hewr ongnessofexcr eti
ngonpat hway s.
Asar esult,suchamor al sanct i
oni smeantf orsuchpeopl ewhomaybet empt edt o
excr eteonpat hway s.Thosewhodosoandt hosewhohav eapot enti
alofdoingso
arewar nedt hatsuchact ionswoul dinvitepai nful boilsont hebutt
ocks(magar o).
Suchaser i
ousaf f
li
ct ionwoul daf fectone’ smov ement sandcanbeasubj ectof
ri
di cule,ifpeopl edi scov ert hatonehasboi lsont hebut tocks.Thus,becauseoff ear
ofsuchconsequences, onewoul dal way stryt oav oidexcr eti
ngonpat hways.Asi f
toconf irmt he‘ truth’ ofsuchamor al
sanct ion, somepeopl emaydev el
opboi l
son
thebut tocksaf terexcr etingonpat hway s.Thought hedev elopmentofsuchboi ls
maybej ustbutacci dent al aft
eronehadexcr etedont heroad, t
heShonaof tenfailt
o
makeadi sti
nct ionbet weenacommonsensi cal consequenceofsuchabaddeed
andt hemedi cal explanat ionf ort hedev elopmentofboi ls.

Theact
ual
consequenceofexcr
eti
ngont
her
oadi
sthati
tisunhy
gieni
ctodoso
becausepedest r
ians,especiallythosewhoar ebar ef oot edmayacci dentall
ystepon
them andt herebyriskcatchingdi sease- causingbact eri
at hatmaybecar ri
edi n
humanst oolssuchaschol erabact eria.Inaddi ti
on, smal lchil
drenmaypl aywi t
h
thesestoolst her
ebycompr omi singt heirhealth.Theof fenderal sor i
sksbeingseen
andassaul tedbypasser -
byes, overr unbyv ehi clesorscot chcar ts.Thenor mal
reacti
onofaShonawhenhecomesacr ossast ool alongt heroadi st oquesti
ont he
characteroft heoffender.Thechar act eroft heof fenderi sr ef
lectedinhi sdeedof
excreti
ngonhumanpat hway s.Ter mssuchasi mbwa( dog)andbenzi (amadf ellow)
arenormal l
yusedt ocharacterizet heunhuoft hisper son.Thus, theShonadonot
takeli
ghtlythosepeopl ewhosef lawedchar actercompr omi sest heheal t
handwel l
-
beingofmember sofsoci ety
.Inl ightoft hi
s, t
her efore, itisimmor alandunhy gienic
toexcreteal onghumanpat hway s.Thr eatsofwi tchcr aftar ealsousedi nor derto
dissuadepeopl efrom engagi ngi nsuchi mmor alact s.TheShonabel i
evethatsome
badpeopl ecant akeone’ sstool sandbewi tcht hem sucht hatthecul pri
twouldhav e
greatdiff
iculti
esinexcretingandur inating.

TABOOSTHATPREVENTBADHABI
TS

IntheShonawor l
dvi
ew,thet erm unhui susedt or efertotsi
ka(goodcharacter ).
Normallyaper sonwithacommendabl edispositioni sref
erredtoasmunhuchai y e,
meaningaper sonofgoodchar acter.FortheShona( Gelf
and,1981),
unhupl ay sa
supremer oleinpeopl
e’sli
v esast heyinter
actwi thfel l
owhumanbei ngsandal lthat
consti
tutethewor l
dexternaltothem.Thus, fortheShona, agoodpersonist heone
whoexhi bi
t sgoodbehavi
ort owardsot hersasr eflectedinhisacti
onsand
i
nteracti
onswi thnotonl
yf ell
owhumanbei ngsbutal sothewholeofnature.Sucha
personislikedandrespectedinthecommuni tybecauseofhi sgooddispositions.

ForGel fand( 1973),that“…stateofbei ngapprov edof,orthatqual i

tywhichcausesa
person’spr esencetobeappr eciatedandt ogiveaf eel
ingofpl easuretoothersis
call
edunhu. ”Unhuamongt heShonai sapr oductofmor al educationconductedby ,
amongot her s,par
ent s,
sagesandgr ouppr act
icesthatarei nheri
tedf r
om past
generations.So, vari
ousst akeholdersinthecommuni t
yt eachunhut omember s,a
conceptt hatcanbeequat edtothewest ernconceptofv irt
ue.Thus, agoodman
amongt heShonal i
vesal ifeofunhuandhi scommendabl echar acterisr
efl
ectedby
hisactionsashei nteractswithfellowhumanbei ngsandt heext ernalworl
din
general.Thei mport
ancet hattheShonapeopl eat t
achtocommendabl echaracteri
s
refl
ectedi ntaboost hatencour agesgoodbehav ioranddiscour agesbadbehav ior
.

Onetypi
calexampleofsucht
aboosis:
Ukadongor
eramunhuachi
geza,
unoit
a
showera(I
fy oupeeponapersonwhoisbat
hing,
youwi
lldev
eloppi
mplesonyour
eyel
i
ds)

TheShonatr
easurest
henaturalbeautyofaperson.I
nthetradi
ti
onalShonasociet
y,
peopl
enormall
ybathinr
iver
sandst reamsandmostoft hebathingplaceshav
e
assumedsomef or
m ofpermanence.Therear
ebat hi
ngplacesforthemaleand
femal emember sofsoci etyr
espect iv
ely.Noonei ssupposedt ov iolatethis
unwr i
ttenrul
ethatmenar enotsupposedt obat hatwoman’ sbat hingspot sandv ice
versa.Menwhocr avetoseet hosewoment hattheydesi remosti ntheirnat ur
al
beauty ,t
hati
s,intheirnakednesswhenbat hingnor mal l
ydot hebadhabi tofpeeping
onwomenwhoar ebathing.Fearingtheact ualit
yt hatsuchext raordinarydesi r
es
mi ghtturnoutintoaneur osi
st hatmayopenf l
oodgat estosuchf antasiesleadingto
vicessuchasr apeandadul t
erousr el
ati
onshi ps,Shonapeopl ehav ecomeupwi th
sanctionsthatdiscouragepeopl efrom exposi ngthemsel vest osituationst hatmay
temptt hem toindulgeinanti
-socialacti
v i
ti
esasar esultofsuchuncout hpr acti
ces.
Thistabooposi tsthattheoffender’
sper ceptual t
ool s,thatis,ey es,woul ddev el
op
painfulpimplesasar esultofsuchuncout hpeepi ng.

Hi ghlight ingt hedanger sthatv isittheonewhov i

olat est histaboo, ther ef ore,helpsin
cur taili
ngsuchi mmor al acts.Itisinterestingt onot et hatsomeoft heseav oidance
ruleshav eassumedt hest atusof‘ thet ruth’inthatmostpeopl eint heShonasoci ety
acceptt hatwhenev eronedev elopspi mplesont heey elids,itisbecauseone, inone
wayoranot her ,peepedatanakedper sonbat hing.Thus, t
heonewhodev elops
pimpl esont heey eli
ds, especiallymen, mayf earbei ngl aughedatf orhav ingpeeped
atnakedwomen.Howev er,theact ual tr
uthi st hatsuchnef ariousandcl andest i
ne
l
ustf orone’ sbeaut yinone’ snakednessmayi nv it
et empt ati
onsont hepar tofthe
per ceiv ert of ulfi
llhisabnor mal desi r
esf oracer tainper sonbyuncout hmeans.Such
aper soni sr egar dedasabadper sonandhi sexcessi v epassi onsmakehi m mor e
disposedt or apehi sv ictimsbecausehei ssodesi rousofnakedwomen.ForTat ira
(2000b) ,member sofsoci etyoughtt obeassur edoft heirpri
v acyt hroughsuch
“taboos[ that]r epresssy mpt omsofpot ent i
allycr i
mi nal behav ior.”Amongt heShona,
aper sonwhocov ets( kuchiva)isat hreatt osoci al orderbecausehei sat tractedto
whati snothi ssuchasanei ghbor ’
swi feorchi ldrenandmat erialpossessi ons.Such
aper soni sdr ivenbyast r
ongi mpul set hatf orceshi mt odocer taint hingst hatare
i
mmor al.Gel fand( 1973)equat esacov etousper sont oa“ …awi tch, sincehi s
cov etousnessmi ghtdr i
vet othepr act i
cesofwi tchcr aftinordert oachi evehi s
desi res. ”Ther efore, t
heShonat rytodi scour agesuchbadchar actert raitsbyt he
strongestmor al sanct i
onst hatt hreateni l
l healthf ort heonewhodar est odosuch
i
mmor al actions.

Ukateedzer
achir
ema,
unoi
tachi
remawo(
Ify
oui
mit
ateal
ameper
son,
youwi
l
l
becomel ametoo)

TheShonamayv iewpeopl ewithdi sabil

iti
eswithsuspicionbecausei tisgeneral
ly
agreedthatsuchmi shapsar ecausal l
yrelatedtocertai
nactionsornon- acti
onsby
parentsorfamil
ymember s.Thought heShonabel i
evet hatdefor
mi ti
esinaper son
canbear esultofbiological abnormal iti
es,iti
scommonl ybeli
evedt hatdeformit
ies
thatoneisbornwi t
har e, amongot her s,aresul
toftheangerofv adzimu.The
punishmentandr et
ributionofv adzimucanbemani festedinthef or
m ofdef ormit
ies
i
nt hechil
drenoftheof fendi ngper sons.
Disabili
tyisalsoblamedont heworksofj ealouswi t
cheswhodonotwantt oseea
certainfamil
yhav i
ngabl e-bodiedchildren.Thus, iti
sbelievedthatdisabil
it
yis
‘
cont agious’i
nt hattheonewhoopenl ylaughsatori mitate,f
orexampl e,the
awkwar dwal ksofadi sabledper sonwoul dal sobecomel ame.Noonewant sthe
burdensandnegat i
vepubl icpercepti
onassoci atedwithbeinglame.Ther efore,
throught hemor althreatthati fonewer etoi mitatealameper sononer i
sksbei ng
l
ameal so,peopl efeelmor allyobli
gatedt orespectpeopl ewithdisabil
it
ies.Thisis
enoughmor al sancti
ont odi scouragepeopl ef r
om beli
ttl
ingthehumani tyofdi sabl
ed
peopl edespit
et heirbiologicalabnormal i
ties.

Theref
or e,theShonadi scouragepeoplefrom lookingdownuponmember sof
soci
etywhoar el amethroughmaki ngdisparagingremar ksabouttheirbiol
ogical
condit
ions.Suchmor alsanctionsareenforcedt hr
ought hr
eatsthattheonewhogo
agai
nstt histaboor i
sksbeingl ametoo.Thus,kuny omba( abusi
ngormocki ng)those
whoar el amei sabadhumanqual it
ythattheShonanor mallybl
ameonl ackof
adequat emor aleducati
on.Aper sonwhobel it
tlesanotherhumanbei ngont hebasis
ofone’sdi sabi
lit
ylacksunhuandt heShonahav eacl everwayofcur t
aili
ngsuchbad
habi
tst hroughappr opr
iatetaboos.

TABOOSTHATDI
SCOURAGECRUELTYTOOTHERLI
VINGCREATURES

TheShonahav eanenv i
ronment alethict hatt akesi ntoaccountt hei nterest sofnot
onlysent ientbeings, butt hewhol eofnat urei ngener al.Thought heydonot
disappr ov eofsust ai nabl euseofnat ur e’sresour cesi ncludingot herl ivingcr eatur es
for,amongot her s, dr aughtpowerandf ood, theyar eagai nstwant ondest ruct i
onof
faunaandf l
orawi thoutj usti
fi
cat ion.Theyal sot akegr eatexcept iont ot hecr ueltyto
animal sbecausef ort hem, allani malsar esent ientandt hereforedeser vet obegi ven
mor al consi deration.Accor dingt oESS( 2010) , t
her ewasacommoncul tural beliefin
theAf ricancosmol ogyt hatfor badeunwar rant edki ll
ingandbr utalizationofwi l
d
animal s, “…especi al l
yt hosewhi chsoci etyhel di ncont emptsuchashy enasand
monkey s,andal sot hey oungofal lspeci es”and“ t
her ecanbel i
ttledoubtt hatthese
strat egiesemanat edf rom peopl ewhohadconcer nf ortheirenvironmentandi ts
ecosy stems, anat ti
t udewhi chenabl edsoci etiest oconser vetheirr esour cesona
sust ainabl ebasiswi thoutwr i
ttenl egislation. ”Fort hem, aper sonwhoexhi bi tviolent
surgest hrough, fori nst ance,want oncut ti
ngdownoft reeswi thoutanyneedf or
them andcr ueltytoot herl i
vi
ngcr eatur esl acksunhui nthataper sont rainedt oacti n
moder ationi snotsupposedt oshowl ackofconcer nev ent other estoff aunaand
fl
or a.Lal onde( 2010)ar guest hatAf ricansoci etieshav e“…posi t
ivet r
adi ti
onal
managementpr act icest hathav ebeenadapt edandpasseddownov ercount l
ess
gener ationsi nhar monywi t
ht heshor tandl ong- term car r
yingcapaci ti
esoft helocal
ecosy stem.Someoft heseposi tivepr acticesar ebasedonsy mbol ism, andi nvolve
spiritual r
ituals,religiouspr actices, soci al t
aboos, andsacr edani mal t
ot ems.

FortheShona,t
henaturalenv
ironmenthascer
tai
nsacr
edpl
acesthatareso
i
ndispensabl
einthei
rrel
igi
ousbeli
efssuchascer
tai
nmount
ains,
curves,r
iver
s,
gravesi t
esandf orestst hatoughtnottobedefiledthrough, amongothers,undue
cutti
ngdownoft reest hatgracethem andkill
i
ngofot herl i
vingcreat
uresforthe
sakeofi t.Ther
efore, t
heShonacher ishalif
eofl ivi
nginhar monywi t
ht henatural
environmentandwhati tholds.TheShonapeopl e’sdi
sli
kef orcruel
tytootherlivi
ng
creaturesandt heenv i
ronmenti ngenerali
sreflectedthroughanumberofzv iera
suchast hefol
lowing:Ukaur ayadat
yamat enga, anot
adzakunai samv ura(I
fy oukil
l
af r
og, heavenswillfai
l tobringdownrain)

I
tisat r
uism i
nall cul
tur
esthatrai
norwat erisindi
spensabl
ef orthesustenanceof
l
ifeonear t
h.Bothanimalsandv eget
at i
onneedswat erfort
heircontinuedsurvi
val.
Theref
ore,anyhumanact i
onorotherwisethattendstocompr omiset heavai
labi
li
ty
ofwaterisfearedanddiscouraged.Thus,i
nor dertostopcruelt
ytoani mal
ssuchas
fr
ogs( mataty
a),theShonahav edevisedawayofst oppingsuchcr uelandimmor al
acts.

Amongt heShona, fr
ogsar enotadel icacy.So,whoev erkil
lsafrogi snotkill
ingitf
or
j
ust i
fi
ablepur poseofconsumi ngit,butsimplyfor,perhaps,sadisti
cr easons.Even
thought heShonapeopl eappr oveofki l
li
nganimalsf ormeat ,t
heyst rongly
disapproveofpeopl ewhoki l
lanimal ssimplyforthepl easureofdoingso.Shona
my thshav eitthatt
radi
ti
onal well
sthatar enormal l
ygr acedbyal argepopul ati
onof
frogsarebl essedbecausef r
ogswoul dinsureanunlimi t
edsuppl yofwat erasa
resultoftheiruri
ne.Thus,kil
li
ngfrogswoul dnotonlyhav etherippleeffectsof
preventi
ngr ainfrom f
all
i
ng, butalsowel l
swi l
ldryup.

Howev er,theact ualtruthbehi ndsuchat abooi sthat,becauseoft heShona’ s

passionat eenv i
ronment al ethi
c,theki l
l
ingofsmal lcr eaturessuchasf r
ogsf orno
j
ust i
fi
abl epur posei simmor al.I
tref l
ectsthef l
awedchar acteroft heper sonwho
performssuchi mmor alact sinthatwant ondest r
uctionoft helivesofot herlivi
ng
creaturesmayopenf loodgat esforabuseev enofhumanbei ngs.TheShonaof ten
remar kt hatmhukanet upukat uner opawosev anhu(ani mal sandot hersmal l
creatureshav ebl oodtoo)meani ngt hattheyar ecapabl eofexper i
encingpl easure
andpai nj ustlikesent i
enthumanbei ngs.Inthisregar d, t
hatwhi chhasbl oodmust
bet r
eat edwi thr espectasanendi ni t
self
.Thus, aper sonwhobeat suphi sdonkey s,
pigs,orcat tl
ei snor mal l
yrepr i
mandedf ordoingsobecauset heseani mal salsofeel
painandt her easoningi sthatnoonehasar ighttoinf l
ictpainorendt hel i
feofother
l
ivingcr eatureswi t
houtagenui ner eason.Inthisregar d,crueltytoot herli
v i
ng
creaturesmayl eadt oasl i
pper yslopescenar iowher ebyt heof fendermayext end
suchcr uel t
ytohumanbei ngs.

I
talianMedievalphi
losopher,ThomasAqui nas(Tranøy,1964),
Briti
shempi ri
cist
,
JohnLocke( Regan,1983)andGer manr ati
onali
stphil
osopher,Immanuel Kant
(Singer,
1993)arguedthathumanbei ngsoughtnotbecr uelt
oot herli
vingcreat
ures
becausedoingsomayhar denone’ shear tt
owardsf el
lowhumanbei ngs.Regan
(Singer,
1993)quotesLockeashav ingremar kedthat:
Onet hi
ngt hatIhav e
frequentl
yobservedinchil
dren,thatwhent heyhav egotpossessionofanypoor
Creature,t
heyar eapttouseitil
l:
theyof tentorment ,andtreatver
yroughl
y,young
Birds,Butt
erfli
es,andsuchotherpoorAni mal s,whichfall
intothei
rHands,andthat
withaseemi ngkindofPleasur
e.This,Ithinkshoul dbewat chedinthem,andifthey
i
ncl i
netoanysuchCr uel
ty,t
heyshouldbet aughtthecont r
aryUsage.FortheCustom
ofTor mentingandKi l
li
ngofBeasts,will,
byDegr ees,har
dent hei
rMindseven
towardsMen: andthey,whodeli
ghtint heSuf fer
ingandDest r
ucti
onofInf
eri
or
Creatures,will
notbeaptt obeverycompassi onate,orbenigntothoseofthei
rown
kind…

So,at orment orofot herli

v i
ngcr eat uresmayext endhi scr ueltytohumanbei ngs.
WhileAqui nasandKantar guedt hatot herlivingcr eat urescoul dnotbeascr ibed
dir
ectmor al statusbecauset heyar enotr ational,Lockeappeal edt othecrit
erionof
senti
encyt oascr i
besomef or m ofmor al statust oot herl i
v i
ngcr eatures.For
AquinasandKant( Boss,1999) ,otherl i
vingcr eatur esoughtnott obemi str
eat edonly
i
nsof arasdoi ngsomayhur ttheirowner s.Thus, fort hem, ot
herl iv
ingcreatures
havei nstrument alasopposedt oi ntri
nsicwor t
h.At hinghasi ntrinsi
cwor thifitis
i
mpor tantini t
sownsel f,whileabei nghasi nst r
ument alvalueonl yi
nsof arasi tisa
meanst osomeend.I ntheShonawor ldview, otherl i
v ingcr eatureshav eintr
insic
val
uei nsof arast heyaresent ient .Thus, suchamor al sanct i
ondi scouragest he
mistreat mentofot herliv
ingcr eat ures,bigorsmal l,forsadi sticreasons.Ukat asva
i
mbwa, unozoi tamur oyi(Ifyour ideadog, youwi llbecomeawi tch)

Becauseoft hev i
li
fi
cationandisolati
ont hatoft
env isit
saper sonaccusedof
witchcraft
,noonei swi l
li
ngtobeassoci atedwithwi tchcraft
,forwhateverreasons.
Suchf earsofbeingassoci at
edwi thwit
chcr af
t(Lager werf,
1992; Zvar
ev ashe,1970)
areusedt odiscouragepeopl efrom r
iddingadog.TheShonabel ievethat,intheir
nocturnalescapades, wit
chesrideonhy enasorf ell
owhumanbei ngs,andaper son
whoof tenclai
mst irednessinthemor ningisnor mallysaidtohav ebeenr odebya
witchdur i
ngthenight.Itispossiblyf
rom thispracti
cet hattheShonacommonl y
beli
evet hatwhoeverr i
desadogi ssi
mpl ybehav i
ngl i
keawi tchthatri
deshy enas
andhumanbei ngsatni ghtonhisev i
lerrands.

Adogi sasmal l animal t

hat,ordinaril
y,cannotsust aintheweightofahumanbei ng.
So,ri
dingadogi ssimpl ybeingcr ueltoit.InlightoftheShonapeopl e’
sconcernf or
thewelfareofotherl i
vingcreatures, parti
cularlythedomest i
catedones,thosewho
haveahabi tofridingdogsar ereprimandedf rom doingsobywayoft aboos.Ridi
nga
dog,therefor
e,refl
ectsbadl yont hechar acteroft heonewhodoest hisaction
becausesuchact i
ont otal
lydisregardst hepai nandangui shthatthedogunder goes
asar esultofsuchanact i
on.Thedogmaybi ttheriderbecausethepainit
undergoesmaybet oounbear able.Ther efore,aper sonofunhucannotst oopsol ow
tori
deadog.

Apersonwhodoessuchacr uelacttoanotherli
vingcreatur
elosesrespecti
n
soci
ety.Suchapersonhasutsinye(cruel
ty)orhasmwoy owakaipa(abadheart)
becausehisdeedsarepr
edicatedonunnecessar yinf
li
ctionofpainonothersent
ient
beings.Ther efore,suchaper sonoughtt obedi scouragedt hroughtheav oidancer ul
e
thatimpl orespeopl enottomi suseorabuseot herl
ivingcreatures.Suchaper son
mayf airbadl yinhisrelat
ionstof el
l
owhumanbei ngs.TheShonar egar d
domest icatedani malssuchasdogsasi mpor t
ant‘stakeholders’atthehomest ead
becauset herear ecert
ainkeyresponsi bi
li
ti
esthattheyhav eanddowi thdisti
nction
suchaspr ot ectingthehousehol dfrom intr
udersaswel lassafeguardingitsowneri f
heisindangerofbei ngattackedbyf ell
owhumanbei ngsandot herliv
ingcr eatures.
Therefore, theShonaseedogsaskeymember soft hef amilyandthisent ai
lsthat
theyoughtnott obeunnecessar i
lymi str
eated.

Ther ef ore, t
heonewhoabusesdogsandot herl ivingcr eat ur esexhi bitsabad
consci enceandt her efor emor al i
nsensi t
ivi
tyt oot herl i
v i
ngcr eat ur es.Justl i
ket he
Shona, Briti
shhedoni sticut il
i
tar i
an,Jer emyBent ham ( Boss, 1999)adv ocat edf ort he
ascr iptionofmor al stat ust oot herlivingcreat ures.Ut i
li
tar i
ani sm asconcept ual ized
byBent ham hol dst hatanact i
oni sr ightifitbr ingsaboutnetamountofpl easur et o
theonesaf fectedbyt hatgi venact ion.Hear guest hatt hecr iter ionf ort heascr i
pt ion
ofmor alr i
ghtst oot herl i
v i
ngcr eatur esoughtnott obebasedon, amongot her s, the
abilityt or easonandt al k,butont heabi li
tytoexper i
encepai nandpl easur e.Forhi m
(Miller, 1983) ,“…t hequest ionisnot , Cant heyr eason, norCant heyt alk?but , can
theysuf f
er .
”Amongt heShona, aper sonwhounnecessar ilyinf l
ictspai nonal iving
creat urei ssi mpl yabadmanbecausehi scr uel tyt oot herl ivingcr eat uresmayend
upnegat ivelyaf f
ect inghi sconducti nt hehumansoci et y
.I nv iewoft his, theShona
regar dst heonewhoabusesot herli
v ingcreat uresashav i
ngaser iousmor al def ect
thatmayhav eslipper ysl opeef fectst ohumanbei ngsaswel l.Hence, taboosar eone
oft hemaj orsour cesofShonaenv ir
onment al ethics.Howev er ,“ col oni al i
sm and
moder nwest ernt houghtr egardedt hesecul tur al systemsasbackwar d, super stitious
andi nimi cal t
or apideconomi cgr owt h.Itintroducedl awswhi chdeal tadev ast at i
ng
blowt ot heenv ir
onment all
y-fr
iendlycul turewhi chgov ernedt heday -to-dayact ivities
ofindi genouspeopl e.Thr ought heuseoff or ce, whi teset t l
er sappr opr iat edl arge
tractsofr i
chl andandf orcedt hemaj orit
yofAf ri
canpeopl ei nt ot hemostdenuded
animal -fr
eear eas, whi cht heycal l
edr eserves”( Kaser e,2010) .Iti sanact ualityt hat
aftery ear sofcol onial subj ugat ion,theShonaandot heri ndi genoussoci al groupi ngs
stil
l cli
ngst ot heirage- oldbel i
efsy st emson, amongot her s, thesuper i
or ityoft he
spiritual forcesandt hef actthatmor all
yscandal ousbehav iorsuchasdi sr egar dof
certai nav oi
dancer ulesat tractst heir eofthesespi ri
tualf orces.

SHONATABOOSANDSUSTAI
NABLEUSEOFTHEENVI
RONMENT

Conser vati
onandsust ainableuseofnat ur
e’sresourcesar enoti mpositi
onsfrom
theworldext ernaltoAf
ricathrough,amongot hers,colonialism andgl
obalizat
ionas
pro-Westschol arswouldwantt oargue.InthecontextofZi mbabwe’sconcer t
ed
effor
tstof osterandenhancesust ainabl
euseoft heenv ironmentt hr
oughpr ograms
suchas CAMPFI RE(Communal AreasManagementPr ogr ammef orIndi
genous
Resources)( Mapedza,2007),thepowert oensurebi odiversityandsustai
nableuse
ofnature’sanimal andotherresourcesisvestedingr assroot speopl
e.Howev er,t
he
effort
sbysuchbodi estof ostereco-fri
endlyatt
itudes( Kaser e,2010)amongpeopl e
i
nZi mbabwei sj ustbutacompl ement aryendeav ortost rengthentheculturalvalues
ofthei ndigenouspeopl easr ef l
ectedin,amongot her
s, taboost hathaveensur eda
responsi bl
euseofnat ure’
sr esources.Kaser e(
2010)r ight l
ynot esthat“t
hecul tural
componenti nCampf i
renotonl yprovestot hewor l
dthatsust ai
nabili
tyi
snota
creati
onofwest ernscholarship,asmanywoul dar gue,butal soexplainswhy
Campf irehasmanagedt or apidlywinthehear t
sofmi l
lionsofZi mbabweanswhen
otherpr ograms, bothinZimbabweandabr oad,couldnotmakei tbeyondt hedesi gn
stage.”Thus, thereisasensei nwhi chresponsibleuseofnat ur
e’sresour
ces
predatescol oniali
sm andot herWest er
ni nr
oadsi ntotheShonaandot herAf r
ican
societi
es.

Kaser e( 2010)r epudi atest hepr ev aili

ngcont entiont hatconcept ualizes“ …Af ricans
asnon- conser v ati
oni stsathear twhohav ef alleni nlov ewi thCampf ir
eonl ybecause
oft hemeatandmoneyi tgener ates.Mycont ent i
on, ont hecont rar y,i
st hatt he
progr am hasbeenaccept edbypeopl ebecausei tdoesnotcont radi ctt heAf rican
wi sdom aboutenv ironment .Whi leeconomi ci ncent iv esar eindi spensabl e, t
he
progr am pr eachesandpr act icessust ainabl econsumpt ionasav ehiclef or
dev elopment .Thi si sthel anguaget heZi mbabweanpeopl eandt heirancest orshav e
beenpr act icingsi ncet imei mmemor ial.”Acur soryl ookatt het aboost hat
discour agespeopl ef rom har mi ngt heenv i
ronmenti nv ari
ousway ssuchas
brut alizationofsomev ul ner ablecr eat uresandpol l
utionampl yshowst hatt heShona
andot herAf ricansoci al gr oupi ngshav eal way sv aluedt heneedt oexpl oi tnat ure’ s
resour cesi nasust ainabl eway .Forexampl e, peopl ear ediscour agedf rom cut ting
downwi ldf ruitt r
eespr imar ilybecausedoi ngsowoul dcompr omi set hel i
velihoodof
bot hhumanandot herl i
v ingcr eatur est hatdependonnat ure’spr ovidencef or
sust enance.I naddi tion, someofnat ure’ sendowment ssuchar ivers, bigt r
eesand
mount ainswer eaccor dedspi r
itual signi f
icance( Osei ,2006)because, byandl arge,
theywer eseenast hesanct uar yoft hespi ri
tual r
eal m andt her efor einneedof
j
eal ouspr ot ection.ForKaser e( 2010) ,“cer tainf orest swer esacr edandhi ghly
prot ect ed…[ impl ying]t hesci ent i
fi
ci mpor tanceofpr eser v
ingf or estsf ort he
regul at i
onofhy drologi cal cy clesandexchangesofgasesandnut ri
ent s…Anyhuman
bei ngr iskeddi sappear ingf orgoodi fhet ri
edt otrespassi ntot hear ea.Some
tradi t
ional leader s, particul ar l
ychi ef s, wer ebur iedi nt hesesacr edf orest s,and
cer tainpr ot ocol hadt obeappl iedbef or eanyhumanencr oachmentcoul dbe
allowed. ”Thus, ther eligiousi mpor tanceofsomeofnat ur
e’sendowment smeant
thatt heycoul dnotbedef il
edandt emper edwi tht hrough, amongot her s, want on
expl oitat i
onandpol l
ution.Pr ohibitionsagai nstmi suseofnat ure’ sresour cest hr ough
tabooshav ebeenshownt ohel ptof ost ersust ainabl euseoft heenv i
ronmentt hat
ensur esbi odi v ersity.At it
i (2010)al sosubscr ibest ot henot i
ont hat“ r
espectf or
ancest ral spi ri
tsdi rectlycont ri
but edt obi odiv ersityconser vation.Fori nst ance, plants
thatex istedi nshr ineswer epr ot ected, ast reeswer enotf ell
edt her e.Thebel i
eft hat
ancest ral spi ri
tsl i
vedi ncav esandr ockshel ter samongsomecommuni ties; assur ed
conser v ationofbi odi ver sity, wher esuchphy sical struct ur
eswer ef ound.The
l
andscapeandt reesinsuchsiteswereprotect edagai nstdestr
uction.Treest hat
werer egardedassacr edorceremonial
wer enev erusedf oranypur pose.Inmany
l
ocal communi ties,
allbigtr
eeswererespect edandl argef or
estswer eregardedas
sacred.”Thus,taboosar eamonganumberofwel l
-thoughtoutst rategiesamongt he
Shonaandot herAfri
cansocieti
esofsustainabl e(Chi gidi
,2009)managementof
nature’sresour
cesf orthesakeofthepresentgener at i
onsandpost eri
ty.Thus,
taboosar eamonganumberofst r
ategi
esusedbyt heShonat ofostersustainabl
e
useoft heenv i
ronmentandt oensurebiodi
v ersity.

Event houghsomef ear -induci ng‘lies’areusedasadet er

r enttothosewhohav ea
penchantt oexpl oitnat ur e’sresour cesi nanunsust ainableway ,
ther ealreason
behindsuchpr ohibitioni st hedesi r
et hatensur eamor er esponsibleuseofnat ure’
s
resources.Kaser e( 2010)r i
ght l
yasser t
st hat“longbef oreDrDav i
dLi vingstonehad
setfootinSout her nAf r
ica, Zimbabweanshadcul turalli
nkswi t
hthei renv i
ronment
secondt ot hatofnoot herknowncul tureint hewor l
d.Theyhadadi sti
nctcul tureof
conser v
ationov erseenbyt hechi ef,inat ete-à-t
et ewi ththegr eatShonaspi r
it
Mhondor o.Fr om chi ldhood, ev er
y onewast aughtbot hthemat eri
al andspi ri
tual
valueoft r
ees, f
or ests, ani mals, wat er,snakes, birdsandal lothernat uralresources.”
Thus,unwar rantedcut tingdownoft r
eesandexpl oitati
onot herendowment sof
naturewasnotaccept abl ef orconser vati
onpur posesaswel lasf orreli
gious
reasons.Wher eear thlypol i
cehav epr ovedt obei ncapableofenf orcingsust ainable
useofnat ur e’sresour ces, taboost hrought hei
rf ear-i
nduci ngmechani smst hatrope
thespirit
ual wor ldhav epr ovedt obeal i
felongpanaceat ot hehuman- directedthreat
tobiodiversityandsust ai nableuseofnat ur e’
sr esour cest hereof.

Ev ent houghnat ur al resour cesint het raditi

onal Shonasoci eti
esandot herAf rican
soci algr oupingssuf f erthef ateof“ thet ragedyoft hecommons” ,
suchcommon
owner shi p,cont raryt ocommonnot iont hati tbreedsi rresponsi bil
ityi nresour ce
utili
zat ion,haspr ov edt obeapanaceat ounsust ainabl euseofnat ur e’sresour ces
sincet hecommunal ey easr ef l
ectedi npr ohibitionscont ainedi nt aboosser veasa
deci sivedet er r
entt oi rresponsi bl
eexpl oitati
onoft heenv ironment .Car elessuseof
nat ure’sr esour cesr ef l
ectsbadl yont heof f
ender ’
schar act erandt hishasunpl easant
consequencesont heof f
enderbecausenat ureasconcei vedi nt heAf ri
can
cosmol ogyhasaspi rit
ual dimensi on.Vi olationoft heav oidancer ulesat t
ractbot h
ear thlyandspi ritual puni shment sthatv arywi tht henat ureanddegr eeoft heof f
ence.
Anot herf actort hatcement edsust ainabl euseoft heenv i
ronmenti st otemism
wher ebyhumancl ansar eident if
iedwi t
hapar t
iculart ot em.Kaser e( 2010)r eckons
that“ althought hesy stem wasnotpr otect i
onistparexcel lence, theset otemi cgr oups
repr esent edi nterestgr oupsf ortheirr espect iveani mal sandcoul dnotst andt otal
depl etionorabuse.West ernani mal right sgr oups; whof rom t heirwel l
-venti
lated
ani mal -fr
eeof f
ices, shoutt heirwor r
yf oraest heticr easonst hattheyhav emor e
concer nf orwi l
dl i
fet handoZi mbabweans; shoul dber emi ndedt hatt hatofwi ldl
ifein
thiscount r
yhadf armor etodowi t
ht hebel iefsy st em ofi ndigenouspeopl ewho
associ atedt heirsur vivalwi ththatofcer tainspeci es.Theycannev erbeconsi dered
l
esscar ingt
hanfor
eignersaboutt
heext i
nctionofwil
dli
fe.
”Thesetot
emsf or
bidthe
kil
li
ngofcertai
nwil
dlifespeci
esthatrepresentcer
tai
npeople’
stotem.Thus,the
systemsoft ot
emshelpinensuri
ngbiodiversit
yandresponsi
bleuseofnatur
e’s
resources.

Thet hreatofpuni shmentascont ainedi nt aboosmakest hewoul d-beof fender s

reconsi dert heirdeci sionbecauseoft hesev er i
tyoft hepuni shmentt hatgoeswi t
h
violat i
ngcer taint aboos.I nt hisr egard, “puni shmentf orv i
olatingt hecul tural
env ironment al lawsi nZi mbabwebef orecol oni alism wasext remel ysev ere.Ast he
sov er eignandov erall cust odi anoft heenv i
ronment ,thechi efexecut edhi sdi vi
ne
ri
ghtt osaf eguar dt heenv ironmentwi t
hast r onghand”( Kaser e, 2010) .Wi t
ht he
env ironmentv iewedi ni tstot alityasacommonher i
taget hati si ndispensabl ef ort he
surv ival ofhumani t
y, noonehadunr estrictedf reedom t oexpl oi ttheenv ironment
withi mpuni tyt ot hedi sadv ant ageofal l
.Si ncenat ure’sresour cesar ecommunal l
y
owned, eachandev ery onehasar esponsi bilityt osaf eguar dt heenv ironment“ …and
theref or ehadani nteresti nt hebehav iorofot hers.Tomakemat terswor se, ever yone
knewt hatt hei nv i
sibl eMhondor o[li
on]spi r
itwat chedov ert hei rbehav ior,and
dev iant sriskedaser iesofmi sfortunesorpr ov okinganat ural disast ert hatwoul d
affectt heent irecommuni tyi ft heylackedobser vance”( Kaser e, 2010) .Int hisr egar d,
thespi rit
ual flavort hati sassoci atedwi thShonat aboosassi sti nf oster i
ng
sust ainabl euseoft heenv i
r onment .Mhondor o( li
on)spi riti
sar ev eredShona
terri
t orialspi r
it( Bour di l
lon, 1987)t hati sbel iev edt ohav edomi ni onov eral ar gerar ea
andt heangert hati sbr oughtaboutbyt hisspi r
itisanal ogoust ot hatofal i
ont hat
roarswi t
hdeat h- i
nduci ngt hunder .Fearofr epr isal f
rom t heMhondor ot hati s
consequentuponv iolat i
onofcer t
aint aboospr ov idedeci sivechecksandbal ances
tothosewhomaybet empt edt osoacti namannert hatnegat est hesust ainabl euse
oftheenv i
ronment .Thr oughuseoft aboost hatactasmechani smsoff righteni ng
member sofsoci etyf rom behav i
ngi ncer tainway st hattheydeem t obesoci al
ly
unaccept able, t
heShonaandot herAf r
icansoci etieshav esucceededi ni nfluenci ng
thebehav ioroft heirmember sinadesi rableway .

THEQUESTI
ONOFTRUTHI
NSHONATABOOS

Whati simpl ici

tintheShonat aboosar etheirepist
emi candmor alaspect sl
acedina
thoroughl ypaternali
sti
cthinki
ng.Shonat aboosgi veknowl edgeofwhatconst i
tute
goodandbadhumanbehav i
or.AccordingtoShonaet hi
csasr eflectedintaboos,
peopl emustknowt hatgoodhumanbehav i
orleadst osocialaccept anceand
appreciationofone’ scommendabl edisposit
ionbyev eryonewhoi nteractswit
hthis
person.Ont heot herhand,apersonwhoi sdisposedt oactinav i
ciouswayi s
despisedbysoci etybecauseal mostalway shisacti
onsar eanti
-social.Thus,t
hrough
knowl edgeoft aboos, peoplecomet oknowoft herightcharactert r
aitstouphold
andi nculcateandt hebadchar actert
raitstoav oi
danddr op.
Taboosar erecountedtothey oungaspar toft
heirmor aleducati
on.Theyar e
paternali
sti
cinthatthey,
byandl arge,att
empttopr eventpeoplefr
om engagi ngin
activi
ti
esthatareanti-
socialand,t
herefore,
immor al.Thus,t
hroughtheknowl edgeof
thegood, onebecomeswel l
-di
sposedt oactvi
rt
uousl yandthroughknowl edgeofthe
vices;onebecomesdi sposedt oal
mostal waysavoidexhi bi
ti
ngmor aldecadence
throughhisacti
ons.

Howev er,onemayquest i
ont hemor ali
tyofShonat aboosasameansofi nfluencing
ri
ghtconducti nmor alagentsandav oidingbadt r
ai t
s.Itcanbear guedt hatthe
knowl edgeascont ainedi nShonat aboosi stradit
ional knowl edgei nthatitsat i
sfi
es
thebel iefcondit
ion.Theappr ent icesoft hisknowl edgear esupposedt otakei t
wi t
houtquest ioningi t
st r
uth-v alueandj ustif
icati
on.Byandl arge, suchknowl edge
verymuchf al
l
sshor tofknowl edgeasconcept ualizedint heWest er nphil
osophi cal
traditi
onwher eiti sdefinedasj ustifi
edt ruebelief.Suchadef i
niti
onofknowl edge
fi
ndsi nspirati
onf rom Plato’sTheaet etus( Potter,
1987) .Forabel ieftober egar ded
asapi eceofknowl edge,itmustbet rueandwar r
ant edbysuf f
icientandr el
ev ant
ev i
dence.Howev er ,t
hequest ionoft het rut
handj ustifi
cationcondi ti
onsinShona
taboosseem nott obei mpor tant ,perhaps, becauset hequestoft ruthtell
ingand
furnishingofev i
dencei snotimpor t
anther e,butwhati simpor tanti sthatpeopl eare
suffici
ent l
ydiscour agedf r
om engagi nginant i-
social behav i
or.

Shonat aboosar eobsessedwi thinst ill

ingf earinmor al agent ssot hatt heydonot
per f
orm certainactions.Thef earel ementi sattheexpedi encyoft r
utht elli
ng.
Gel f
and( 1979)not est hat“ manyav oi dancer ules[ are]enf orced; someoft he
consequencesofbr eakingt hem [ are]bel i
evedbyev eryone, butot hers[ar e]empt y
threatsempl oyedt odi sciplinechi ldren.Thosef earedmostandt hereforeobey ed
[are]theonest hat[threat en]deat ht ot hepeopl ewho[ br eak]t hem. ”Howev er,t
he
supposed‘ empt iness’ ofsuch‘ threat s’isnotappar entamongt heShonabecausei f
peopl eweret o‘know’ thatt heyar ebutj ustempt yt hreats, t
heywoul dnotabi deby
them.Hence, theywoul dceaset obeef fectivemor altool s.Fori nstance, whena
Shonat aboosay sthati fy ousi tont her oad, youdev elopboi lsont hebut t
ocks, tr
uth
asi ti
sgener all
yunder stoodi snotbei ngt oldbecauset her eisnor el
ationshi p
what soeverbet weent hebi ological causesofboi l
sandt heact ionofsi t
tingont he
road.Thought heShonaacknowl edget heact ualit
yt hatev eryef fecthasacause,
uponphi losophical analysis, thecause- effectrelati
onshi psasr eflectedi ntaboos
seem t obel oose.Thus, thef ail
ureasexhi bit
edi nShonat aboos, t
ot el
lt het r
ue
consequencesofcer tainact i
onsmaybeseenasani nst anceofmor al mi s-
educat i
oni nthatthet rueconsequencesofcer tainact ionsar esubst itutedf orthose
thatinsti
llfearanddi sciplinet hereof .Thi smi ghthav etragi cconsequencest ot he
acquisiti
onofi ndubi t
ableandi nfalli
bl eknowl edgeoft heconsequencesofengagi ng
i
ncer tainact i
ons.

Tell
ingmoralapprenti
cesfear-
induci
ngtaboosmayachievethedesi
redresul
tof
i
nfluenci
ngthei
rmor aldeci
sionsinthedesi
redf
ashion,
butthatwouldnotimprov
e
thei
rmoralknowledgeinthet r
uesensebecausefal
sehoodscanneverbet er
med
knowl edgei nt hestrictestsense.Thet endencyi s, therefor e,t hatf alsehoodsbecome
i
nst itutional izedt ot heex tentt hattheyar et akenast het ruthasi tmaybepassedon
from gener at i
ont ogener ationasknowl edge.Theconsequencesofsomet aboos
hav ebecomesoent renchedi npeopl e’smi ndssucht hatt heynowbel iev ethem
bey ondanyr easonabl edoubt .Fori nst ance, thecommonconsequenceoft hetaboo
thati fy oupi ponwomenwhoar enakedy ouwi l
l dev eloppi mpl esiswi del yaccepted.
So, ifonewer eseenwi thpi mpl esonhi sey es, peopl ewoul dst rongl ybel ievethathe
hasdonet heuncout hact ionofpeepi ngatnakedwomen.Ther efore,uponseei ng
suchaper son, t
heywoul daut omat i
cal lydoubthi smor alupr ight ness.Thus, such
educat iont hati nformsi tsappr ent i
cest hatt hepr esenceofpi mpl esonone’ seyelids
i
sar esul toft heimmor al actofpeepi ngonwomenwhoar enakedi snotonl y
unet hical ,butal sopr event smor al appr ent i
cesf r om knowi ngt het rueconsequences
ofper formi nggi venact ions.Ther ei sasensei nwhi cht abooscanbeseenas
cont radi ctingt heShonacar dinal v
irtueoft rut h-telli
ng( kutaur achokwadi )inthat
mor al appr ent icesar enott ol dt het ruthaboutt heconsequencesofcer tainbehaviors,
butt hoseconsequencest hatwoul dmakeaper sonf eeltot al
lydi scour agedf r
om
actingt hus.Fr om at enderage, childrenar et aughtaboutt hebadnessofl yi
ng
(kuny epa)andt heonewhocommi tst hi sv icei sheav il
ypuni shed.TheShona,
howev er ,bel iev ethattrut h-tellingi ssi tuat ional andcont ext ual int hatt her eare
cer t
ai ncaseswher et r
ut h-telli
ngi smor alandot her swheni tisi mmor al.Inl i
ghtof
theseexcept ions, theref ore, ther eisnot hingst rangeori mmor al fort heShonat o
falsifyt heconsequencesofcer tai
nbehav ior sifdoi ngsol eadst odesi rable
behav ioral changesamonghumanbei ngs.Despi tet heappar entmi s-educat i
onthat
i
schar act eristicoft aboos, member soft heShonasoci etyst illcl i
ngont osucha
cleverwayoff osteri
ngdesi rabl ebehav iorinpeopl e.

Accor dingMeade( 1930)asquot edbyChi gi di(2009) :Tor espectt aboowasadut y

towar dssoci ety,becausewhoev erbr okeitcaughtt het aboocont agionand
transmi tteditt oev er yoneandev er yt
hinghecamei ntocont actwi th.Thusi tbehov ed
thecommuni tytoenj oinr espectf ort aboo, andev enmor e,i
tbehov edthei ndi
v i
dual
toav oidcont actwi tht hingst aboo, otherwisehi si nf
ractionoft hispot ently
conv entional inhibitionr ecoileduponhi m,inpar ti
cular,withdeadl ysev erit
y.
Def ender sofShonat abooswoul dsayt hatt her easonwhyt hecor rectconsequences
ofper formi ngcer tainact i
onsar esubst i
tutedf ort hefear-inducingonesi sthatsi nce
theset aboosar epr imar il
ymeantf ort heyoung, theymustbecr aftedandpr esent ed
i
nsuchamannert hatwoul dt otallydiscour ageonef rom per formingcer t
ainact i
ons
fort hef earofsomenast yconsequencest hereof .Thus, theonewhost eal
sot her
peopl e’
scr ops( kubazv i
ri
mwazv ewamwe)f eelst hemor alpressur etoav oiddoing
sobecausei fhet husact s,her isksdev el
opi nganext raordinaril
ybi gstomacht hati s
anembar rassmenti nt hepubl ic.Thus, t
hiscommonconsequenceofst eali
ngi nstil
ls
feari ntot hewoul d- bet hiefsucht hathewoul ddesi stfrom doi ngso.

Thoughtheimpli
ci
tmorall
essonint
hist
abooist
hatthethi
efri
sksbeinghar
med
anddespisedbyhisv
ict
imsandthecommunit
yingeneralf
orhi
santi
-soci
alact
s,a
mor all
yfrighteningconsequencei sgiveni
nordert oensurecor r
ectbehav i
orthat
extolsthesaf etyofprivateproperty
.Steal
i
ng(kuba)isaser iousmor aldefectthatis
highlydespisedsucht hataconcoct i
oncall
edrukwai susedt opunisht hethi
ef.Itis
believedthatr ukwacausest hethiefandwhoeverwoul dhav econsumedt hestolen
cropst o,amongot hereffect
s,dieorbecomedef ormed.ForGel fand(1973),ift
he
thiefandhi sfami l
ymember s“…eatanyofthecropst owhicht hemedi cine(r
ukwa)
hasbeenappl i
ed,athiefandhisf amil
ywoulddev el
opswol l
enabdomensorbur ning
redmout hs. ”Thus,theuseofr ukwai smeanttoguar dagainstbaddeedsamong
member sofagi vensociety.

Thoughnotal lcropsar epr otect edbyr ukwa, t

heShonagener alizethatwhoev er
steal
scropsr isksdev el
opi nganext r
aor di
naril
ybi gtummyorr edmout hs.Int hi
s
taboo,i
tcanbeseent hatt hecommonconsequenceandt het r
ueconsequencear e
l
ooselyinagr eement .Thecommonconsequencehasat endencyofuni versali
zing
theresultofthechar act erdef ectofst eali
ngt oincludealli
nstancesofst ealing.This,
tosomeext ent,showst hatnotal l
Shonat aboosar etotal
lyinstancesofmor almi s-
educati
on.Somet aboos’ commonconsequencesandt r
ueconsequencest endt o
l
ooselyagr ee.Ther efore,ev ent houghmostShonat aboosseem t oleadt omor almi s
-educat
ion, whati simpor tantist hattheyendeav ortoinculcat
et hecor rectchar acter
disposi
ti
onsi nt heirappr enticesanddi scouragesbadchar act
erdi spositi
on.Thus,
thecommont hreadofShonat aboosi sthattheyai mt owardsshapi ngt heconduct
ofpeopleinor dert omaket hem wor thymember sofsociety.

Concl usi v
ely,iti
snot edt hatShonat aboosar emeantt oinstillcor r
ectdi sposi t
ions
i
npeopl et hr
oughf ear -inducingmor alsanct ions.Inaddi t
iontot hat, event hough
Shonat abooshav elimi tati
onsi nt hattheydonotdi scloset het rueconsequencesof
certainhumanchar act erdef ects, t
hemosti mpor tantaspectoft heset aboosi sto
i
ncul catecommendabl echar actertrai
tsi ntheirapprent i
cest hatwoul dmaket hem
wor thymember sofsoci etythatwoul dnotonl ybehav einadesi rablewayt owards
fel
lowhumanbei ngs, butal sor elatetot heenv i
ronmenti namannert hatembodi es
respectf orbiodiversityaswel lassust ainableexploitati
onofnat ure’sresour ces.
Shonat aboospr ovidepr ohibiti
onst hatf orbidpeoplef rom behav ingi nsuchmanner s
thatar eat hreattot hewel fareandwel lbeingoff ell
owhumanbei ngsandt her estof
theenv ironment .Ev ent hought aboosf ost ercommendabl echar act ertraitsamong
peopl ethrought hreatofsev erer epri
salsf ortheoneswhov iolatet hem, theyhav e
desirableut i
li
tybecauset heyhel pt okeept hewickedi ncheck.I nt hisr egard,though
themeansofenf orcingdesi r
abl ebehav ioramongpeopl earemor allyquest ionable,
theendj usti
fiesthemeans.

c)
Ther
oleoft
hechi
efandheadman

Thechief
andtheheadmanwer ever
ycent
ral
i
ntherel
i
gious,
pol
iti
cal
andsocial
arenaof
the
Karangasoci
etybefor
ethecomingoft
heChri
sti
anmissi
onari
es.
Amongt heKarangat
hech
i
ef was
knownasVasheor Mambo. Hewor kedv erycloselywiththeheadmanwhowaspopul arlykno
wnas
Sadunhu. Rightatthebot tomof thissoci al
hierarchywast hekr aal/vi
ll
ageheadknownasSa
bhuku.
Ofal l
theset hreet heChi efwasav ery impor t
antpersonint hetraditi
onalKar angasoci etybec
ause
hewasdeal ingwi thal l
soci alaffairsof thecommuni t
yatlarge.Bour dil
lon(1990: 109)argues
that
Kar angaChi efsar eof tennomi natedby descendant sofseni orbranchesof thechieflyfami l
y
whi chhav ebeenel imi natedf rom
thechi eflysuccessi on. TheChi ef wast radit
ionallyguardianof the
fundament alvaluesof upeny u(li
fe) andsamba( str
ength, vi
talit
y,andwell-
being) .Lifecomesf rom
thelandof whicht heChi efi
st heowner andst rengthandpower comesf romt heChief’sstatu
sand
hisaccessi onritual s.Bothl i
feandst rengt harenecessar y f
or t
hepr osperit
y ofthepeopl e.Th
e
Chief i
sr esponsi bl einthepr osper ityof hispeopleandpar t i
cularlyfor
thelandandi tsproduc
e.
Thusdr ought may bebl amedont hegener ali
ncompet ency oftheChieforont hefactt
hat poli
t
i
cal f
igur esrecei vet hebur ntofany dissat i
sfactionfel
tby theirsubjects.

Inthetr
adi t
ional
Karangasoci
ety
theChiefwasresponsi blef
orprovi
dingadvi
ceoneconomi
cal,
mar it
al,
reli
gious,
andpoli
ti
cal
welfar
eofhisterr
itory.
Forinst
ance,hecouldi
nterv
enei
nmari
tal
disputesuchasdivorce.
Butot
hermari
taldisputessuchasquar r
ell
ingsandfi
ghti
ngwereso
l
v edat
fami l
yl
ev elbyf
amil
y members.
If
themember softhefamilyf
ail
edtoresol
vethedi
sputet
hey

appr
oachedt
hekr
aalheadandl
att
erontot
heheadmanandlast
lyt
othechi
ef.
Asar
esul
t,
soci
aldi
sput
esmayaffecttchi
ldr
enandthey
findcasest
hey
report
tothechi
ef.

Anotherdutyoft
hetraditi
onalChi
efi
ntheKarangasocietywastopr
ovi
dethel
inkbetweenpe
ople
andtheancestorofthetri
beonaccountof
their
inheri
tedposi
tion.
It
wascommonl y
beli
eved
thattheancestorsoftheChief
shaddir
ectcontactwi
thancestral
spi
ri
tsof
everyfamil
y.

Ther ewer
esomany soci
alnor
msandv al
uesi
nthetr
adit
ionalKarangasociety.
Somepeopl
eviolet
thesecult
ural
val
uesandlawsoft
helandandt
hesecaseswer ereport
edtothechief
.For
exa
mpl e,af
athermi
ghtbecaughthav i
ngsexualrel
ati
onshipwi thhi
sdaught er
(makunakuna)orincestthematterwastakenstrai
ghttot heChieftorresideover
suchcases.
I
tshouldbenotedatthi
sjuncturethati
nthetraditi
onalKar
angasociety,
incest(makunakuna)
was
all
owedespeci al
ly
inChivi
andMwenezi .Butthiswassupposedtobedonepr i
v at
ely
inorder
t
o
faci
li
tatebumphar v
est.Thiswasdonet hroughar el
i
giousri
tual
knownasDi visit
hati
ssexdo
nein
thefi
eld.
Againsexbetweenbr otherandsist
er wasusuall
ypracti
cedasamedi cinal
ri
tei
fthe
other
onewasbi t
tenbyasnakecalledgreenmamba. Othercasessuchofsexualabuse(muboboa
ndchibharo)wer ealsodeal tbythechi ef
.

Thechi efwasalsoresponsi bl
efordist r
ibuti
nglandtotheheadmenwhol atter
onallocat ess
mal l
pieceof l
andtothekraalheadwhof inal l
ydist
ri
but edi
tt
of amily
member s.Furthermor e,thec
hief
wasal soresponsibleinothereconomi cmatterssuchasgoldpanni ngaswel l
ascont r
ol l
ingt
rade.In
connect iontot
his,
ther ai
nmaki ngrit
ual swerealsocontactedattheChief’
shomest eadi ft
he
rewas
noot herplace.
Hegav einstructi
onst otherai
nmessenger s(Nyusa)orordainedotherr eli
gio
us
funct i
onar i
est
oper f
or marainmaki ngr i
tual
atMabweadzi vai
ntheMat opohills(
areli
gi ous
shrineknownasMat onjeni)(
Daneel ,1970).

Intermsof hier
ar chy thechi efhadthesameposi ti
onwi thGod(Zame) .Thesoci al
hierar
chy w
aslike
aladder .
Thusthemachi ndaor j
uniorchiefswereequatedt ot
heancest ralspi
ri
ts.Thechiefw
as
very i
mpor tantev enhi sdeat hwasnot all
owedtoberepor t
edi
mmedi atelybecausehewasr e
gar ded
asthegr eatmount ain.Hisdeat hwaspr onouncedaf t
er onemont hf r
omt hedateofdeath.A
mong
theKar angapeopl ethechi efwasregar dedasimmor tal,powerfulandi nfl
uential
.Thisi
swhy
peopl e
embal mhi maf terhisdeat h. TheChieftherefor
e,hadspeci al
burialandpeopl ewer enot
allow
edt ocry.Asresul t,
theChi ef hadaspecialdiv
inepower amongt heKar angapeopl e.

TheWar d(Dunhu)Thewar dconsi

stsofanumberofv il
l
ages.Ri v
er s,
hil
lt
opsand
str
eamsmar kwar dboundari
es.Theseboundar
iesarewel lknown.Aheadmancal l
ed
sadunhuheadsthewar d.Heisamemberoft heseniorhomesoft hechief
’sl
ineage.
Hisfunct
ionsaresimi
lartothoseofthel
eaderofthevil
lage.Heal sopresi
desov er
thecour
t(dare)andi
nit
iat
esr
ainaski
ngr
it
ual
sinconsul
tat
ionwi
tht
hev
il
lage
headman.15

TheChi efdom/ Territ

or y( Ny i
ka)Thechi ef dom i st hewi destt erritorial andpol it
ical
unit
.Bour dilloni sr i
ghtwhenhenot est hatt heboundar iesofchi ef dom ar eclearly
definedbynat ur alfeat uressuchashi llsandr i
v erswel lknownt oitsi nhabi t-ants.16
FortheShona, l
ikemostpeopl ei nAfrica, landhaspr i
mar ilyav aluel inkedt oat ribe,
i
tschiefandt hespi r
itsoft heirancestor s.Thi si swhyi nShonat hechi ef(mambo)i s
call
ed‘ owneroft hel and’ (mur idziweny i
ka) .Ny ikai stheShonanamecommonl y
usedf orl and. 17Thi sowner shipoft hel andbyt hechi efisar esul tofhi ssupposed
connect ionswi thmy thologi calfounder -ancest or sofhi schi efdom.I tist heancest or
s
whoar ebel iev edt ohav echosenhi m andgav epowerandaut hor ityov erhis
subjects.18Sot hechi efisi nhisposi t
ionby vir
tueofhi srelationshi pwi t
ht he
ancestor s,whoappoi ntedhi m andsuppor tshi m.Ther eal owner soft hel andar e
howev ert heancest r
al spi r
itsoft hedeadt ribal rulerspar ti
cular lythoseoft he
my t
hical founder -
ancest orsoft hechief dom.Thechi efistheseni ordescendantof
theancest ral spiritswhof oundedt hechi ef dom.Hei sbot hapol itical andar eli
gious
figure.Ther oleoft hechi efist hesameast hoseofv il
lageandwar dheadmen
differi
ngi nt hechi ef’
sgr eateraut horit
y .Tr aditi
onal lyhei sthefinal cour tofappeal .
Hei sresponsi blef orpr opitiati
nghi sclanancest or s.Hei satt heapexoft het ri
be’s
ri
tualhier archy .Ov er
al lthechi efissacr ed.19Hi saut hor i
tyisl i
nkedt ot helandand
thespiritst hatowni t.

CONCEPTOFHEALTHANDHEALI
NGMETHODSI
NINDI
GENOUSRELI
GION

Heal
thi
nIRr
efer
stot
het
otal
wel
lbei
ngofani
ndi
vi
dual

I
treal
l
yhasastrongemphasisontheabsenceofdisease.Iti
simportanthoweverto
not
ethatinIR,thehealt
hofani ndi
vi
dualisn’
tli
mitedt otheabsenceofdi sease
al
one.Asamat t
eroffactaheal
thypersonisapersonwhoi swithoutadisease, i
s
i
ngoodr el
ati
onshi
pwi t
ht hespir
it
ualworldandi nhar monywi t
hf ell
ow human
bei
ngsint
hecommunity

I
nI Rsi
cknessdoesnotcomenatural
l
y.Ithaveasuper
naturalori
gin.Thi
siswhy
whensomeoneisil
lthef
ir
stt
hingi
stoconsul
tadi
vi
nertoestabli
shthecauseoft
he
i
ll
ness

Thusconsul
ti
ngdiviner
sist
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heheal
i
ngpr
ocessandr
est
orat
ionof
heal
thi
nanindiv
idual

MEDI
CALPRACTI
TIONERSI
NIR

I
ndi
genous medi
cal pr
act
it
ioner
s ar
etr
adi
ti
on bear
ers,cul
tur
alcust
odi
ans,
transmi t
ter
s ofourhi ndsightwi sdom and t he f or
e bear er
st o ev ery unborn
gener ati
on.Theyconstit
uteoneagi nganddy i
nghumanf orm ofar eservebankof
unquest i
onablei ndi
genous knowl edge sy st
ems,dat abank of homespun and
prover bi
alwisdom.Despi tet hem bei ng thereser voi
rsofi ndigenousknowl edge
sy st
ems,dat abasesandv icarstocul t
uralmotif
s,theyar edoubl efacedi nasf aras
theypol i
cerelat
ionsbetweenandamonghumanbei ngsandt hepatronsoft hespiri
t
wor l
d[ T.O.Ranger1967: 18].Theyhav et heabili
ty,asat enderbr i
dgebet weent he
l
iv i
ngandt hespiri
tworl
d,t otransv
er sebetweent hehumanandspi r
it
ual worl
d.

Intermsoft heZi mbabweanconst i

tut i
ononlyi ndi
genousmedicalpr
actit
ionersand
fai
thheal er
s:zv i
porof it
aar er equiredt or egister
.Tot hebestofourknowl edge
i
ndigenoussacr edpr actiti
oners:masv i
kiro/
mhondor oarenotregi
ster
ed.Many ,ifnot
allare unwilli
ng t o be r egist
ered i n west ern sty
led dat
abanks l
ike registers.
Herbali
sts:godobor i
,indigenousnon- cli
nici
ans:nechombo/ makumbiandindigenous
cli
nici
ans/herbali
sts:v arapidonotal soconst it
uti
onall
yquali
fytober egist
eredi n
ter
msoft heTradit
ional Medi calPractiti
oners’Act27:14of1996.

I
ndigenousmedi calandsacredpr actiti
onersareconcentratedinr uralZimbabwe
wher etheypr esideov erpar
ticularrites.Howev er,t
heyarescat t
eredi nt heurban
areas.Therein,theycommandal otofr espect
.Theyar evestedwithunquest ionable
andboundl essr eposi
tori
esoft hei ndigene’
shomespunwi sdom andknowl edge
aboutt hepr i
mor dialstat
eofaf fai
rsbet weenthel i
vingdeadandhumansoci ety
.
Sincetheirdutyist ogazeint
oet ernaltruthsandimpartthesubjectknowl edgetot he
humansoci ety,theyassumet heabi li
tyt otr
aversebetweent hespi r
itandhuman
wor l
ds.

Indigenous medi cal practi

ti
oner
s ar e derogati
vely cal
l
ed n’ angas. I n the
Zimbabweancaset heterm becameknownas“ n’anga”whichsupposedl ycomes
from “n’a-
a”meani ngt
obi teand“nga-a”ref
erri
ngtoal ongperi
odoft hebite.Some
i
ndi genousmedi calpracti
ti
onersempl oyonet r
eatmentmet hodusi ngt heirteeth:
kurumazv i
tsi
nga.Wesupposet hatitwasf r
om suchanobser v
ationt hatthet er
m
n’angawasder iv
ed.

Ty
pesofI
ndi
genousMedi
cal
andSacr
edPr
act
it
ioner
s

Therearegeneralpr acti
ti
onersinindigenousmedicalandsacr edpracti
ce.They
i
nclude appr
enti
ces,gr andaunts:homwe i nthe f
rater
nityand auxil
i
arystaffto
i
ndigenousmedicalpr act
iti
oners:makumbiornechombo.Theyt reatminori
ll
ness
thatr
equir
ednopr ognostics.Wheneverthecli
ent
’smedicalcondi
ti
onisbeyondthei
r
competence,t
heyrefertheclientt
oaspeci al
i
st.

Some indi
genous medicalpr
act
it
ioners ar
e speci
ali
sts on issues r
elat
ed to
rest
it
uti
onspir
it
s:ngozi
.Theyhealthoseinfl
ict
edbyther est
it
utionspi
rit
s.They
reverset
hespi r
it
ualandphy si
caleff
ect
sofrestit
uti
onspi ri
ts,providepl acebosor
redir
ectt
hei nf
li
cti
ngspi r
it
ualf
orceagai
nstt
hesender :kudzorerangozi .Theyknow
vari
ousway sofresti
tut
ingngozi
.Thebestt
herapyforngoziistorestitute.Prover
bial
wisdom dict
atesthatmushongawengozikui
ri
pa:thebestwayoft reatingngoziisto
payresti
tuti
on.

However,
bogusspeci
ali
stsconsul
tedaboutngozipr
escr
ibeagobl
i
n:chi
kwambof
or
sel
f-
prot
ecti
onasastopgapmeasur e.Thi
sani
mat ei
snogoodtoanyfami
ly
.

Somei ndigenousmedi calpractit

ioner sarespeci al
istsonissuesr el
atedtopost-
humousenqui ries:gata.Theyinterpretcausesoft hedeathofthedeceased.During
thei
rprognosti
cst heybecomei ncarnat esofthedeadandhi s/herantecessor
s.They
provi
deinformat iononhow t hedecr easedwant st heestat
edi st
ri
butedandhow
rel
atedri
tualshav et obeenact ed.Instructi
onsaboutdor orehonyeandkur ovaguva
ri
tual
scomef rom t hi
sspeciali
st.Thespeci al
isthast hepowertoinvit
e:kuhakathe
spir
itofthedeceasedt odi al
oguewi ththel i
vi
ngusi nglots:hakata.TheShona
peoplehonorif
yt hisspecial
i
stasmuv uki/mashopeshope.

Some i ndigenous medi calpr actiti

oners are speciali
sts on i ssues rel
ated to
met eorology.Theyar econsultedonweat herandcl i
mat icpredict
ionsandchanges
biannually.Theypr esideov ermi kwerera/mitor
o:r ai
n-inducing (notrai
n making)
ceremoni es.Thesubj ectspeciali
st sliveinraini nducingcent ers.Attimes,they
sojournt oMabweadzi vabeforet hest artofther ai
nr easonorwhenev errai
nsf ai
l
.
Thej ourney/ i
sdesi gnedtoconsul twiththevoiceofMwar i
.InMat onj
enitheyARE
providedwi thdetai
ledinterpr
etati
onsofweat her,cli
mat i
candr ai
nfal
lpatt
erns(L.M.
Daneel 1973: 27f)
.

Somei ndigenouspracti
tionersar especial
ist
soni ssuesrelatedtowitchcraf
t:uroy
i
andcl eansingofplaces:kuchenur anyika.Theyparti
cipat
ei nwitchcr
aftespionages
whenandonl ywhent heyar einvit
edbyt hechief
:mamboorasadunhu:v i
l
lagehead.
Thosei denti
fi
ed aswi t
ches:v aroy
iinpossessi onoff ami l
iars:zv
idhomapaya
specifi
ednumberofcat tlet ot hepractit
ioner
.Thesepr acti
ti
onershav eashor t
l
ifespangi ventheli
fe-
threateningwor ktheydo.Thespeci ali
stsinwit
chcraftrel
ated
i
ssuesar ecall
edtsi
kamut andaorgaur ani.

Somei ndi
genousmedicalpract
iti
onersar
especi
ali
stsinpredi
cti
ngtheconsulat
e’s
futureorprevi
ousl
ife.Thesedonotuseanysong,danceet ctogetint
othismood.
Theyar ecall
edvaf
ember i
.Theysmel lar
oundt
hebody :kuf
embaoft hecl
ienteit
her
closelyorfr
om adi
stanceandst ar
tpredi
cti
ngt
heli
feofthepati
ent.

“
Somei
ndi
genousgener
alpr
act
it
ioner
sar
especi
ali
stsi
nher
bal
medi
cines:
godobor
i.
Knowledgeaboutspeci f
icher bs i
srestr
ictedtospeci fi
cf amil
i
es.Ot herordinary
peopl
e could know the herbs thr
ough f
riendship,mar r
iage ormedi calpractice
exper
iences.Mermaids:njuzu,atti
mes,t
raintheel ectedintothi
sprofessionunder
water
.Itisthepotent
ial
tobepossessedthatdi st
inguishesthem f
rom herbali
sts.

Todayprofitmindedher
bali
stspar
takei
nunsancti
onedstreetv
endi
ng.Her
bal
ist
s,
serveforfew,arenotZINATHAmember s.Thecodeofet hi
csforZI
NATHAdoes
al
low vendingofherbs,
”saidMbuy aDzamara(I
nter
viewedinTafar
a,Har
areon
07/03/
2008

Funct
ionsofTr
adi
ti
onal
Heal
ers

Theypr esideoverchieftai
nshipandgov ernancei ssues.Theyar epoliti
caladv i
sors.
Thechiefs,vil
l
ageheadsr espectt hem.Theyar esacr amental’soft heguardiansof
Zimbabweangeopol i
tics.Theyl eadpeoplet o/inwaragai nstusur persoftheirland
ri
ghts,asdidNehandaandChami nuka[D.Lan1986: 17,T.O.Ranger1976: 56f]
.They
rar
elyadmi ni
sterher
bsexceptsnuf f:
bute.Thoset hatadministerherbsdosooutof
theknowledget heyassumedbef oresuccumbi ngt othisvocation.Thegr eatest
spir
it
soft helandpossessest hem.Thi sspecialistiscall
edsv i
kiroormhondor o”.

∙Theyarespir
it
ualconsul
tantsendowedwi t
hextraordinar
yknowledge;theyar
e
guardi
ansofesoter
icknowledge(beyondtheordinar
y).Theypr
esideov ermost
tr
aditi
onal
rit
ualsoff
eri
ngguidancefortheproperexecuti
onofri
tuals.

∙BecauseIRsdonothav ewritt
enscr i
ptur
eofthei
rowntheyarenotconcerned
aboutort
hodoxy(RIGHTBELI EF),
theyputmor eemphasisonorthopr
axis(
RIGHT
ACTION).Knowledgeiscoll
ectedandst oredi
nthememor yofAfri
cans.Tr
adit
ional
heal
ersaretheReservesecti
onofI R.Theyarethei
ntel
l
ectualhubDur i
ngkurova
guvacer emonyconsultancyservicesaresoughtf
rom t
hen’anga

∙Chav undukasaysthattheTraditi
onalheal
ersdodet
ecti
veworkpart
icul
arl
y
recoveryofstol
enproperty.Theyalsoestabl
isht
hecauseofdeat
h/postmort
em:
a
persondoesnotdi e,
theyarekil
led,

∙Heal
soregar
dsthem asmarr
iageadvi
sor
s:t
heycanprescri
belove
por
ti
ons/
husbandtami
ngherbs(m upfuhwi ra).Formentheyprescri
bemi
shon
gayemi sanatoenhancesexualpot
ency
/toenhancesexualper
fecti
on,

∙Theycancl
eansemisfor
tunes(kugezami
nyam a)t
her
ebyenhanci
ngchances
ofgett
ingamarr
iagepart
ner,

∙Theyarepol
i
ticaladvi
sor
stot hechi
efs.Theycanpr
escribe“chi
vhuno”(m afu
taeshum ba) .Thi
senhancesone’
scapacitytoi
nsti
lfearandr
especti
nthei
r
enemies
Tr adit
ionalDiagnosis
Sincet heShonaexper i
encei l
l
nessanddi seaseasat hreattot hei
rli
ves,diagnosi s,
centredont hen' anga,iscrucialtoi denti
fyt hecauseandpr escri
beappr opri
ate
medi cati
on.Howev erdiagnosisisnott hemonopol yofthen' angaalone.El dersofa
communi tyareal soconsultedont hesour ceofdiseasebecauseoft hei
rwi sdom
andexper ience.Al somot hershav etheabi li
tytodiscernt hecauseofani ll
nessi n
theirownchi ldren.Sot hesepr act
it
ionershav eawi der angeofmet hodsatt heir
disposal.

Di
agnosi
sbyt
heN'
anga
Then' angaisconsultedincasesofgr aveill
nesses,especi
all
ywheni ti
sbelieved
thatspiri
tsareresponsibl
ef ortheproblem.Sot hen'angaisexpect
edtodiscover
whyt hespiri
tsaffl
ictthevicti
m withil
lnessandwhi chr emedymaybepr escri
bed.
Then'angatherefor
eempl oyssev er
aldif
ferentmethodsofdiagnosi
s.

1Possessi
on
Possessi
oni sonesignifi
cantmeansofdi agnosi susedbyt hen'anga.Thedi vi
ner
perf
ormsar it
uali
nvolv
ingsnufftaki
ng.Heput sonsy mbolicclot
hes,ei
therblackfor
anancestralspi
ri
torredf orshavispiri
t.Ot herit
emsi ncl
udeani malskinandbi rd
feat
hersandhewi el
dsinhi sri
ghthandaspear ,walki
ngstickorhandaxe.Thehi de
ofalionorleopar
dser vesasamat .Allsuchi t
emsar eanexpr essi
onofpower .In
themidstofsingi
nganddanci ng,anancestralorali
enspiri
t,whichiscausingil
lness
i
napat i
ent,i
sinducedtopossesshi m andexplainthereasonfortheaffl
ict
ion.

I
npossession,then’
angamayspeakinthevoi
ceoft heinvadi
ngspir
itthati
sof
ten
i
nter
pret
edbyanassi st
ant
. Meanwhil
etheaff
li
ctedper sonclapshishandsand
l
i
stensatt
entiv
elytot
heassist
antassi
gnofr
espectforthespir
it
.

2Di
ce
Themostcommonst y
leofdiagnosisisthrowinghakat a(di
ce),
usuall
ymadef rom a
bone,woodandot hermateri
alsandhassmal limagesandsy mbol sonthem.Bones
havedif
fer
entnamesl keMabwe,
i Gata,Chi
rume, Chi
tokwadzi
ma, Kwami,andZunga.
Thesearethrownbyt hen'
angaandhav edifferentmeanings,whichhei nt
erpr
ets
dependi
ngont hewayt heyfall
.I tisalsobel ievedthatbythrowingthedice,the
n'
angaestabl
ishescontactwit
hspi r
it
s.

3Speci
alObj
ect
s
Anothercommondi agnost
icmethodist
heuseofspecialmedicatedobj
ect
sli
kea
tal
ki
ngcal abash,i
nwhichtheinvadi
ngspi
ri
tspeaksthrough;snufft
ocoercethe
spi
ri
tint
otal
ki
ng;
oxt
ail
tospr
inkl
eher
bsandwat
ert
oref
lectt
hesour
ceoft
roubl
e.

4Dr
eams
Dreamsar eanot hermeansofdi agnosisav ail
ablet othe n'
anga. Hepr epares
hi
msel fwi t
hcer tainri
tualsbefor
egoi ngt osleepi nor dertor eadandi nter
pret
dreams pr oper
ly. He put s on hi
sr i
tualatti
re and pours snuffon the pil
low,
accompani edbyi ncant
ati
ons.Theritualisi
ntendedt oestabl
ishcontactwit
hspirits.
Thedi agnosisdoesnott akeplaceatanyt imeoft hedaybutonl yatdawnordusk,
specialti
mesf oref f
ect
ivecommuni cati
onwi ththespi r
it
ualworld.Someexampl es
ofdreamsandt heirmeaningsusedindiagnosingani l
lnessareasf ol
l
ows:

Whirl
windsigni
fiestheonsetofment alil
lness;donkeys,snakesand
meati ndi
catewitchcraf
torsor cery.Someonef al
li
nginf i
reorin
otherperil
oussi t
uati
onsi ndicat
esi ll
nessand mi sf
ortune. I
fa
personischasedandbi t
teninadr eam,t hepartthatisbitt
enwil
l
succumbt odisease(Pri
vateinter
view,4May1990) .

SotheShonast r
onglybeli
evethatdreamsf orewarnorindi
catethati
ll
nessand
di
seaseandevenmi sf
ort
uneanddeathwilloccur.Thest
ri
kingfact
orint
hereadi
ng
ofdreamsisthattheyarebel
ievedt
ocomef r
om theancest
ralspi
ri
tswho,when
cont
acted,
rev
ealthecauseofi
ll
ness.

5Omens
Obser vat
ionandi nter
pretat
ionofomensi sanot hermethodusedbyt hen'angai n
diagnosis. Omensar emani f
estat i
onsbyspi ri
tsinnatureandar eperceiv
edas
reli
ableandconsi st
entsignsofi l
lness,mi sfor
tuneanddeat h.TheShonabel i
ev ein
goodandbadomensandt hesear ecommonl yfoundi nthepresenceofact i
onsor
animalsandbi rds,whichmustbei nter
pretedbyanexper t.Whi l
egoodomensbr ing
goodheal thandwel lbeing,badonesi ndicatetrouble.Forinstanceanowlhoot ing
orj ackalcryi
ng neara homest ead;t hesi ghtofa bl i
nd,orf i
lesnake,slender
mongooseort wocat smat i
ng;falli
ngst arornewmoonf acingleft
,all
indi
cateil
lness
andbadexper ienceslikewitchcraft,misfor
t uneanddeath.

6Or
deal
Thef i
nalmethodusedbyt hen'angaistheordeal
. Thi
smet hodofdiagnosi
sis
appli
edwhenwi t
chcraf
tissuspectedasthecauseofill
nessanddisease.Inthe
ordeal
,then'
angaadminist
erspoisonoussubst
ancestoagroupofpeople.Whi l
e
i
nnocentpeoplebecomenauseousf r
om thepoi
son,t
hewit
chwill
r emainunaf
fect
ed.
Sothroughthi
smet hod,whichinv
olvesanexperi
mentwit
hlif
e,then'anganotonly
ver
if
iesthecauseofdiseasebutal
soproceedstosmit
ethecul
pri
t.

Tradi
ti
onalHeal
i
ng
Tr
eatments

Treatmentofill
nessanddi seaseamongt heShonav ar
iesaccordingt
ot hecat
egory
ofil
lness.Seriousil
lnessistreat
edinvari
ousway s,
whi chi
ncludeherbaltr
eat
ment,
extr
actionofdisease-causi
ngobject
s,andexorci
sm.Mi nordiseasesl
ikeheadaches
orstomachpr oblemsar eheal
edbymedi ci
nalt
reatment.

Chroni
cillnessanddi seaselkenhov
i a(fontanel)i
nchil
dreni
satt
ri
butedt
owitches
andcanbet r
eatedbyapl antcaledchi
l fumur o,whi
chmeansexposingt
oshame.
Themedi cineistiedaroundthewaistorneckoft hechi
ldandint
hatwayresi
stsor
neutr
ali
sest heaggressivenatur
eoftheill
ness.I nawaychif
umuroisbot
hcurati
ve
andpreventive.

Att i
meswhent hesymptomsoff ontanelsuchasv omi t
ingandsor esont heupper
partofthemout happear,t
henleavesofmubv amaropa(bloodl
ett
ing)treeareburnt.
Theashesar emi xedwit
hfat,
whichisobt ai
nedfrom theseedsofmuf ute(cast
oroil
)
tree,andthemixtureisr
ubbedont heaffectedpartofthehead.Whi lstbl
ooddr ai
ns
thedisease,oi
lsoothespai
n.

Thef ontanelcanal
sobecur edusi ngchifuro-furo,
at hornytr
ee.Root saretakenand
poundedandmi xedwithwat er .Asti
ckwitht wobr anchesthenstir
st hemixtureunti
l
i
tpr oducesfoam.Thef oam i srubbedagai nsttheheadoft hechi
ldusingt hesti
ck.
Thechi l
disthenhealed.Alter nati
vel
yhealingi smadeupofsy mbolicacti
on.Achi ck
i
stakenandusedbyanel dermemberoft hef ami l
ytoscr at
chtheheadoft hepatient.
Scratchi
ngsy mboli
call
yel i
mi natesdisease.Anappeali smadet otheancest or
st o
eff
ectheal i
ng.

Oneser i
ousdi seasethataff
ect schil
drenisinfl
ammat ionofthenav el.I
tisdetect
ed
byt heappearanceofbl acki
shbl oodv essel
satthenav elofthechi l
d.Causedbyevil
forces,thi
sdi seaseisdef i
nit
elyl et
halifnotgi v
endueat tent
ion.Howev ertaki
ng
chifumuro canpr eventthedi sease.I tisheal
edwi t
hbi t
terjuicesofnhundugwa
(shrub)gav
, akav a( oe)ormazi
al mbe( charcoal
)mi xedwithsali
va.
Anotherser
iousi
ll
nesscaledchi
l pengo(
ment
ali
l
lness)i
scausedbywi
tchcr
aft
.As
regar
dstheheali
ngofthi
sdisease,

Chi
rovadundunduher
bismi
xedwi
thseedsofmuf
ute.Themi
xtur
eis
puton

gl
owingamberandt
hepat
ienti
sor
der
edt
osmoke. Al
ter
nat
ivel
y
chi
kony
e

(
worm)ofasheepi
scr
ushedandappl
i
edoni
nci
sionscutont
he
for
eheadoft
he

pat
ient
. Thepat
iental
sot
akessomeher
bs. Al
lthi
sconsol
i
dat
es
curat
ive

power(
Pri
vat
eInt
erv
iew,
10Sept
ember1989)
.

Aphy si
caldisordercausedbysorcer
y,chi
tsi
nga,ishealedbyt heuseofmut ar
ara
tr
ee.Themedi cinemayal sobeusedasaprevent
ivewhent hev i
cti
mtakesanacti
ve
partandeitherputsitint hehai
rbefor
egoingt osleeporpat chesitatthedoor
entr
ance.Thisismeantt oconf
useandthusdri
veawayt hewitch.

TheShonaal sogr applewithbir

ipi
ri(measles),akill
erdi
sease.A chil
dwitht hi
s
diseaseiscaut ionedt o st
ayindoorsal lt
het imet o mi
nimiseit
st r
ansmissi
on.
Treatmentoft hisdiseaseentail
sconf essi
onofgui l
tespecial
lywhereadult
eryis
suspected as t he cause.Also chif
umur o(t )and hazv
he exposer i
eri(wit
hout
restr
ict
ions)herbsgoal ongwaytor everset
hesy mptoms.

Sex-r
elateddi
seasesalsohaunttheShona.Thesei udej
ncl eko(menstruat
ionpai
n)
rubaya(conti
nuali
llheal
th)musana(back)andrunyoka(v
enerealdi
sease).Mostof
thediseasesarecausedbyv i
olat
ionofsocio-
moralnormsinsociet
y.Menst r
uati
on
paincanbecur edasfoll
ows:

Sadzaiscookedwi
thher
bs.Thent
hecooki
ngpoti
sov
ert
urned.A
kni
feis

ocutsadzai
usedt ntopi
eces.Thepat
ienti
sor
der
edt
oeatapi
ece
and

t
hrow t
henextpi
eceawayi
ntur
n.Thepr
ocessi
srepeat
edsev
eral
 t
imes.

Al
ter
nati
v yj
el ekacheka (
shar
p bl
aded gr
ass)i
smi
xed wi
th some
medi
cine.The

mi
xtur
ei sdri
edandcr
ushedi
ntopowder
. Thepowderi
sputi
n
por
ri
dge.The

pott
hatcooksthepor
ri
dgei
ssmashedatt
her
ubbi
shpi
t. The
por
ri
dgei
s

t
akenr
egul
arl
yunt
ilt
hepat
ientr
ecov
ers(
Pri
vat
eint
erv
iew,
4Januar
y
990)
.

Rubaya( cont
inuali
l
lheal
th)isamaledisease,whi
chtheShonaper cei
veascomplex
andlethal.A mani ssupposedt ohav esexualint
ercour
sewi t
hhi swifeaftera
miscarr
iageasamat t
erofprior
it
y.Fail
uretocomplyi sr
ncur ubaya.Theil
lnesscan
becuredbyuseofunspeci f
iedherbsandcanbepreventedbyconformit
ytocustom.

Musana( l
it
eral
lybackache,butwhi chal l
udest opr oblemsofi mpot
ence)af fects
bothmenandwomen.Forwoment hisproblem isheal edbykuuchika,aform of
operat
iondonebyann' anga.Alter
nat i
v yr
el uvandepl antisusedforacur e.I tis
burntandsmokei sall
owedt of
il
terthrought hegenit
alsofanakedwomant oeffect
cure.Formenv huka-vhuka(wakeup)‘ aphrodisi
acs’aret akent
obooststimulation
andenhancereproducti
on.

Runyoka(venerealdisease)i
scuredwithtakingherbsadmi
nist
eredbythen’
anga.I
n
mostcasest heculpriti
smadetopayf orpwany aruzhowa(
gatecrushi
ng)i
nordert
o
ensureheal
ingorr i
skdeat hf
rom thi
sdisease.

Ext
ract
ion
The Shona bel iev
et hatwitches and sor cer
er s can infl
ictpai n.
They can also
i
ncapacitatethev i
cti
m and cani nsertcer
tainitemssuchasi nsects,wor ms,eggs,
hairandbl oodintohumanbodi es.Heal i
ngi sdonebyaspeci al
i
stt hroughkuruma
(bit
i ,kukwi
ng) za(r
ubbi ,kuv
ng) hiya(surger
y),orkupf ungaidzir
a( blowingsmoke)on
theaf f
ectedpar tsoft hebody.Obj ectsremov edar er arelydisplayedf orpubli
c
viewinglesttheyturnbli
nd.Extracti
onofdi sease-causingobj ectsmaysuppl ement
herbaltr
eatment .
Exor
cism
Whenaspiri
tenter
sintoapersonandcausesseriousill
nessanddiseaseandis
i
dent
if
iedbyaspecial
i
stastr
oublesomethenexorcism i
susedtoexpelt hespi
ri
t.
Commonmet hodsi
ncl
udebl
oodlet
ti
ng,emet
icsorpurgati
vesandsni
ff
ing.

Medi cine
Therear emi nori
ll
nessesanddiseaseswhichaffecttheShonat hatarebel
i
evedto
benat uralandwhosecausei snotnecessaril
yat t
ri
but edtothespir
it
s,wit
chesor
sorceryorcont emptofsocio-morallaws. Suchdi seasesasheadaches,fluand
stomach pr obl
ems ar e usuall
y healed through home cur ati
ve medici
nes
admi ni
steredbytheelder
softhefamily.Theherbkaribekanduismosteff
ecti
ve.

Theref
oretheShonat
radi
ti
onalheali
ngsyst
em ut
il
isesr
it
ual
sandtreat
ment s
admini
ster
edbyspeci
ali
stpract
it
ionerst
oprev
entandcurei
ll
nessanddiseaseand
rest
orehealt
h.
COMMMUNI
TY ANDSOCI
ALRESPONSI
BILI
TY

1STEWARDSHI
P

2RESPECTFORCOMMONDI
GNI
TY

3RESPECTFORLI
FE

4RESPECTFORCOMMUNITYPROPERTYegFLORAANDFAUNA,
WILDLI
FE,
WATER
SOURCESANDCOMMUNITYRESOURCES

5RESPECTOFCOMMUNI
TYRI
GHTS

6ADVANCI
NGTHEI
NTERESTSOFTHECOMMONGOOD

7RESPECTI
NGCOMMUNI
TYDECI
SION
TENENTSOFJUDAI
SM

COVENANTANDLAW

Theterm cov
enantr
efer
stot
hesacr
edagr
eementbet
weenGodandaper
sonora
groupofpeople

ScottV.Johnsonetaldefi
nedtheter
m covenantasagraci
ousrel
ati
onshi
pofl
ove
betweenGodandhumani ty,wher
eGodt akesini
ti
ati
vebycr
eati
ngtheworl
dtobe
theplacewheretherel
ati
onshi
pcanber eali
sed

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofcov
enant
s,t
hecondi
ti
onal
anduncondi
ti
onal
.

Acondi t
ionalcovenanti
sanagreementwhichincl
udesthetwoparti
escement
ing
therelati
onshipwhilstt
heuncondi
ti
onalcovenantref
erst
otheagreementoft
wo
parti
eswher ebyonlyonehassomethi
ngt odowhilstt
heotherpar
tynot
hingi
s
requi
red.

TheBi blespeaksofsev endifferentcovenants, f

ourofwhi ch(Abrahami c,Palest
ini
an,
Mosai c,Davidi
c)Godmadewi ththenat i
onofI srael
.Oft hosefour,
threear e
uncondi t
ionali
nnat ure;thatis,regardl
essofI srael'
sobedienceordisobedi ence,God
sti
llwillf
ulfi
llt
hesecov enant swi t
hI sr
ael.Oneoft hecov enants,
theMosai c
Cov enant,i
scondi t
ional i
nnat ure.Thatis,thi
scov enantwi l
lbri
ngeitherblessingor
cursingdependi ngonI srael'
sobedi enceordisobedi ence.Threeofthecov enants
(Adami c,Noahic,New)ar emadebet weenGodandmanki ndingeneral,andar enot
l
imitedt othenat i
onofI srael
.

TheAdami cCov enantcanbet houghtofi nt wopar ts:t

heEdeni cCov enant
(i
nnocence)andt heAdami cCov enant(grace)( Genesis3: 16-
19).TheEdeni c
Cov enantisfoundinGenesi s1:26-30;2:16-
17.TheEdeni cCovenantout li
nedman’s
responsibi
lit
ytowar dcreat
ionandGod’ sdirectiveregardingthetreeoft he
knowl edgeofgoodandev i
l.TheAdami cCov enantincludedthecursespr onounced
againstmanki ndforthesinofAdam andEv e, aswel l
asGod’ sprovisionforthatsi
n
(Genesis3:15).

TheNoahicCov enantwasanunconditionalcovenantbetweenGodandNoah
(speci
fi
cal
ly)andhumani t
y(gener
all
y).AftertheFlood,Godpromisedhumani tyt
hat
Hewoul dneveragaindestr
oyalll
i
feonear t
hwi t
haFl ood(seeGenesischapter9).
Godgav etherai
nbowast hesignofthecov enant,apromisethattheenti
reearth
wouldneveragainfl
oodandar eminderthatGodcanandwi l
lj
udgesin(2Peter2:5).

Abr
ahamicCovenant(Genesi
s12:1-
3,6-7;
13:
14-17;15;17:
1-14;
22:
15-
18).Int his
cov
enant,
Godpr omisedmanythi
ngAbrahamicCovenant(Genesi
s12:1-
3,6-7; 13:
14-
17;
15;17:
1-14;
22:15-18)
.Int
hiscovenant
,Godpromisedmanyt hi
ngstoAbr aham.
Heper sonallypromisedthatHewoul dmakeAbr aham’ snamegr eat(Genesis12:2),
thatAbr aham woul dhav enumer ousphy sicaldescendents( Genesis13:16),andthat
hewoul dbet hefat
herofamul ti
tudeofnat ions(Genesis17:4-5).Godal somade
promi sesr egardinganationcal l
edIsrael.I
nf act
,thegeogr aphicalboundariesofthe
Abrahami cCov enantarelaidoutonmor et hanoneoccasi oni nthebookofGenesi s
(12:7;13: 14-15;15:
18-21).Anotherprov i
sionintheAbr ahami cCov enantisthatt
he
fami l
i
esoft hewor ldwil
lbebl essedthrought hephysicalli
neofAbr aham (Genesis
12:3;22: 18).Thisisareferencetot heMessi ah,whowoul dcomef r om t
helineof
Abraham.

PalestinianCov enant( Deuter

onomy30:1-10).ThePal estini
anCov enant,orLand
Cov enant ,
ampl i
fiest helandaspectt
hatwasdet ail
edi ntheAbr ahami cCov enant
.
Accor dingtothet er msoft hi
scovenant
,ifthepeopl edi sobeyed,Godwoul dcause
them tobescat teredar oundtheworld(
Deut eronomy30: 3-4),
butHewoul d
eventual l
yrestoret henat i
on(ver
se5).Whent henat ioni srestor
ed,thent heywill
obeyHi m perf
ect l
y( verse8),
andGodwi l
l causet hem topr osper(verse9) .

Mosai cCov enant( Deuteronomy11; etal.

).TheMosai cCovenantwasacondi ti
onal
cov enantthateitherbroughtGod' sdir
ectblessi
ngf orobedi
enceorGod' sdirect
cur si
ngfordi sobedienceupont henationofIsrael
.PartoftheMosai cCov enantwas
theTenCommandment s( Exodus20)andt herestoftheLaw, whichcontainedover
600commands—r oughly300posi ti
veand300negat i
ve.Thehistorybooksoft heOl
d
Test ament(Joshua–Est her)detai
lhowIsraelsucceededatobey i
ngt heLaworhow
Israelfai
ledmi serablyatobey i
ngtheLaw.Deut eronomy11: 26-
28det ai
lsthe
blessing/cursingmot if
.

Dav i
dicCov enant(2Samuel 7:8-16).TheDavidi
cCov enantampl if
iest he“seed”
aspectoft heAbr ahami cCov enant.Thepromisest oDav i
dinthispassagear e
signif
icant.Godpr omi sedthatDav i
d'sli
neagewoul dlastfor
ev erandt hathis
kingdom woul dnev erpassawayper manentl
y(verse16).Obviously,theDav i
dic
thronehasnotbeeni nplaceatal lt
imes.Therewi l
lbeat i
me, howev er,when
someonef rom thelineofDav idwillagai
nsitont hethroneandr uleaski ng.This
futurekingisJesus( Luke1:32-33).

NewCov enant(Jeremiah31:31-34).TheNewCov enantisacovenantmadef i

rstwi
th
thenati
onofIsraeland,ul
ti
mat ely
,withal
lmankind.IntheNewCov enant,God
promisest
of or
givesin,andtherewi l
lbeauniver
salknowledgeoftheLord.Jesus
Chri
stcamet ofulf
il
ltheLawofMoses( Matthew5:17)andcreateanewcov enant
betweenGodandHi speople.Nowt hatweareundertheNewCov enant
,bothJews
andGenti
l
escanbefreef
rom t
hepenalt
yoftheLaw.Wearenowgi
vent
he
oppor
tuni
tyt
orecei
vesal
vat
ionasafreegi
ft(Ephesi
ans2:
8-9)
.

Withint hedi scussionoft hebi bl icalcovenant s,ther

ear eaf ewi ssuest hatChr i
stians
arenotagr eedupon.Fi r
st ,someChr isti
anst hinkthatall ofthecov enantsar e
conditional innature.Ifthecov enant sar econdi ti
onal,thenI sraelfailedmi serabl
yat
ful
fi
lli
ngt hem.Ot her sbelievet hatt heuncondi t
ionalcov enant shav ey ettobet otall
y
ful
fi
lledand, regardlessofI sr ael 'sdisobedience, wil
lcomet of r
uiti
onsomet imei n
thefutur e.Second, howdoest hechur chofJesusChr istr el
at etothecov enants?
Somebel i
ev ethatthechur chf ulfil
lsthecov enant sandGodwi l
lnev erdeal with
Isr
ael agai n.Thisiscal l
edr epl acementt heologyandhasl it
tlescripturalev i
dence.
Othersbel i
ev ethatthechur chi niti
all
yorpar tiall
ywillf
ul fi
llthesecov enants.Whi l
e
manyoft hepr omisest owar dsI sraelarestil
l i
nt hefut
ur e, manybel i
ev ethatthe
churchshar esi nthecov enant si nsomeway .Othersbel i
ev et hatthecov enant sare
forIsrael andf orIsraelalone, andt hatthechur chhasnopar tinthesecov enants

PROPHECYANDI
TSORI
GIN

ORI
GINSOFPROPHECYI
NISRAEL
PROPHECY

Becauseoft heweaknessesoft het ri

balconf eder
acyI sr
aeliteswer efeeli
ng
i
nsecure,poli
tical
l
yandt heywant edt obel ikeothernat i
ons.I ndi
rectl
yt hi
s
wast antamounttor ebell
ionagainstYahweh.I nfactthiswasanadmi ssion
thatYahwehwasnol ongerasuf fi
cientking.I nthisl
ightt her epr
esentati
ves
oftheol dorderinterpr
eti tasinfi
delity
.Samuelwasawar eoft hereli
gious
i
mpl i
cati
onsandwar nedpeopl eofther esul
tsofl ackoff aith.Prophetssaw
themonar chyinanambi valentl
ight
,t hatis,asbot hdiv i
nelysanctionedand
aswel l
asar ebell
i
onagai nstGod.(1Samuel 10:17-
27,27:12; 28:3f
f).

Prophetsv iewedt hemonarchyasar ebelli

onagainstYahweh.TheIsr
ael
it
es
wer eturni
ngi ntoasecularst
ate.Pr
ophecywasr esponsi
blef
orthetr
ansi
ti
on
from thetribalconfeder
acytothemonar chy.Samuelisanimport
antfi
gur
ein
thisregard.Hei stheonewhoanointedthef i
rstki
ngofIsr
ael(
Saul)
.

Beforet hemonar chyj udgeshadcombi nedr ol

eofpr i
estsandpr ophet
s.The
ri
seoft hemonar chyr epresent
sabr eakandev enar eact
iont othislong
standingtraditi
on.Judgeswer echari
smat icleader
swher easkingsapartfr
om
SaulandDav idwer enot .Assucht herewasneedf orsomeonewhowoul d
adviset hekingonr eli
giousmat ters.Sopr ophetswhower epr epar
edt o
proclai
mt hattheki nghasbeendi vinelychosenandt hosewhohaddi vi
ne
suppor t
.Sot heyactasr evol
uti
onar i
esandwer er esponsi
blef ordynasti
c
disr
upt i
ons,forexampl eAhi j
ahledt hedi vi
sionofthemonar chyandEl i
sha
plottedt hedownf alloft heOmr idy nasty.Thepr ophet sbelievedt hemonar chy
tobet hebet rayalofYahwehast hesov erei
gnr uler(1Samuel9: 8).Accor ding
tot hisv i
ewpr ophecyt r
iedt of orcechar ismat i
cleader shi
pi ntot her uleoft he
nor ther nkingdom dur i
ngt het imei nwhi chchar i
smat icrulewasnol ongeran
adequat eansweri nwhi chI sraelwasf aci ng.Israelwasi nvolvedi nwhi rl
pool
ofi nt ernationalpol iticalev entsandhencet heneedf ordy nasticr ul et ocope
witht heext ernalpr essur e.Sot herewer ecl ashesbet weent hepr ophet swho
want edt hecont inuat ionoft heol dor deri nwhi cht heywer esuper iorandt he
Israel it
es,ki ngsi npar ti
cularwhower enol ongerconcer nedwi thspi ri
tual
successbutpol iti
calone.Whenki ngshipwasest abl i
shedi nI sraelmuchof
ther esponsi bil
it
iesoft hef ormercov enantr epresent ati
veswer eassumedby
kings.Howev er t he ki ngs wer e not al lowed t o become t he of ficial
spokesper sonsf ort heDei ty.Fort hepr ophet skingshipwast oodanger ousan
i
nst itutiont ogouncheckedbyt enet soft hecov enantf ait
h, forexampl eDav i
d
wasnotper mi t
tedt obui l
dahouseofYahwehi nJer usalem ( 2Samuel7) .So
prophecydur i
ngt hist imeact edaski ng’sconsci encet hati st omai ntain
checksandbal ancesont hepower soft heki ngsandr oyaloffici
al s.

AsGod’ srepresentat
ivespr ophet
swoul dadmoni shandrepr
ove,denounce
prevai
lingsins,threatenwi t
ht err
orofdi vi
nejudgementandcallpeopleto
repentanceandpr oclaim Yahweh’sdivi
neassurance,f
orexampl
ethef amous
Davidi
cpr omise(2Samuel7) .Inf acttheyconstant
lyremi
ndedki ngsand
peoplei ngeneralt
hatt hei
rrealrul
erwasYahwehwhosedemandst heyhadto
meet .

Prophetsalsofunct
ionedascour tof f
icial
swhower econsult
edwhengr eat
eventswereimpending,mostl
ybef oreanddur i
ngwar s,
forexampleAhaband
Jehoshaphattr
iedtoensur ev i
ctoryov ertheAr ameansatRamot h-gil
ead,
Jehoshaphatwishedtohearthewor dofYahweh, hesummoned400pr ophets
(1Ki
ngs 22) .Thus when ent eri
ng an i mportantunder t
aki
ng t he kings
constant
lyapplytot heprophetsf orawor dfrom God.Dav i
dhadNat han,
Rehoboam hadShemai ahandJeroboam hadAhi j
ahast hei
radvi
sors.

Howev eritwasnotal waysthecaset hatpr

ophet swer eforthekings.The
prophet’
sindependenceofthekingsmi ghtmakehi m sensort
heking’saction
andmi ghtbeasour ceofdangerf orhewasi nnodoubtast hedivi
nenat ure
ofhisauthorit
yandt hepeopl
et houghtthesame.Ahabhat edMicai
ahf orhe
neverprophesiedgoodconcer ninghim andj er
oboam whowasdesi gnated
kingbyapr ophetwasalsor ej
ectedbyapr ophet(1Ki ngs14:7)
.Pr ophets
reaff
ir
medYahweh’ ssoverei
gnst ayi
nthepoli
t i
calsphereinwhichI
srael l
i
ved.

Pr
ophecygr ewwi t
hther i
seofthemonarchy,thoughsomeschol ar
sli
keF.M.
Cr
ossar guethat,prophecystart
edwithkingshi
panddi edtogetheri
nexile.
I
t’
sli
kelythattherewaspr ophecyear
li
erthanthemonar chy(1Samuel3).I
t’s
mostli
kelythattheseprophetsweretakenforgranted.Theyneverdel
iv
ered
 anyor acl
es;theywereonlyt
her
etoboostthemor al
eduri
ngholywars.They
wer eacti
ng asar myband.So thepropheti
cmov ementassured amor e
prominentr ol
edur i
ng t
heperi
od ofthemonar chywhen kingssetupon
thronesofIsrael.Pr
ophet
sbecameparti
cular
lyimport
antdur
ingthi
speriod
becauseoft heri
seoftheevi
l
softhemonarchy.

Monar chycont ri
but edcer tainchangesi nt hel ifeandt raditionofI sr ael,for
exampl eaccesst or esourcesi slimitedtoot herpeopl e.St ratif
icati
onoft he
societyledt ot heexpl oi
tationoft hepoorbyt heel it
e,hencesoci alinjustice
wasnow r ife,f orexampl ei nt heAhab-Nabot hissueEl i
j
ahasapr ophet
i
ntervenedandhef eltthewor shi
pofYahwehandhi sexcl usivesov ereignty
overIsraelwast hr eatenedasnev erbef ore.Sot hepr ophet scont inuousl y
accesst ot her esour ces.Theywer ecallingf orrighteousnessandj ust i
ce.
Becauseoft hemonar chyt herewer edisastrousf or
eignal l
ianceswhi chl edt o
apostasy .TheOmr idy nast yf orexampl ehad mar r
iageal li
ancewi t
ht he
Phoenicians.Omr imar ri
ed hi sson Ahab t o Jezebela f or ei
gn wi fe who
i
niti
atedt hewor shipofBaal .Elij
ahcameont hescenedur ingt histimeandi s
ther
et omai ntaint hewor shipofYahweh,hencet heel i
mi nationoft henand
Bethelconf usedt heI sraeli
teOmr idynasty
.For eignalli
anceswer et antamount
toapost asy,forexampl eJer oboam 1andt hecal fwor shipatDanandBet hel
confusedt heIsr aeli
teshencehei sregardedast hewor stkingi nt hehistoryof
Isr
ael.Sopr ophet swer ether etocombati dol atry.

Def
ini
ti
onoft
hepr
ophecy.

 Accordingt oB.W Ander son, theEngl i

shwor dpr ophetcomesf rom theGreek
word pr ophet es whi ch literal
ly means “ one who speaks f oranother
especiall
yf oradei ty.”
 Thecor respondi ngHebr ew wor dnabii sappar entlyrelatedt ot heAkkadian
verbnabumeani ngt ocall,
toannounce, toname.
 Inviewoft his,pr ophetswer er egar dedasper sonst hroughwhom Godspeak
tothepeopl e.
 Wascal ledt obeGod’ sspokesper son,theyr eceivedt hepr omi sef r
om God’s
“word”Jer1: 9.Aswoul dbedi scussedl ater,pr ophetsi nI sraelusedt he
messengerst yl
ewhi chwaswel l
knowni ntheanci enttimes.
 Inli
newi tht his,Cl ausWest er mannar guesthat ,inIsrael,prophetswer eGod’s
Messenger s.Pr ophet sbeli
ev edt hemsel vest ohav ebeensentbyYahweh.“ Go
andsayt omypeopl e…”(Amos1: 1-3,Jer2:1-3,Isaiah45: 11-13).
 The nat ure ofI sr aelreli
gion was monot heisti
c wor ship ofYahweh and
Yahwism i sbel iev edt obeabor rowedgodf rom theFat herinLawofMoses
Jethroandi twashi sJethro’sr el
igion.
 Iti
spr obl emat ict oknow whenexact lywast henamewasf ir
stusedwi t
h
Abraham orwi t
hMoses?I fitst ar t
edwi ththepat ri
archs,t hepr oblem i
sthat
God di d noti ntroduced hi msel ft othem ,t hus one can sayt heywer e
worshippinganunknowngodwhol at
erintr
oducedhi msel ftoMoses.
  ForB.W Ander son, “
thewor dYahwehnamef r
om aHebr ewt erm YHWHr efer
s
toaper sonal
lydi v
inenameofGod. ”
 YHWH i salso t r
anslated “IAM whi ch connot esper sonalet ernaland al l
suff
icientaspectofGod’ snatureandchar acter.
”(Ex3:14).Thisv erseshows
thattheHebr ewswer epol ythei
stespeciall
ywhent hebi bl
esay“ whichgod
whatishi sname”
 Itcanbeassumedt hat Godi ntr
oducedhi msel ftot heHebr ewst hrough
Mosesandnott hrought hePatri
archs.I
tcanal sobeassumedt hatther eason
whyGoddi dintr
oducehi mselfas“IAM”meanst hathei sanev er -
presentGod
assuggest edbyEx3:12.Accor dingtoHillandWal t
on“ IAM inGr eeki s“ego
eimihoon”t osuggestt hatYahwehi stheonlyGodofI srael
.”

1)Pr
ophecy

 Prophecyi nIsraeli sal sobel i

evedt obeabor rowedphenomenon.Thi sis
evidencewhendeal ingwi t
hext rabi blicalmat erialandt hear chaeol ogi cal
evidence.
 Godwasbel ievedt obeuni versalandt hisi st esti
fi
edbyt hest oryof
Abr aham andAbi mel ech,Bal aam aMoabi tewasusedasav esselof
Yahweh( Num 22) .
 IfGodusedAbi mel echandBal aam, i
tshowst hatpr ophecywasnotuni que
i
nI srael .
 Theot herassumpt i
onwast hat,I sraelitereli
gionwasbor rowedandt here
i
s al so st rong ev i
dence t hatYahweh was bor rowed as pr eviousl y
discussed.Thi sisev idencedi n(Ex18)wher ewear et oldt hatJet hro
offered a sacr i
fi
ce t o God and gav e adv ice t o Moses on i ssues of
admi ni stration
 Jethr owasaMi dianitewher eMosesmetf acet of acewi t
hGodi n( Ex3) .
 TheGodwor shippedi nMi dianwasElandYahwehi scal l
edEl ohim.Fr om
suchanassumpt ion, Israel wor shi ppedt hebor rowed.
 Schol ar ssuppor tt hi
sbyar chaeol ogyandext ra-bibli
calmat eri
al.Howev er,
archaeol ogi calevidencei spr obl emat icbecausepeopl ewi thassumpt i
ons’
wantt ov ali
dat etheirar gument sbyst r
etchingitt oreacht heconcl usi on.
 Sponsor shipi sal so f orsuch ev idencewher ebyi ti st hev i
ew oft he
sponsort hatwi llbecar ri
ed, thust hesponsori sjustif
ied.
 Inaddi ti
on, archeologi calev idencei sscantt hatwhyi tcanbest ret ched.I t
i
snotuni formi nitsf indi ngs.
 Itisnotascl earast heBi blei sr egar dingpr ophecy .Likear chaeol ogi cal
evidence,t heBi blehasi tspr obl emsespeci allyini tspresent ati
onoft he
origins, nat ureanddev elopment sofpr ophecyi nI srael.
 Informat ioni snotconsi st
entt oal low uscomewi thaconcl usionast o
how andwhypr ophecyor iginatee. g.SamuelandKi ngsor i
ginal l
ywer e
believ edt obeonescr ollbutl aterwer edi vi
dedi nt otwobutbot hbel ieved
towr ittenbySamuel .Todayt heyappeart obeonebook.I ftheywer e
 wr i
tten byone man,t here shoul d be no cont radicti
on.Lat eri twas
di scov eredt hati twasnotSamuelwhowr ot ebecauseSamueldi edinI
Sam 12.
 M Not hconcl udest hat1and2Samueland1and2Ki ngsbel ongst oa
Deut r
onomi sticSchoolwhi chal sowr oteDeut eronomy4f f,Joshuaand
Judges.Thewr itershadt hesamei dea.
 Thepr oblemst hatwehav ear et hatbot hSamuelandKi ngsdonotshow
howpr ophecyor iginated.
 In1Sam 9: 9,itshowst hatt herewasanev olut i
onar ychangef rom thet i
tl
e
oft heSeert ot hePr ophet .
 Thisst oryi st oldbyar edact orwhol iveddur i
ngaper iodwher eapr ophetwasno
l
ongercal ledaSeer .
 InHebr ew:Seeri sr oehandpr opheti snabi .
 2Sam 24: 11hasadi fferentpi cture.I tsay st hewor doft heLORDcamet oGad,
Dav i
d’sSeerwhi chmeanswhi chmeanst hewor dSeerwasal soi nuse.
 Howev er, beingapr ophetdoesnotmeanaSeer ,butt hiscont r
adictswi th1Sam
9:9.
 Thequest iononemayaski s, whyi st her et hesei nconsi stencies?Aswemov eto
theCanoni caler awhi chi sf arl atert hant hedi scusseder a,Amosi scalledaSeer
byAmazi ah(Amos7: 10- 14).
 Amosi nhi spr esent ationsay s“ Iam nei therapr ophetnorapr ophet ’
sson”I n
viewoft hi s, apr ophetwasei theraSeerorapr ophet ’
sson.
 Ifthi
sist hecase, thebi blei sconsi stent .
 Whi l
eGadwasaSeer , hiscount erpar tNat hani salway scal l
edapr ophet(2Sam
12:35)i mpl yi
ngt hatapr ophetandaSeerar edi fferent .
 Aswemov eto1and2Ki ngs,wef i
ndal mostadi fferentpi cturef r
om Samuel .1
Kings17: 18, weai ntroducedt oanot hert i
tleIsh- Elohim( ManofGod)r eferri
ngto
Elij
ah.Thequest ioni s,ist hepr ophetal soamanofGod?
 In(1Ki ngs18: 20-22)El ij
ahi sal sor efer redasapr ophet .Itisnotcl earf r
om the
Biblewhet hert het womeanst hesame.
 Thedi scipl esofEl ishaar ecal ledSonsofpr opheti mpl yi
ngt hatEl shswasanabi
i
notamanofGod.
 In( 2Ki ngs6: 1f f)
,El isha’ sdi sciplesar ecal ledsonsofpr ophet s.Wi thsuch
i
nconsi stenci eswecannotwhol lydependont hebi bleont henat ure,origi
nsand
thedev elopment sofpr ophecyi nI srael.
 TheBi blepr esent sabet terpict ureunl ikear chaeol ogi calev i
dence.
 Those schol ars who use t he bi ble use i tas a basi s and t hose who use
archaeol ogi calev idenceusei ttoj ust i
fyt hemsel ves.

Gi
vent
hissi
tuat
ion,
weneedt
olooki
ntot
heor
igi
nofpr
ophecyi
nandout
sideI
srael
.

 Ther
ear
etwot
heor
ies:

a)Pr
ophecyasabor
rowedphenomenonand
b)Pr
ophecyasauni
quefeat
ureI
srael
.
ORI
GINSOFPROPHECY
THEORI
ES

1 Pr
ophecyasbor
rowed:
legendofWenAmon,
Zimr
ili
m,St
ell
eofZar
k.
2 Pr
ophecyasuni
quef
eat
ureofI
srael
.
PROBLEMSCONCERNI
NGTHEORI
GINS

 Wedonotseem t ohav eenoughsourcestoall

ow ustoreconstr
uctthe
hi
storyofthephenomenon,andinparti
cularwedonothaveextrabibli
cal
materi
alwithwhichtocompar eandcontr
astthebi
bli
calmater
ialthatwe
have.Sothebi
bleremainsourpri
marysource.
 Themater
ialt
hatispresentisnothomogenousenoughtoall
ow ust
o
makeasmoothreconst
ruct
ionoft
heori
ginsofI
srael
i
tepr
ophecy
.
 Wedonotknowwhethert
heinfor
mati
onwehav eaboutpr
ophecyi
snota
r
efl
ect
ionofachangi
ngsi
tuat
ioni
ntheli
feofI
srael
.
 Wearenotsur ewhetherthel
abel
swehav earenotofsel
f-
under
standi
ng
ofot
hergroups.Sometimeswearegi
venlabel
sthatdonottal
l
ywithwhat
wethinkaboutoursel
ves.Wecarryl
abel
sgi v
entousbyt hecommuni t
y
andnottheori
ginal
ones.
EXTRABI
BLI
CALMATERI
AL

InEgy pt i
ant extsthereisaref erencetopr i
estlyprophet
sbutt hist i
tl
er efer
st o
aser vantofGod.Sot hesepr iestl
ypr ophetsmaynotbepr ophet sint hereal
senseoft hewor d.Cananitet extfrom Mesopot amia,inpar ticulartheUgar i
t
text,therei srefer
encet oprophett ypef i
gureswhoar edi
viners.I nthebi blefor
exampl e1Ki ngs18: 19ther
ei sr eferencetoBaalandAsher ah,butt hei rexact
char acteri s notknown.An ov erall
y Canaanite source ei t
herr ef erst o
divinationort heyar esov aguet hatnopr operconclusionconcer ningt he
originsofpr ophecycanbedr awn.

BI
BLI
CALSOURCES

Bibli
cal sourcesar enothomogenousi nt hei
rpresentat
ionofpr ophecy .Soiti s
sti
lldiff
iculttoar riv
eatasmoot hor i
ginoft hephenomenon, forexampl et wo
booksofSamuelt het erm pr opheti suseddi ff
erentl
yindi f
ferentt extsand
oftenusedi nt erchangeabl ywi tht het erm seer.Therear ecer t ai
npr ophet s
whoar ereferredt oaspr ophet se. g.Nat hanisalwaysreferr
edt oasapr ophet,
andsomewhoar er eferredt oasbot hpr ophetandseer ,forexampl eGad.
Accor dingto1Samuel 9:9t hetwot ermsdonotmeanoneandt hesamet hing.
Itappear sthet erm prophetev olvedfrom t heterm seer(Amos7: 14).Howev er
i
n2Samuel24: 11Gadi sr efer
redasbot hseerandpr ophet.Int hetwobooks
ofKi ngsEl i
jahwasr egardedasapr ophetbutsomet imeshei sr egardedas
the ‘man ofGod’ .Eli
sha i salso given t he tit
le man ofGod in 2 Kings
4:7,9,
16,21,27,butt hediscipl
eswhogat herar oundhim ar
eref
erredtoast he
sonsoft hepr ophet,asiftosuggestt hatt hemanofGodandt heprophetare
oneandt hesamet hing.Amazi ahr eferredt oAmosasaseerbutAmos
reject
sitandsai dhewasnotapr ophetasi ftosuggestaprophetandseer
areoneandt hesamet hi
ng.Wi t
ht hesef l
uct uati
onsinmeaningthenwhowas
apr ophet,letalonehowt henameor i
ginated?

Theor i
ginsofprophecyiscontr
oversi
al.Vari
ousviewsandt heori
eshav e
beenbroughtforwardofasociol
ogi
calfuncti
on,hi
stor
icalandphi
losophi
cal
natur
e.Suchtheori
esareequal
l
yporus.

Basi
cal
l
yther
ear
etwobr
oadt
heor
iesont
heor
igi
nsofpr
ophecy
:

1.Pr
ophecyasabor
rowedphenomenon
2.Pr
ophecyasuni
quef
eat
ureofI
srael
.
PROPHECY AS A COMMON AND BORROWED PHENOMENON/
ASSOCI
ATI
ONI
STTHEORY

Schol ar
swhosubscr i
betot hi
sv i
ew,forexampleJ.Li ndbl
om,useextr
a
bi
blicalmat eri
alf
rom theAncientNearEasttoshow thatther
earecer
tai
n
si
mi lari
ti
es which can be establ
i
shed between pr
ophecy inIsr
aeland
Prophecyi ntheAnci
entNearEast.

According to J. Br i
ght the pat r
iarchs bor rowed t he cul t
ure of the
Mesopot amians.I
ftheycouldbor rowt hecul t
ureoft heMesopot amianswhat
could stop them fr
om bor rowing t heirreli
gion?I n supportoft hisview
J.Pedersonarguesthatthewholei nsti
tuti
onbel ongt oCanaanandi sclosel
y
rel
atedt oCanaani
tecultur
e.Ther ei ssomesubst anceint hi
stheorybecause
ofthesimilar
iti
esbetweenIsrael
i
t eandAnci entNearEastpr ophecy.

Ev
idencei
nsuppor
toft
his:

1.Thewordpropheti
tsel
fcamefrom aforei
gnwor
dnabiwhi
chi
saHebr
ew
wordandhenceisnotofI
srael
i
teori
gin.
2.Thecov
enantarr
ayedbyYahwehandthepeopl
ethr
ought
hepr
ophet
sar
e
l
iket
hesuzer
aintr
eati
esoft
heHit
it
es.
3.Ecst
acywhichisregardedasoneoftheearli
estf
orm ofpr
ophecyinIsr
ael
;
wasnotforthem only
,forexampleBaalprophet
satthecontestatMount
Carmelwer
eecstatictoo.(
Refert
othelegendofWenAmon)
4.I
sraeli
teprophet
shadcl earcour
tconnecti
onsandsomeAnci ent
nearEast
prophetshadconnecti
onswi t
hcourt
s,forexampl
eManticandMahhumm
prophetsofthegodDagani ntheti
meofHammur abi
,al
thoughtheyseem
nottohaveusedt heor
aclesassuch.
 5.Prophet
sasmout h-piecesofdeit
ies.I
ntheMar
itextther
ewasaSyr
ian
god Adad who used apr ophetashismouth-pieceand t
hepr
ophet
cl
aimedauthor
it
yov ertheki
ng.
6.Pr
ophet
icgui
l
ds.
THELEGENDOFWENAMON

Accordingt othi
slegend,ther
ewasacer tai
nmanbyt henameWenAmon
fr
om Egy ptwhowentt oacer taincentrei
nPhoeni ciacalledBibli
slooki
ngfor
ti
mbert obui l
datempleforhisgod, AmonRe.Onar r
ivalWenAmonf or
warded
hisrequestt othepri
ncebutt hepr i
nceignoredhim becausehewasbusy
offer
ingsacr i
fi
cestohisGod.I twasdur i
ngthissacr if
icialcer
emonywhena
youthgoti nt
ot r
anceorecst acy.They out
hi nt hisst atesummonedt he
pri
est’smi ssi
on,andwi t
houtmaki nganydeci si
ont hepr i
ncegrantedWen
Amon’ srequest.

Accordi
ngtothi
sschool
ther
ei sasensei
nwhichthepossessedyout
hcanbe
consi
deredasaprophet
.Inotherwordst
heyouthpossessedthr
eeprophet
ic
tr
ait
s:

i
v. Ecst
acy
v
. Abi
l
ityt
ofor
etel
l(pr
edi
cti
on)
v
i. Pr
ophet
icaut
hor
it
y
Soifweconsiderthi
syout
hasapr
ophett
her
eisnowaywecansayt
his
phenomenoni
suniquetoI
srael
.

THELEGENDODZI
MRILI
M FROM MARITEXT

Mariwasaculticcentr
eandZimrili
m wasal egendar
ykingofMesopotami
a.
Thelegendtal
ksaboutacer t
ainseerwhowentt oZi
mrili
m wi
thamessage
fr
om godAdadandt hemessagewas‘ Iam t
hegodwhomadey ouki
ngover
MesopotamiaifyouobeymeIwi l
lblessyou,i
fy oudi
sobeyIwi
llpuni
shyou’
.
Thisseeri
ssai
dt ohaverel
easedthi
smessagei necst
acy.

SI
MILARI
TIES

 Thet
it
leseeri
sal
sousedt
oref
ert
oIsr
ael
i
tepr
ophet
.
 Bei
ngecst
ati
c
 Pr
ophet
icor
acl
eissi
mil
art
oIsr
ael
i
tepr
ophet
icor
acl
esandcont
ent
s.
THESTELLEOFZAKR

ZakrwasaSyri
anking.Stell
eisaninscr
ipti
onont
herock.Onthet
abl
etthere
seemstobeanor acleorst atementwhichwasrel
easedwhentheSyrians
wereaboutt
obecapt urered.Thekingrel
easedt
hefoll
owingwor
ds,‘
Ili
fted
 myhandst oBaalShamaynandheanswer edmeandspoket omebymeans
ofvisi
onari
es…’
.Al
thoughi
twasnotcl earfr
om thei
nscri
pti
onont herock,i
t
appearsthesewor
dsareaprophecyinresponsetotheki
ng’spray
erandt he
peoplewhoareref
err
edasvi
sionar
iescouldberegar
dedasprophets.

WEAKNESSES

1.I
tignoresthetheol
ogi
calor
igi
nsofpr
ophecyt
hati
sthel
i
nkbet
ween
pr
ophecyandrel
igi
on.
2.I
tignor
espol
i
tical
fact
orsbehi
ndt
heemer
gencyofpr
ophecy
.
3.Itassumest hatwehav ecl earl
yidentif
iedchar acteri
sticsofpr ophecy
whichwecanuset odef inet hephenomenon, inpar ti
cularecst acyistaken
tobeamaj orpr opheticf eat ure,theproblem iswedonothav eacl earl
y
developeddef init
ionofpr ophecyandi npar t
icularecst acywasnotamaj or
featureofprophecyi nIsrael .Rar el
ydowef i
ndI sraeli
tepr ophet srel
easing
thei
ror acl
esi nast at
eofecst acy.I
fatallecstacywasamaj orfeatureof
prophecytheni twasaf eat ureofear li
estprophet sandt endst odieoutas
wemov etot hecl assi
cal per iod.Mor eoveraccor di
ngt oJ.Li nblom ecstacy
cannotbebor r
owedasi ti sf rom adeity.
4.ProphecyintheAnci entNearEastwasdi vi
nator yinnature,whileI
sraeli
te
prophetswerenotal l
owedmeansofgai ni
ngi nformationusedbyot her
nati
ons,e.g.necr omancy,soot h say i
ng,e.t
.c.I sraeli
te prophet
s wer e
commi ssi
onedbyGod.Theyonl ypr ophesyint henameofYahwehand
thei
robject
ivewast oacert
ainthewi llofYahwehr egardlessofpersonal
wishes.Bei
ngi ndependentofthehear erswast hebadgeofat r
ueprophet,
forexamplet hest oryofMicaiahwhenhewasconsul tedbyAhaband
Jehoshaphat.
Thesediff
erencesbetweenpr ophecyinAncientNearEastandpr ophecyin
Isr
aelledsomeschol ar stoar guethatprophecyi nIsraelmusthavebeen
uniquetoIsrael.Basicall
yt hesescholarspickcer t
ainuniquefeaturesof
Isr
aeli
tepr
ophecyanduset histoarguefortheirposi
tions.Howevertheydo
notagreeonwhati suniqueaboutI sr
aeli
teprophecy.Hencet hi
sbr
oadt heor
y
canbespli
tintosub-theories.

TRADI
TIONALTHEORY

Thi
st heoryarguest hatpr
ophecyinIsraelor iginat
edasabasicmechani sm through
whichYAHWEH communi cat
edt hemeani nganddemandsofhi scov enantwith
I
srael.Schol ars who subscr i
be tot hi
st heor
y submitst hat pr
ophet s were
messenger sofYAHWEHwhower ebasi cal
lyi nter
mediar
iesorcovenantmedi ators.
Thi
ssubmi ssi
oni si
nt hel
inewiththemeani ngsofsomeoft het er
mst hatareused
torefertopr ophet
s.AccordingtoW. B.ANDERSON “ t
heEngl i
shwor dpr ophetis
deri
vedf r
om t heGreekwor dpropheteswhi chcanbet r
ansl
atedtomeanonewho
speaksforanotherparty,especial
l
yf ort
hedei t
y.”Asobservedabov
etheHebrew
equiv
alentt
erm“ nabi
”canbet ransl
atedli
ter
all
ytomeant heonewhocommunicat
es
thedivi
newil
l,
sot heidearemainsthesamet hatprophetwer
emessenger
sofgod.

From cr i
ti
csl i
keH. GRUNKEL,andC. WESTERMANsuppor tt
hisunder
standing.They
analyzedt heform ofor acl
esanddi scov
er edt hattheoracl
esalmostalwaysbegan
withwhatt heycall
edt he“messengerstyle”,thussay sYAHWEH. Theimplicat
ionis
that,t he prophets understood themselv es as messenger s of t
he lord who
communi cated the meaning and demands ofgods cov enantwithI sr
ael.This
thereforemeanst hatprophecywascov enantspeci fi
c,i
tcouldnotbeunder stood
outsidethecont extofYAHWEHcov enantwi thIsrael
.

Thist heorysuggeststhatpr ophecyor i

ginatedwi t
hMoses, par t
icul
arl
ywi ththeSinai
Cov enant.Thecr i
ti
csoft hist heor ydoesnotr ecognizet heexistenceofot her
covenant sintheOLDTest amentl ikeGenesi s15,Abraham. Thosewhosubscr i
bet o
thi
st heor ysubmi tthatiti swi t
ht heSi naiCov enantt hatwebegi nt oseeGod
enteringintoaCov enantwithI sraelasanat ion.Earli
erthanMoses, Godhadent ered
i
ntocov enantswi t
hi ndiv
idual sandnotwi thIsraelasanat i
on. Int hiscont ext
,
scholarswhoar gueforthist heorymai nt ainthatthecov enantwasauni quef eature
ofIsraelit
er el
i
gionandi tisint hislightthatpr ophecyinI sraelcouldber egardedas
unique.

Ananal ysisoft histheorycanl eadt ot heconcl usiont hatpr ophecyi nI sraelhad

culti
cor i
gins;itor igi
natedwi thint her el
igiousi nstituti
onsofI sr ael.Thef i
r stschol ar
tosuggestt hisv i
ew wasH. EWal dandi twasl aterdev el opedbyGHol scherwho
explicitlyst atedt hat,“pr
ophet swer einspiredascul ti
cf i
gur es, whower eresponsi ble
forexpl ainingt hemeani nganddemandsoft hecov enant .
”Howev er,SMowi ngel and
A.RJohnst onhav emostconv i
nci nglyar guedt het heoryofcul ticpr ophet sint he
ancientI srael.Accor dingt othem, “ i
near lyIsrael ,thedi ff
erencebet weenapr i
estand
apr ophetwasnotv erygr eatsincebot hr espondedt oinqui ri
es,of f
eredi nstruction,
andper formedsacr ament alfunct ions.Secondl y,pr ophet sar ef requent lyclosel y
relatedt othepr iestsandt het empl e,especi allyinJer usalem f ori nstance, Eli
jah,like
thepr ophet sofBaal ,off
er ssacr i
fices,[1Kings18: 20- 40]
.I nt hiscont ext,Mowi ngel
obser v est hat ,
“ prophetsassoci atedwi t
ht hesanct uaryser v edundert hesuper vi
sion
andj urisdictionoft hepr iestsorwi t
hast atusatl eastashi ghas,i fnotact ual l
y
highert hant hatoft hepriests.Furt hermor e,Mowi ngelpointedt ot hedi vinespeeches
andor acl esi nt hePsal msasf urtherasev idenceofpr ophet icf unct i
onswi thi
nt he
cult.Accor dingt ohi m,“t heor acleswer espokent owor shi pper sdur ingr it
ualsof
nat i
onalorper sonall ament[ Psal m 126;60: 8-10,91: 14-16]andt hecor onat i
onof
Dav idicr ulersandot herroy aloccasi ons[Ps2; 20; 21; 45;89; 110; 132] ”
Cr
it
ique

Thef i
rstpr obl
em wi t
ht hissub-theor
yi sthattherewer edi
fferenttypesofcovenants
withi
nI srael.Thequest ion,whicharises,isthat,whichoneoft hesecovenantswas
associated wi tht he or i
gins ofprophecy ? Thist heory suggest sthatdiff
erent
prophetsmayhav eariseni nconnect i
onwi t
hdi f
ferentcovenantt radi
ti
onswi t
hin
Isr
ael.Fori nstance,prophet sfr
om theNor t
hpr obablyori
ginatedinconnecti
onwi th
andwer epr obablyinfl
uencedbyt heEphr ami t
et r
aditi
onswhi leprophetsfrom the
southwer eprobablyinfl
uencedbyJudeanpr opheti
ctradit
ions.

Thesecondpr obl em hast odowi tht heassumpt ionthatt heconceptofcov enant

was unique feature ofI sr
ael
it
er el
igion.This assumpt ion has no strong base
becausetherear est ri
kingsimil
ariti
esbet weent hemosai ccov enantandsi mi l
ar
Hit
ti
tetreati
es,liket hesuzerai
ntyt reaty.Fur
thermor e,thistheoryi sbasedupon
someassumpt i
on,whi chmaynotbehi st
ori
cal.Forexampl e,thehistor
icit
yoft he
fi
gureofMosesandt heeexodusitselfisnotarchaeologicall
yconfir
med.Fi nally,i
tis
notexpl
icit
lycleart hatwhenpr ophet sprophesiedtheyal way scommuni catedt he
meaninganddemandsofGod’ scov enantwithIsrael.

Pr
ophetsweremessengersofYahweh.Prophetesornabi
.Theor acl
esbegi
nwi
tha
messengerst
yle.“
ThussaystheLor
d…..
”Pr ophecywascovenantwit
hIsr
ael
.

Prophecyori
ginat
edwit
hMosesatMountSi nai
.Howeveritisweakbecausethere
wereothercovenant
sbefor
eit.Gen.9:
12Noah,Gen15Abraham.Moses’covenant
i
snat i
onalt
hushebecomest hefi
rstpr
ophet
.Mosesarosetoexplai
nthedemands
ofcovenant
.

THEOLOGI
CALTHEORY

Accor dingt oB. W Ander son,pr ophecyor i

ginatedinI sraelasabasi cmechani sm
through whi ch Yahweh communi cated the meani ng and hi s demands oft he
cov enantwi thIsrael.Thisi sinlinewitht hemeani ngoft het wot er
mst hatwereused
tor efertopr ophecy .TheGr eekwor dpr ophetesscanbet ranslatedtomeanonewho
communi catedt hedi vi
newi ll
.Israel
it
epr ophet sregardedt hemsel vesmessenger s
ofYahweh.H.GunkelandC.West ermannl ookedatt hephenomenonofpr ophecy
from af orm cr it
icalper spect i
veandt heyanal ysethef orm ofpr opheti
cutterances
anddi scov erthatt hesebeganwi ththe‘ messengerst yle’
,‘Thussay stheLor d…’
i
mpl yi
ngt hatthei rmessage wasnotf rom themsel vesbutf r
om anext er
nalf orce.
Theseor aclesspeci f
icall
ydeal twi ththecov enantrelati
onshi pbetweenIsraeland
Yahweh.Sopr ophecyi nI sraelwascov enantspecific.Suchacov enantr
elati
onshi p
wasauni quef eatureofI sraelit
er el
igion.Thi ssuppor tst hatMosesi sthef irst
prophet .Hei sther epresent ati
veofal lprophets.(Deut18: 18).
PROBLEMS

 There are some sit

uati
ons and t her
e are some prophet
s without
necessar
il
yt al
ki
ng aboutthe covenantand simil
arl
ythere ar
e some
ci
rcumstanceswherecertai
nIsrael
it
ef i
gur
estalkedaboutthecovenant
wit
houtprophesyi
ng,
forexampleNoah.
 Someschol arsl
ikeM.Not hchallengedthev i
ewt hatMoseswast hefirst
prophetont hegroundst hatallthev erseswhichsuppor tMosesasa
prophetareanachronisti
c.InfactforM. Nothlat
ereditor smadeMoses
i
ntoapr ophetyethewasr eal
lyav er
ygoodl eader.Howev erVonRad
observedthatprophecyII sr
aelisassociatedwit
ht hecul t
,leadershipor
both.Thisobser
vati
onr emainsvali
dandf rom t
henonwar dswepr oceedi n
threedir
ecti
ons,t
hatprophecyhasei t
herculti
corpoli
ti
cal ori
ginsorbot h.
CULTI
CORI
GINS

Thepr i
est
lytheoryisinsupportofSamuelast hefir
stprophetasispr ov
eni n
1Samuel3.Itst
atesthatprophecyisj
ustanadv ancementofpriest
hood.Part
lyin
supportoftheabov etheoryistheseershi
pt heorywhichstatesthatprophecy
ori
ginat
edfrom seer
shipandthisisal
soregar
dedast heevoluti
onaryt
heorybyM.
Noth.

Thistheor
yismai nl
ybasedon1Samuel9: 9.Thei
mpl i
cat
ionofthi
sverseisthatt
he
off
iceofapr ophetevol
vedfrom thatofaseer.Therewasahi st
ori
caldevel
opment
fr
om theoffi
ceofaseert othatofaprophet.Theassumptioni
sthatther
eshouldbe
adist
incti
onbetweenapr ophetandaseer.

Thistheoryi ssuppor tedbysemant ics.AsemanticanalysisoftheHebr ew terms

whichar eusedt orefert oaseerar eroehandhozermeani ngonewhoi sgi f
tedwi th
theabili
tytoforetel
l,
wher eastheHebr ewtermforapr ophetisnabiwhichrefertoa
personwhocandobot hforet
ell
ingandf or
thtel
li
ng.Seerswer epri
marilydi
vinatory
i
nt hattheiremphasisi sint hefutur
ebutprophetswereconcer nedwit
ht hepresent.
I
fatal ltheyrefertot hef utur
et her
ewasspeci f
icreasontor el
atethefutur
et ot he
present.

WEAKNESSES

1.Thistheoryisbasedon1Samuel9: 9andtheassumptioni
sthatSamuel
wasthel astj
udgeandthefir
stprophet
,yetGenesis20:
7ref
ert
oAbr aham
asapr ophetandDeut18:18,Hosea12:13refertoMosesasthefi
rstand
archi
tectofprophecy
.Therefor
ewecannotassumet hatpr
ophecybegan
withSamuel .
2.Thistheoryassumesthatt
herei
sacleardisti
nctionbet
weenaseeranda
prophet,yetthetwoter
msareusedinterchangeably
,e.g.2Samuel24:
11,
Gadi sregardedasbothaseerandapr ophet.Amosi nAmos7: 14when
hewasaddr essedasaseerher
espondeddeny ingthathewasapr ophet
 noraprophet
’sson,asift
osuggestthet
wotermsmeanoneandthe
samethi
ng.Howev ersomeschol
arst
rytodi
sti
ngui
shapr
ophetanda
seer
.
Thedi
ff
erencei
sthat
:

 Aseerwasmoreorl
essassoci
atedwi
thspeci
fi
cshr
inewhi
l
epr
ophet
s
wer
eit
iner
ant
.
 Aseerwasmor eorl
essapriestinthathedeal
twi
thi
ssuesoft
hecul
t,
especi
all
ythoseel
ement
sthatinvol
vesacri
fi
ces.
 Aseerr
ecei
vesr
emuner
ati
onf
oraser
vice,
whi
l
eapr
ophetr
ecei
vegi
ft
s.
 Moreoft
enthannotpr
ophet
scl
ashedwi
thki
ngsandi
tsr
aret
ofi
ndseer
s
cl
ashi
ngwit
hkings.

POLI
TICALORSOCI
OLOGI
CALTHEORY

Itisbasedonsoci ol ogicalschoolofMar kWeberandNor manGot t

wald.Theybel i
eve
thatpr ophecyhasi tsor i
ginsinsociologicaltension,asar esultofcommer ciali
zat
ion
whi chl edt othecr eationofasoci alpy r
ami dinIsrael.WhenI sraelsettl
edi nCanaan
theredev elopedthr eesoci algroups,thear i
stocracy,themer chantandt hecommons
(poor ).Thecommonswer ebeingexpl oit
edbyt heel it
eandasar esultt herewas
classst r
uggl einIsrael.Fr om thi
scl assst r
uggleemer gedsomechar ismat i
cf i
gures
especi all
yamongt heexpl oit
edcl ass.Suchf i
gureswer epr ophetswhobecamet he
champi onsoft hepoor .Theywer ethespokesper sonsoft hedepr iv
ed,t hev oiceof
thev oicelessand wer esuppor t
ed byYahweh.Thi st heoryi ssuppor ted byt he
i
nci dentofNabot handAhabi n1Ki ngs21.Amosal sodefendedt hepoor .Sucha
theoryi si mportantasi tconsideredel ement sofeconomi candsoci alfactor swhich
i
nf l
uencet her i
seofpr ophecy .

Thepr ocessoft heExodusandt heset tlementi nCanaancanbeexpl ai

nedi nterms
ofapol iti
calmov ement.i
nthelightoft hi sonecanexpl aintheori
ginofpr ophecyin
termsoft heclashbet weent woi deologi es,Yahwism astheideologyoft heHapi r
u
andBaal i
sm ast heideol
ogyoft her ul
ingCanaani teclass.Thepr ophet
swoul dbe
consideredast hepol i
ti
calcommi ssarsoft heti
mewhohel pedtocoi n,shapeand
reshapet heideologyofYahwi sm andar ticulat
eittothepeopleboost i
ngmor aleand
mot i
vationtotheHapi r
usduringthel iberationmov ement.Theprophetsact edasthe
custodiansoft hei deal
softheli
ber ati
onmov ement.

Onecanal solookatt heli

nkbet weent heor i
ginsprophecyandpol i
ti
csinIsraelin
termsoftransi
tionfrom atribalconfederacytoamonar chyandf r
om pri
esthoodt o
prophecy
.Thepr iest
swerepar tofthest ateastheof f
icewassponsoredbythest ate.
Withtheestabl
ishmentoft hemonar chy ,kingsprobablyabusedthei
rpoli
ti
calpower
andperhapsgotawaywi t
hi tbecauseoft heoffi
ceofapr iestwoul
dnotcrit
ici
zet he
king(thehandthatwasfeedingthem)ashewasi nchargeofthestatetr
easur
y.
Therewast husneedtoevolv
eani ndependentof
fi
cethatwouldspeakforthepoor
andpr ovi
dechecksandbalancesont heoffi
ceoftheking.Pr
ophetsarosetoful
fi
l
thist
ask

Weaknesses

Thi
stheoryassumedthatt
her
ewasnoprophecybef
oreset
tl
ementi
nCanaany
etwe
hav
eAbr aham andMoseswhoar
eregar
dedasprophet
s.

PROPHECYHASBOTHCULTI
CANDPOLI
TICALORI
GINS

Accor dingt oF. M Cr ossprophecyst ar t

edwi t
hki ngshi panddi edt oget herinexi le.
Thisi sal sosuppor tedbyM.Not h’sev olut ionaryt heorywhi char guedt hatpr ophecy
evolv ed f r
om seer ship.Pr ophecyor i
ginat ed as a cl ass st ruggl e orconf l
ictof
i
nstitut ionst hati scul t
icversuspol i
ticali nst it
uti
on.Whent hemonar chyemer ged
therewaspr oliferationofpr ophet i
cgui ldswhower esi tuatedneart hePhi li
st i
ne
garrisont o champi onhol ywar s.I nt hisr egar dpr ophecyemer gedasar eligi
o-
poli
ticalst ancet oi nspirenationalism andr evolut
ional i
sm i nIsraelitesast heywer e
faced wi th a wart orn polit
icalev ent .Such pol iticalcr i
sis needed r eli
gi ous
i
nter pr eterst ogi v ethedi v
inewi llandi nspi rehol l
ywar s.Accor dingt oHar r
elsont he
emer genceofpr ophecycoul dbeassoci at edwi t
hi nst itutionalconf l
ict.Hear gued
thatI sr aelwasacov enantcommuni tywi thcov enantr epr esentativeswhomedi ated
thedi v inewi l
l,forexampl eMosesandJoshua.Ther iseoft hemonar chyseemst o
havegi vent heki ngst her ol
eoft hecov enantmedi at orsandy ett hecommuni ty
want edt hepr esenceoft hef reedom ofYahweht odecl airehi swi ll.Asar esul t
certainf i
gur esar osei nabidt ocheckki ngshi pusurpat ionoft hi
sr eligiousdut y
.Thi s
explai nswhySamuelchar gedSauli n1Samuel13: 13- 14.Theki ngwasnott he
offi
cialspokesper sonoft hedei ty.Nat hanr ef
usedDav idper mi ssiont obui l
dt he
templ eandpr omi sedhi m ady nasticr ulet hatwast olastf orever(2Samuel 7:
1f f).so
prophecyemer gedasaconf li
ctbet weent woi deologi es,t hatofdi v
inel eader ship
represent edbychar ismat i
cof fi
ceoft hej udgesandt hatofpr ophet icof fice.Thef act
that pr ophecy t hrived dur i
ng t he monar chy and l at er died wi thi t showed
i
nter dependenceoft het wo.

WEAKNESSES

Thedivi
nenatur
eofpr ophecywasnotwellmanif
est
ed.1Samuel9:
9isambi
guous,
wordseerandprophetareusedi
nter
changeabl
y.
CONCLUSI
ON

Condensedt hewhol einf

ormationshowedt hattoexplainhowpr ophecyoriginatedin
Isr
aelissynony moust oseekinganeedl ei nahayst ack.Bibli
calandextr abibli
cal
i
nformationisinadequatet osol v
et hispr oblem.Hencet heor i
ginsofprophecyi n
Isr
aelremainsv eil
edinobscur i
ty.Itleavesusoncr ossroads.whati scleari sthat
prophecyhast odowi thGod andi sgener allyli
nkedtosocial,
politi
cal
,rel
i
gi ousand
cult
uralcri
sisofthetime.HenceJ.Mui lenburgconcludedthatprophecycamewi t
ha
parti
cul
arwor dforapar t
icul
artime.

REASONSFOREMERGENCEOFPROPHECY

 Needf
ori
nter
cessi
on(
Gen20:
7)
 Needtoi
nterpr
etthemisf
ort
unesofI
sraelandexpl
aint
hecov
enant
andt
heexodusevent(
Moses)
 Need f
orecstat
ics,t
hati
schar
ismat
icdef
enseand admi
nist
rat
ion
(
Number s11:
25)
.
 Needtodealwi
thPhi
l
ist
ineaggr
essi
on.Needtorevi
veIsrael
’
srel
i
gion
t
hatis,t
ocombati
dol
atr
y.Needtoinst
it
uteandcont
rolthemonarchy
(
Samuel).
SI
MILARI
TIES BETWEEN PROPHECY I
N ANCI
ENT NEAR EAST AND THAT OF
ZI
MBABWE

 the l
egend ofWen Amon and the issue ofecstacy
.Zimbabwean
prophet
sarealsoecst
ati
cfor
tht
ell
ersandhav epr
opheti
caut
hori
ty.
 Bot
har
ecaughtwi
tht
hespi
ri
tofnat
ional
i
sm.
 From t
helegendofZimr
ili
m aseerusedt
hepr
opheti
cfor
mul a‘
Thus
saysthelor
d’whichi
salsousedbysomeZimbabweanprophet
sfor
examplesomesay‘Zv
anzinashi
Jehov
ha…’
 Fr
om the st
ele ofZakrthe issue ofv isi
ons come out
.Some
Zi
mbabweanprophet
scl
aimtoseev i
sions.
 The conceptofa seercan al
so be equated t
othe conceptof
(v
arat
idzwa)i
nsomeAfri
cani
ndependentchur
ches.
 Pr
ophetsin bot
h Zi
mbabwe and t
he ANE i
s gi
ven byi
ndi
vi
dual
s
wear
ingdi
sti
nctr
egal
i
a(uni
for
ms).
 CALLOFANCI
ENTNEAREASTPROPHETS

Acallnar
rati
veisthesecti
onofapr opheticbookthatrecordsthecallofaprophet
.A
callwasthemarkofat rueprophetinIsraelandthi
sispr obablywhatdist
ingui
shed
Isr
aeli
teprophet
sf r
om otherprophet
-t y
peper sonsinther estoftheAncientNear
East.

A cal
lnarr
ati
veal
mostal
way
sassumedadef
ini
tef
orm orpr
oceededi
ndef
ini
te
st
ages,namel
y:

1.Theophany
-thedei
tyei
therappear
sorhei
shear
dandl
etshi
smi
ssi
on
known.
2.Resi
stancef
rom t
hepr
ophet
3.Pressur
efrom t
hedei
ty.Thi
spr
essur
etakest
wof
orms,namel
yfor
ce
andpersuasi
onwit
hsi
gns.
4.Accept
ancebyapr
ophet
5.Commi
ssi
oni
ngoft
hepr
ophetandassur
ancef
rom t
hedei
ty.
ThecallofAnci
entIsr
aeli
teprophet
swasacal ltomediatet
hecovenantbet
ween
I
sraelandYahwehandt heref
oreapr ophetasacovenantmedi
atorspeakst
othe
wholepeopl
eofIsr
aelandnotspecif
icindi
vi
dual
sonl
y.

SeeBi
shaupages45-
47

SI
MILARI
TIESWI
THGPROPHETSI
NZI
MBABWE

1.Pr
ophet
sinZimbabweal socl
aimtohav eexper
iencedtheophani
es.
Cl
earexampl
ei sJohane Masowe,Johane Mar
ange and Mwazha.
Dr
eamsorvi
sionsf
eatur
einmostaccount
softhecall
2.I
tseemsmostofthem di
dnotrespondt
othei
rcal
l
soutoft
hei
rown
wi
ll
.Inawayt
heyr
esist
edthecal
l.
DI
FFERENCES

1.THEFORM OFPRESSUREEXERTEDON PROPHETSI N Zimbabwei s

sli
ghtl
ydifferentfr
om thatofAncientIsraeli
teprophets.Mostaccounts
ofpropheticcallsi
nZi mbabweshowt hatprophetsinZi mbabwebegan
withstrangei ll
nesst heycoul d notiunterpr
et.JohaneMasowef or
examplef ellil
landwast ransportedintotheheav enlyreal
m.Thisi s
thenint
erpretedast hecall
.
2.Commi ssi
oningisacal ltoaddressspecif
ici
ndivi
dualsespecial
lyin
mattersofthei
rill
ness.Thecallisal
mostacalltoahealingmi ni
str
y.
Theref
oreitisnotimmediatel
yclearwhet
herornottheseprophetsare
covenantmediator
s.
3.Mostcal
laccount
sofpr
ophet
sinZi
mbabwe,especi
all
ythosef
rom
 Af
ri
canIndependentchurchesresemblethoseoft
radi
ti
onalheal
ers
moret
hanthoseofAncientIsr
ael
it
eprophets

The“
ManofGod”

Under
standi
ng Bi
bli
calI
nfl
uence on Cont
empor
ary Mega-
Chur
ch Pr
ophet
sin
Zi
mbabwe

Abst
ract

Diff
erentnamesar eusedt or efertov ariousr eli
giousf unctionariesacr osst heWor l
d
Reli
gions.InZimbabweanChr istiani
ty,therei sagr oupofChr isti
anof f
icial
swhoar e
currentl
ypopularl
yknownas“ menofGod. ”Thisar ticl
ear guest hatt histitl
ei soneof
themanyi nfl
uencesoft heBi bl eoncont empor aryChr i
stianity,sincei tsusei s
dependenton i t
s biblicalusage,especi allyr egar ding t he ext ra-ordinary and
miraculouseventssurroundi ngEl ij
ahandEl isha.Thet itl
ei susedei ght ytimesi nthe
Christi
anBibl
eandsev enty-nineoft hesear eint heOl dTest ament .I nouranal ysi
sof
bothitsOldTestamentandcont empor aryusage, t
het itleisusedt oacknowl edgethe
qualit
ati
vediff
erencebet weenal lhumanbei ngsandt hef ewmen( andwomen)who
are speciall
y chosen t o be God’ sr epresent ativ
es. These speci all
y chosen
functi
onari
esar emor ethansi mpl yhuman,anddomor et hansi mpl ehumanbei ngs
do.“ManofGod”i sunder stoodasacont inuationofbi bli
cal tr
adi t
ions.

I
ntr
oduct
ion
Theadv entofpr ophet sinZi mbabweanChr isti
anitycanbet r
acedbackt ot heear ly
decadesoft het went iet
hcent ury,dur ingt heper iodt hatAf ri
canI nit
iat
edChur ches
weref oundedandpl antedacr ossZi mbabwe.Themostpr omi nentamongt hese
prophet swer eSamuelMut endioft heZi onChr i
stianChur ch,JohanneMar angeof
theAf ricanApost ol i
cChur chaswel lasJohanneMasoweoft heApost olicSabbat h
Chur chofGod( Daneel1971: 339,Mukony ora1998: 191-207,Gunda2012: 335- 36).
Since t hen,ev ery gener ation ofAf rican Chr i
sti
ans,wi th specialr efer ence t o
ZimbabweanChr isti
ans,hasseeni tsownpr ophets.Someoft hesepr ophet shav e
continuedi nt heher it
ageoft hesepi oneer ingpr ophet sofAI Cswhi l
eot her shav e
addedont ot heher it
age,especi al
lywhenonef ocusesonZi mbabweanPent ecost al
prophet s.Thi sl at t
erbr andofpr ophet si nZi mbabwewasl ocall
ypopul ar izedby
EzekielGut i,f
ounderandl eaderoft heZi mbabweAssembl i
esofGodAf rica, For ward
i
nFai th( ZAOGAFI F) .Howev er,thecur r
entdi scussi onssur roundingpr ophet sand
prophecyi nZi mbabwear el argel yinspi redbyanot herbr andofPent ecost al pr ophet s,
themega- chur chpr ophet s.Amongt hiscl assar eEmmanuelMakandi waandUeber t
Angel ,founder soft heUni t
edFami l
yI nternat i
onalChur chandt heSpi ritEmbassy
respect i
v ely.Ther ei ssomucht hathascapt uredt hei maginat i
onofZi mbabweans
whenonel ooksatt heset wol eadi ngf igur esamongt hemega- churchpr ophet s
currently oper ating i n Zi mbabwe:f rom t heirl avish and mat eri
all
y ext rav agant
l
ifestyles,i ncludingt hel atestandv eryexpensi vecar ssuchasaLambor ghi niand
Bent l
eyf orAngel sandaMer cedesS600f orMakandi wa.Thesepr ophetsal socl aim
topossessspi r
itualheal i
ngpower st hatf ew canr i
val,andt obei ngabl et obl ess
foll
ower smat erial l
y,includingt heso- cal led“ miraclemoney ”wher efollower sf i
nd
moneyi nt heirpocket sandbankaccount s( Dai l
ynews, 06Febr uary2013;

Newsday
,16Januar
y2013;

Newsday
,08Januar
y2013;
htt
p:/
/nehandar
adi
o.com/cat
egor
y/news/
page/
5/;

TheHer
ald,
05Januar
y2013;

Newsday
,30Janu-
ary2013;

TheSt andard,06 Januar y2013)t hatcannotbeaccount ed f ort hrough nor mal

accounting procedur es.Makandi wahasal so comeup wi thhi s“ miraclewei ght
l
oss”wher et hepr ophetcommandsf attoburnandpeopleinstantlylosewei ght( The
SundayMai l,13Febr uary2013).Makandi wahasal sobeenassoci atedwi thmi r
acle
babieswher ei ti sr e-por
ted t
hatt heUni t
ed FamilyInt
ernationalChur ch l eader
assist
edacoupl et oconceiveandgi v ebir
thaftert
hreedays(TheHer ald,21Febr u1
Miracl
emoneyr emai nsunexplained!Ther eareclaims,howev er,ofpeopl ef inding
moneyi nt heirpocket s,whicht heydi dnothav eprevi
ously
.Suchcl aimsar eal so
mader egardingbankaccountbal ances,wher eaccountsarebel i
ev edt obecr edited
withmoneyt hatcannotbeaccount edf orthr
oughnor malaccount i
ngpr ocedur es.In
ameet ingwi t
ht heGov er
noroft heReser veBankofZi mbabwe,Makandi waand
Angelappear edtosuggestt hatallt heydoi srecoverl
ostmoneyandr eturni ttoits
right
fulowner s,whichseemst ocontr
adicttheini
tialclai
mssur roundi
ngmi racl
e
money .2Mi racleweightlossisamongthecl ai
msbei ngmadebyt hemega- church
superstarprophets.Peoplewhohav eall
egedlybatt
ledwei ghtpr obl
emsar epr ayed
forandt hei
rexcessf at
sar ecommandedbywor dofmout ht obur ninstant l
y.
Inter
estingl
y,inoneoft hev i
deos,i
tappearsthatonlywomenl osewei ghtandonl y
from theirwaistdown-wardssinceonl
yskirt
swer evisi
blyoversizedwhi l
etheirtops
remainedoft herightsi
ze.

Al lt
hesear eint
eresti
ngf acet
soft hi
snewbr andofprophet
sinZi mbabwe; howev er
,
thisstudyfocusesonanot heraspectwhichhasabear i
ngonal lthecl aimswehav e
j
usthi ghli
ghtedabove.Thesepr ophetsareamongt hefewrel
i
gi ousf unct i
onariesin
Zimbabwewhouset het itl
e“manofGod”ext ensivel
yandexclusivelyei t
hert hrough
self-
propagatingorbyaccept i
ngt hetit
lewheni tisusedbyt heirfol l
ower s.This
studyt her
eforetr
acest hebibli
calroot
softhephr ase“manofGod”andi nv esti
gates
how thebi bl
icaltext
son“ manofGod”hav einfl
uencedtheself-under standingand
claimsbeingmadebyZi mbabweanpr ophet
s.

“
ManofGod”i
ntheBi
ble:
stat
ist
ical
anal
ysi
s

Thephr ase“manofGod”occur seight

yti
mesi ntheChr i
sti
anBi bl
e.Oft heei ghty
ti
mest hatthi
sphr asei
sused,onl
yonceisi
tusedintheNewTest ament,preciselyin
1Ti m.6:11.TheNewTest amenttext(1Ti
m.6:11)seemsnott ohavefoundf avour
withtheZimbabwean‘ menofGod’duet othei
nsinuati
onsoft hetextespeciallythe
precedi
ngv erses.Thetext
,especi
ally1Ti
mothy6:9-10,outl
ineswhatt he“ manof
God”shoul dguardagai
nstbysayi
ng

Butt
hosewhodesir
etoberi
chfal
li
ntotemptat
ion,
int
oasnare,
int
omanysensel
ess
andhur
tful
desi
rest
hatpl
ungemenint
or ui
nanddestr
uct
ion.

Fort
helov
eofmoneyist
herootofal
levi
ls;i
tist
hrought
hiscr
avi
ngthatsomehav
e
wander
edawayf
rom t
hefai
thandpi
ercedthei
rheart
swit
hmanypangs.

Butasforyou,
manofGod, shunallthis;
aim atr
ight
eousness,
godl
i
ness,
fai
th,
lov
e,
st
eadfast
ness,gent
leness(
1Ti m.6:9-10RSV).

Ast heonl ytextintheNewTest amentt hattalksaboutt he“manofGod” ;thetext,

unfort
unately
, i
sinbadt ast
eformany“ menofGod”whosemessagespr edomi nantl
y
focusont heprosperit
ygospel( Machingura,2011:212) .I
tisourcontent i
ont heref
ore
thattheuseoft het it
le‘ manofGod’f orcont empor aryrel
igi
ousf unctionariesin
Zimbabwei snotov erlydependentont hisNewTest amentunder standing,especiall
y
sincethoseusi ngitseem t oalsobet hegospelofpr osperi
typreachers.Whi lethe
phrase“manofGod”i sonl yusedoncei ntheNew Test ament,itispr edomi nantl
y
usedi ntheOl dTest ament .I
nteresti
ngly,i
tist heOl dTest amentpor t
rayaloft he
“manofGod”t hatappear stobethebasi suponwhi chsomei ndi
vidualsinZi mbabwe
clai
mt obe“ menofGod” .Thedistr
ibuti
onoft hephr ase“ manofGod”i sinterest
ing
toobserve.Followingt hecanonicalarrangementoft hebooks,t hephr aseappear s
fort hef ir
stt imei nDeut .33: 1wi t hr eferencet oMoses.I nt er estingly ,thisi stheonl y
ti
met hatt hisphr asei susedi nt hePent ateuch,asect ionoft heOl dTest amentt hat
i
sl ar gel yconcer nedwi tht hel awoft heLor d.Itt henappear sagai noncei nJoshua
(14:6)andt wi cei nJudges( 13: 6,8) .InJoshuat her efer encei sonceagai nt oMoses
whi l
ei nJudgesi ti susedwi thr ef erencet ot heangelofGodwhoannouncedt he
birt
hofSamson.I nshor t,t hephr ase“ manofGod”i susedf ourt imesi nt hef i
rst
sev enbooksoft heOl dTest ament .Ther ear ef iver efer encest o“ manofGod”i n1
Samuel( 2: 27;9: 6,7,8,10)andi toccur ssev ent i
mesi n1and2Chr onicles( 1
Chr .23: 14, 2Chr .8:14; 11: 2; 25:7, 9; 30:16) .Int heset ext s, itisusedt or ef ertoMoses,
Dav idandsomepr ophet s.I tal sooccur soncei nEzr a( 3: 2)andt wi cei nNehemi ah
(12:24, 36)wher ei tisusedwi thr ef erencet oMosesandDav i
dr espect ively.Ther ei s
alsor eferencet oMosest he“ manofGod”i nPsal m 90: 1aswel lasI gdal iaht he“ man
ofGod”i nJer emi ah35: 4.Theseusesamountt ot went y -oneusesoutoft hesev ent y
-
nineoccur rencesi nt heOl dTest ament ,ther emai ni ngoccur rencesar elimi t
edt ot he
books ofKi ngs wher et he phr ase occur sf if
ty -eightt imes.I nt hese f i
fty-
ei ght
occur rences,t her ei sr ef erencet oShemai ah,apr ophet( 1Kgs.12: 22) ,whi let he
phraseoccur sf requent lyi n1Kgs. 13( vss.1, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 19, 21, 23, 26, 29,
31)aswel lasi n2Kgs.23:16and17wher ei tisusedt odesi gnat et heunnamed
manofGodwhocamef rom Judah.Thi sunnamed“ manofGod”i scr editedwi th
maki ng pr opheci es agai nstBet heland f or etelli
ng t he comi ng ofKi ng Josi ah
cent ur y’sl at er( Cr enshaw 1971: 41- 2,CoganandTadmor1988: 299- 300) .Ther ei s
alsor ef erencet oanot herunnamedmanofGodi n1Kgs.20: 28.Thet itl
e“ Manof
God”appear si n sev eralt exts( 1Kgs. 17:18,24;2Kgs. 1: 9,10,11,12,13)as a
desi gnat i
onofEl ijahandasadesi gnat i
onofEl i
shai n2Kgs.4: 7, 9,16, 21, 22, 25, 27,
40, 42; 5:8, 14, 15, 20; 6:6, 9, 10, 15; 7:2, 17, 18, 19; 8:2, 4, 7, 8,11; 13:19.Whi l
et he
“manofGod”whocamef rom Judahi sonl yident ifiedt hr ought hi sphr ase,howev er,
themanneri nwhi cht hisphr asei susedf orEl i
jahandEl i
shacoupl edwi tht he
popul arityoft hesef i
gur esi nChr ist i
ancommuni tiesmeansouri nv estigat i
onoft he
i
nf l
uenceoft hebi bli
cal“ manofGod"oncont empor arymenofGodshoul dlar gely
focusont heset woi ndiv idual s.Oft hef if
ty -
eightt imest hatt hephr aseoccur si n
Kings,ont hi rt
y-fouroccasi onsi tiswi thr efer encet oei therEl ij
ahorEl isha,andi tis
oftenqual ifiedbyext raordi nar ydemonst rat i
onsofmi racul ouspower .

“
ManofGod”i
ntheBi
ble:
Char
act
eri
zat
ions

Thet i
tle“manofGod”i soneamongmanyt i
tlest
hatar
eappl i
edt oaselectgroupof
i
ndi vi
dualsalongsi deandasi nterchangeablet o“pr
ophet ”
,“seer”and“ prophetess”
,
especiall
yint hest oryoft helostdonkey sofSaulwher eSamuel( 1Sam.9: 6-10)is
describedaspr ophet,seerandmanofGod( Lamb2010:176).Fr om thi
sbackgr ound
i
ti sapparentt hatt heti
tl
e“ manofGod”i snotageneraldesi gnati
onforallcreated
beingsbutr atheranexcl usiv
et i
tl
ef orthefew “men(possi blywomenal so)”who
standi naveryi nti
mat eandcloser elati
onshi
pwi t
hGod.I ndeed, “
themanofGodi sa
speciall
ysetasi deindivi
dualwhoi sessent i
allyamanifestati
onoft hediv i
nehence
protectedbyt hedi vi
neandi ni nst anceswher esuchdi vi
nit
yi snotr espected,the
diviner eser v est her i
ghtt oav enge”( Gunda2012: 345) .Thi smakessensewhenone
consi der st hati nt heent i
rePent ateuch;onl yMosesi sl abel l
edmanofGod.Acl oser
anal ysi sofDeut .33:1showst hat“ thesuper scr ipt i
onusest hephr ase‘ themanof
God’ tor efert oMosesasdoesJoshua14: 6andPs.90.Thesamet it
leisf r
equent ly
usedof“ pr ophet sormessenger sofGod”( Dr i
v er1973: 389) .Text st hatr efert o
Mosesas“ manofGod”cl ear l
yshow t hatt her ei ssomequal i
tativ
edi ffer ence
bet weenMosesandal lotherI srael i
tes.Mosesi sdi ff
er ent,her el atesdi fferent l
ywi th
God and he accessesGod di fferent lyf rom al lot hercr eat ed bei ngs.I ti st hi s
differencebe- tweenMosesandor dinar ymenandwoment hatmar khi m outasman
ofGod.“ Man ofGod”i s an out st andi ng i ndi v idual ,an “ Über mensch ”( Gl over
2006: 452)suggest i
ngani ndi v i
dualwhoi sl i
ter ally“ abov emen” .Thi sisat itl
et hat
placessomemor tal
sabov eot hermor tals, especi allybecauseoft het hingst hatt hey
canaccompl ish.Chapt er33ofDeut eronomyi sl abel l
edt heBl essi ngofMosesandi t
consi st sofaser i
esofbenedi ct ionspr onouncedupont hedi ffer entt ri
besofI srael
(event houghSi meoni snotr ecogni zed)( Driver1973: 385) .Mosesst andsast he
foundi ngf atherbl essi nghi sdescendant s,andt hiscomesaf terhehadr ecei vedt he
l
aw f rom Yahwehandhadpassedont hesamet ot heI srael ites.Thel aw t hati s
i
nt erchangeabl ycal l
ed t heLaw oft heLor d ort heLaw ofMosesi scent rali n
under standi ngwhyMosesi squal ifi
edas“ manofGod” .Noot heri ndividualhadbeen
thiscl oset oGod!Bei ng“ abov emen” ,“Mosest her ebygi vest oeacht ri
behi sowngi ft
ofdi v ineunder standi ngandpower ,andatt hesamet imet hedi versegi ftsand
char act er i
st i
cs ofeach t ri
be ar er ecogni zed and af f i
rmed t o be gi fts ofGod”
(Clement s 1998: 534) .Thi si ssi mi l
ar lyi mpor t
antt hatt hebl essi ngsgi venbyMoses
areasgoodasbl essingsgi v enbyGodbecauset hemanofGodst andsf orGod,hi s
act i
onsar eGod’ sact ions.Thi sunder standi ngof“ manofGod”i sequal lyat test edi n
theEl ijahandEl i
shanar r
at ives.Theout st andi ngnat ur eofEl ij
ahi ssuggest edi n
i
nsi nuat i
onst hat“ suppor tst hesuspi ciont hatwher eEl ijah, l
ifeorspeechar e, YHWH
i
snev erf araway ”(Gl over2006: 450) .Yahweh,t heGodofI sr ael ,isal way shov ering
around t he “ man ofGod” ,suggest ing t hatpr oxi mi tyt ot he “ man ofGod”i s
essent iallypr oximi t
yt oYahweh.Thi scr eat est hei mpr essiont hatEl ij
ah“ willst ride
the ear t
hl ike some Yahwi st ic über mensch,unper turbed by t he dr ought s and
distancesofear th.Hei st hepr ophetwho‘ standsbef oret heLor d.’Thewor dsof
Eli
jahandYHWHshar eacommonaut hor i
tyandabi li
tyt oshapet hef utur e”( Gl over
2006: 452, 453) .Thet hingst hatconst rainmenandwomencannotconst r aintheman
ofGodwhoi sessent iall
yst andi ngundert heshadowofGod, shar ingi ntheaut hor ity
ofGod,whi chgi veshi mt hepowert ocommandt he“ jarofmealnott obeempt ied
andt hej ugofoi lnott of ailunt ilthedayt hatt hel or dsendsr ainont heear th( 1Kgs.
17:14- 24) ”( Gunda2012: 346) .The“ manofGod”r epresent sl ifebecauseGodi sl ife.
AsGl ov erobser ves,t herei smuchsy mbi osisbe- tweenYahwehand“ manofGod”
thati ti sdi fficultifnoti mpossi blet osepar at et hei ref fect sont hecommuni t
y .“Ift he
speechofEl ij
ahandYHWHhasasi mi laref fect ,soal sodoest heirpr esence.The
storybegi nswi t
hanappar entassoci ationbet weenYHWHandcer tainsubst ancesof
nour ishment —abov eal lwat er .Thei rabundance( e.g.i nt hewi dow’ shouse, 17. 14- 16)
point st ot hepr esenceofGod.Thei rscar city( e.g.t hedr ought ,17. 1-7)issuggest i
ve
ofdi v i
ne absence”( Glov er2006: 453 cf .Gunda 2011: 146).Thi sis par ti
cul
ar ly
i
mpor tanti n sear ching f ort he ef fects oft hese nar rati
ves on cont empor ar y
manif estat i
ons,t he“manofGod”r epr esentsabundancewher ev erthe“manofGod”
i
spr esentandt hesameappl iestoGod.I nshor t
,thet i
tl
e“ manofGod”i susedt o
describe some out st andi ng individuals who ar e beli
ev ed t o hav e a speci al
rel
ationshi pwi thGod.I tismost lyusedt or ef
ert oindivi
dual swhoar esomet imes
call
ed“ prophet s”,“seer s”,and“ vi
sionar i
es.”Thet it
lei susedi nterchangeablywi th
theseot hert i
tl
es,especi allyin1Samuel9.I nthenarrativeof1Ki ngs13aswel las
theEl ij
ah-El i
shanar r
at i
v es,thet i
tl
eappear st obesi mpl yanequi val
entofpr ophet .
ThemanofGod i sassoci ated wi thext raor
dinarydemonst rati
onofmi racul
ous
power ,whi chisseenast her esultofbei ngadi r
ectr epresent ati
veofGod( Gunda
2012:340) .Beingi nt hepr esenceoft he“ manofGod”i sunder stoodasbei ngint he
presenceofGodsi ncet he“ manofGod”possessesandusest hepowerofGod.

TheI
nfl
uenceoft
he“
ManofGod”Text
sonCont
empor
aryPr
ophet
s

Whi let heaut hent i

ci
t yandv eracityoft heBi bl
ei sr oundl yquest i
onedi nacademi c
circles,Af r
ican mani festations ofChr i
stiani
ty( barring a f ew except i
ons t hat
disregar dt heBi bleasbei ng “ stalef ood”such ast heJohaneMasowegr oups
(Engel ke 2004) )has been t horoughl y and ext ensiv ely“ bi blical.
”MostAf rican
Chr i
st ianst aket heirBi bleser i
ouslyast hebe- allint ermsofdeci dingwhatt hey
shoul ddoasChr i
st i
ans,i fnoti nt heiract ualdai lyl ivest henatl easti npubl i
c
discussi ons.Bi blicalexampl esandi njunctionsar et heref oreact i
v elysoughtt oj ustif
y
andr at i
onal i
zewhatt odo,howt odoi t,whent odoi tandwhyt odoi t.Insuchcon-
texts,i tshoul dnotbesur prisingt hereforet hatcont empor ar ycl aimant st othet i
tl
e
“manofGod”pr esentt hemsel vesasdescendant soft hel ineoft hespeci all
ychosen
few whost oodbef oreGodandwhoshar edi nGod’ saut hor ity.Inonei ncident
Makandi wawasquot edi nt hepr i
ntmedi aconf i
rmi nghi sel ect i
oni noneofhi s
ser monswhenhesai dt hat( TheHer ald,03Januar y2013) :TheLor dt oldme“ Tell
Zimbabweanst ochanget hei rfocus.Ev eryoneissay i
ngdi amonds,di amonds,butI
seeanot herpr eciousmi neral forZimbabwe…gol dwi llbepi ckedupf r
om t hegr ound.
My st eriouslygol dwi l
lbeappear i
ngev erywher e.AsIwaspr ayingIsaw awi nd
blowi ngandIsawgol dcomi ngt othesur f
ace.Peopl ear egoi ngt obepi ckingupgol d
withoutanydr il
ling.Youknowwhatt heysayaboutt hewat ert abl e?Onehast odi g
fi
rstbef oreaccessi ngwat er,butwi tht hisonet herei snodr i
ll-i
ngneeded.Those
peopl ewhohav ebeenl ookeddownuponwi l
lbepi ckingupgol dl iketheyar epi cking
upst ones.TheLor dt oldme‘ Thisi sformypeopl e’,
”sai dt heUFI Cspi rit
ualfathert o
wildappl ause.

Thesermonont heni ghtwaspremi sedon2Ki ngs7wher etheli

vesoftheIsrael
it
es
weret r
ansformedf r
om povertytopl ent
yi nonedayf ol
lowingthedeclar
ationof
Eli
sha,the “man ofGod” .Makandi wa’s st
atementconf ir
ms whatmostoft he
Pentecost
alChr isti
ans’understanding oft he Bibl
e and the past
orsinvolved i
n
minist
ryas‘ mout hpi
ecesandGod’ sr epr
esentati
ves’
.Thecont emporar
yclaimants
rej
ecttheideaof“ t
heendofi nspirati
on”ascont radi
cti
ngt hedict
atesoftheBible,
theWor dofGod.I nt heBi ble,iti scl eart hat“ afterhi sdr amat i
cv ictor yov ert he
prophet sofBaalonMountCar mel ,El ij
ahi spor tray edasspi r alingi nt oasui ci dal
depr essi on,i nt hemi dstofwhi chYahwehi nfor mshi mt hathehaschosenhi s
successor ”( Lamb2010: 172) .Inshor t
,t heunder standi ngi st hatGodi nt endedt o
alway shav ear epr esent at iveorr epr esent ati
vesamonghumanbei ngs,hencet he
choi ceofasuccessorf orEl i
jahi snotonl yspeci fic,i ti sal sor epr esent ative.I n
reachi ngt hisobser v ationwear eindebt edt oear li
erobser vationsbyRober tCar r oll
(1969: 401)whenhest ates:“ Thei nst i
tut i
onofpr ophecywast obeacont inuousand
per manentof f
iceconst ant lysuppl yingt hepeopl eofI sr aelwi t
hacov enantmedi at or
whowoul dr ecr eat et her ol eofMosesf ort henat ion. ”Thi sunder st andi ngi scr itical i
n
tryingt ounder st andt hecont empor arymani fest ationsofChr istianpr ophet sbot h
amongAI Csaswel lasamongt hePent ecost almov ement s.Asnot edear l
ier ,t he
biblical“ manofGod”i sessent i
all
ymor et hansi mpl yahumanbei ng,heorshei s
divine- humanbei ngbecauseheembodi esanamal gamat ionofhi smor talnat ur eand
thei mmor talnat ur eofGod, shar ingi nt hef ateofhumani tyy etexer cisi ngt hepower
andaut hor ityofGod.Theper formanceofmi raclesandot hersuchpar a-nor mal
act i
v i
tiesi sunder stoodi nt hecont extoft hei rdiv i
ni t
y .Al lt hingst hatGodcandocan
bedonebyt he“ manofGod”hencet hei deat hatwher et hemanofGodi s,God
cannotbef araway( Glov er2006: 450) .I tisnotsur pr isingt hat ,such‘ menofGod’
attractbi gcr owdsasi nt hecaseofMakandi wawhosef ollower sst ampedei nor der
tohav eaccesst ot hef rontseat si nt heaudi tor i
um wher et heywi llbecl osert ot he
‘
manofGod’( ht tp:/ /www. i
nt ozimbabwe. com/ top- news/ zi mbabwe/ 3016- 18- injur ed-
i
n- stampede- to- see- prophet -makandi wa. html ).I n anot her i ncident ,t he Spi ri
t
EmbassyMi nist riesChur chf ounder ,Ueber tAngelhadt oabandonhi sf oodf rom a
fastf oodout l
eti nGwer uandf l
eef rom member soft hepubl ic,whohadt hrongedt he
premi sesandst ar tedj ost lingt ogr eett he“ manofGod”( TheChr oni cle,24Oct ober
2012) .Thepopul arpr eacherUeber tAngelandhi sbodyguar dshadt odashi ntot heir
vehi clesandf lee, leav ingt heirf oodwhi chwasst il
lbei ngpr epar edaf termember sof
thepubl icswar medt hef oodout letandst artedj ostlingt ogr eett heHar are- based
preacher -cum pr ophet .Thosewhomanagedt oev adet hehumanwal lmadeby
ProphetAngel ’sbody guar dswoul dkneelont het armacbef oregr eet inghi m.Oneof
thef ew whohadt hechancet oshakehandswi t
hPr ophetAngelcl aimedt hatt hey
wer e“ bl essed”asar esul tofshaki nghandswi tht he“ manofGod”( TheChr oni cle, 24
Oct ober2012) .Themanwhoappear edt ohav eent er edi ntoat rancesoonaf ter
shaki nghandswi thPr ophetAngelsai d“ ThankGod,Iam now anew man.Iam
blessedt ohav ebeengr eet edbyt hisgr eatmanofGod” .Thepeopl ewhof lock
aroundt he“ manofGod”orwhoseekt hepr esenceoft he“ manofGod”ar ei n
essence seeki ng t he pr esence ofGod.I nt he case ofZi mbabwe,pr omi nent
musi ciansl i
keLeonar dKar i
kogaZhakat a,gospeldi v aJoy ceSi met i,Mahender e
Brot her s,Pet erMoy o,Sul umaniChi mbet u,Di vaMaf ungaandBi ggi eTembo( Jnr )
amongmanyot her shav edeser tedt hei rol dchur chest oj oi nt housandsofpeopl e
attendi ngMakandi wa’ schur ch( newsdzezi mbabwe. com) .Fol lower soft hepopul ar
“menofGod”hav egonet ot heex tentofput ti
ngst i
cker st hati dent i
fyt hem wi tht heir
“menofGod”ont hei rcar s, of fi
cechai rs( wher et heyusual l
ysi t)andt hei rBi bles.I tis
now commoni nHarar
etoseepr
ivat
ecarsownedbyformostofMakandi
wa’
s
fol
l
owers wit
h sti
cker
s wi
ththe UFIC l
ogo wi
th wor
ds l
i
ke “Ndi
rimwana
wemuporof
it
a

–Iam achi ldoft hepr ophet ”.Itisalsointerest ingt hat,fol

lower soft he“manofGod”
as int he case ofwamupr of i
ta Makandi wa and Angelar ev er y conserva-ti
v e,
defensi
v eandsomet i
mesr esor ttoabusi v
eort hreateningl anguagewhenev erthei r
“menofGod”ar ecr i
ticized.Chr ist
ineVut a,whochr i
s-tenedher self‘mwanaorchi ld
ofthepr ophet’ didnott akel i
ght l
ytopeopl ewhocr it
ici
zedMakandi waandAngelon
the‘miraclebabyoft hreeday sandmi raclemoneyepi sodes’ bysay ing:Iwr i
teasan
ordinar
ymemberofUni tedFami l
yInternationalChur ch( UFIC) .Ichal lengethecr i
tics
ofmyspi r
itualfat herst opr ayt hattheybegr antedt hespi ritofdi scer nmentsot hat
theyknowt hespi ri
tbehi ndt hesemenofGod.I fy ouar e[a]genui neChr i
sti
an;then
youwi l
lseet hatt heseser vantsofGodar el edbyt hespi ri
toft r
uth.Theyar ev essels
(menofGod)t hatt heLor dhaschosent obr ingaboutspi r
itualrev i
v alinZimbabwe.I
havehear dcar elessst atement sl i
ke‘Makandi wai snei t
herGodnorJesus’ .Truebut
hehasheededt hecal lbyJesuswhi chhet oldhi sdi sciplesi nJohn14: 12.Why
shouldpeopl ehav epr oblemswhengr eatermi raclesar eper formed,f orinstance,
i
nstantwei ghtl ossandgol dappear ingi npeopl es’hands?( TheSundayMai l
,24
February-2Mar ch2013) .

Vuta, j
ustl i
kemanyf ol
lower softhesePent ecostalmega- chur ches, regardswhatt he
“menofGod”mi raculousl ydoasf ulfi
l
lmentoft he‘ wor dofGod’ .Takur aMukwat i
(TheHer ald,10Jul y2012;TheHer al
d,26Febr uar y2013) ,apast orintheUFI C,was
quotedi nTheHer aldthr eateni
ngt hosewhocr it
icizedMakandi wabysay i
ng:Bor nof
apr ophet ,int hisar t
icle,Iam goi ngt oanswerabi toft hisquest ion.Apr opheti sa
manofi nsightt othewi l
landpur posesofGod( Amos3v7) .Apr opheti samanwho
sit
si nt hecabi netwi t
ht heAl-mightyandcanheart hedi scussionsofheav enand
canbr i
ngt hem t omen.Ourf at
heri ntheLor dPr ophetEmmanuelMakandi wa,in
UnitedFami l
yI nternationalChur ch,isat y picalexampl eofapr ophetoft hatcal i
bre
whom t heLor dhasgi v ent ousasagi ft
.Hei samongstt hePr ophet swhoar ethe
eyesandmi ndsofGod,member soft heheav enlycabi net.Thati swhyt hereis
alway sav i
olentr eact i
onf r
om theheav enswhenhi spr ophet s(Makandi wai ncluded)
aret ouched,embar r
assed,har assed,per secutedorki ll
ed.Touchi ngapr opheti sa
shortcutt ot hegr av eaccor dingtoPsal ms105:14- 15, gr
av esofsi cknesses, poverty
,
misfortunes, evenspi ri
tual andphy sicaldeat h.

Ifintimespast ,El
i
jah’
sdeedswer eaconf ir
mationoft hespokenwor dofGod;
contempor ary“menofGod”seet hemselvesorareseenbyt heirfol
lowersasbei ng
l
egiti
mizedt hroughthewrit
tenwordofGodwhi l
eatthesamet imet heyauthent
icate
thewor dofGod.Josephi neChuma(Dailynews,07August2012)addsherv oi
ceby
clai
mingt hat:ProphetEmmanuelMakandi waisar ealmanofGod.Hedoesnot
clai
mt ohav epowersbuthehasgott hepowerofGod.Hehasbeenanoi nt
edbyGod
todeli
verpeopl ewhobel i
evei
nGodf rom theevilworksoft hedev i
l.Thosewho
beli
evehav ebeenmadet oprosperinallaspectsoft hei
rli
v esincludi
ngheal th,
fi
nances,educati
ononl ytonameaf ew.Theanoi nt
inguponProphetMakandiwa
i
nv olv
esa mul t
ipl
ici
tyofbl essi
ngswhich incl
udeswi sdom,f
avour,honourand
protecti
onf
rom evi
l f
orcesandmisfor
tunes.

Andi nmostcasest heaut henticationoft heirinextri

cableconnectiontot hedi vi
neis
through the per for
mance ofmi racles as wi tnessed atMakandi wa and Angel ’
s
Chur chservi
ces( Dailynews, 26June2011; Newsday ,10August2012) .Accor dingto
Past orNdhl ovu oft he Apost olic Faith Mi ssion in Zimbabwe ( interviewed,19
Febr uary2013),thedangert hatwehav etodayi sthatofpeopl ewhot hinkwecan
rel
ivet hewor l
doft heOl dTest ament“ menofGod” .Forhim,thecalibreofpr ophets
wehav eare‘ f
ake,huckst ersandempi rebui l
der s’whohi debehindtheBi bl etomi l
k
unsuspi ci
ouspeopl e.Ant oniaSi gauke( interviewed,18Febr uary2013)posedt he
foll
owi ngquestionsi nr esponset ot hreatsthatar eusual l
ychurnedoutbyf ol
lowers
oft heZi mbabwean“ menofGod” :Whyshoul dpr ophetsnotbequest ioned?When
theybecomepr ophet s,dot heyceaset obehumanbei ngsandbecomei nf
all
ibl
e?
Thisi ssetti
ngadanger ouspr ecedentofnotsubj ecti
ngt heprophetst othet estof
scriptureandsoundnessaccor dingt ot hewor dofGod.Whyshoul dthepr ophet sbe
afraidofbei ngquest ioned?Whyi si tsomeoft hem getarrestedf orcommi tti
ng
heinouscr i
mesl ike:rape, theftandmur der?

Cr i
ti
csoft hecont empor ary“ menofGod”f i
ndi tv er ydi fficultt or econci let he
i
nf l
uenceoft he“ manofGod”t extsont hecont empor ar yZi mbabweanpr ophet s,
especi al
lywheni tcomest ot heirf lashyl ifestylesi nt hecont extoft hepov ertyof
theirfollower s.Yetf ollower sofsuch“ menofGod”seei tdiffer ently
.Notonl ydoes
themanofGodr eadt het extoft heBi ble,heact si touti nhi sownwor dsandt he
foll
ower sbecomet her ecipientsoft hebenef i
tsoft hepr esenceoft hedi vine,whi ch
i
schar acter izedbyt heabundanceofheal th, wealthandwel l
-being( Glov er2006: 453) .
The f oll
ower sand t hose i nt he pr esence oft he man ofGod;“ wi tnesst ot he
i
nexhaust iblej arofmealand j ug ofoi li nt hei rown l ives”( 1 Kgs. 17)( Gunda
2012: 346) .Thi st exti sr e-
enact ed week i n,week outunt i
lt he f ollower s star t
proclaimi ngt ot hemsel ves, t
ot hemanofGodandt oot her swhost andout side:‘
Now
Iknow t haty ouar eamanofGodandt hatt hewor doft heLor di ny ourmout hi s
truth’(
1Kgs. 17: 24).Sucht extsar er eadt oshow whatGoddi dt hroughachosen
vessel ,i
nawayt hatconv incest hef ollower sandl istener soft heaut hent i
cityofwhat
the cont empor arypr opheti s goi ng t o do i nt he name ofGod.El i
jah and t he
cont empor ar ypr ophetar esi mi lar,theyar especi allychosenbyGodandt heyneed
eachot her .TheBi bli
calnar rativel egi ti
mi zest hecur rentpr ophetbutt hecur rent
prophetmakesanunbel ievableBi bl i
calnar rati
vebel iev
abl ebyr e- enact i
ngi t”(Gunda
2012: 346) .Themot t
of ort hecon- tempor ar ymanofGodi ssimpl e,theunbel ievable
i
sgodl y!(Gunda2011: 147) .Thesamemot tohasbecomet hesl oganf ort hemaj orit
y
off oll
ower si nt hesemegachur cheswher et he‘menofGod’ arer egardedas‘ fri
ends
ofGod’ whoknowt hemi ndofGod.

Concl
udi
ngObser
vat
ions
Amongt hemanyt i
tlesthatar ebeingappr opriat
edbycont empor arypr ophetsi n
Zimbabwei st het i
tl
e“ manofGod” .Whileithasal way sbeenusedbyChr i
sti
ans,it
appear st hati t
s use was gi ven a new lease ofl if
e by Pent ecostalr eli
gious
functi
onar i
es.Wi thinZi mbabwe,ther ol
eofGut iinpopul ar
izi
ngt hist i
tlecannotbe
overstated.Howev er,theriseofacl assofmega- churchsuper st
arpr ophet satt he
endoft hef i
rstdecadeoft hetwenty-f
ir
stcentur yinZimbabwemadet histit
leev en
mor e popul ar.Or dinary Chr i
sti
ans excit
et heir prophet i nto prophesy i
ng by
consistentlyurgi
nghi m onusi ngthetit
le“manofGod. ”Itisatitlethatacknowl edges
thatsomemenandwomenar einabet t
erposi ti
ont ocommunewi thGodt han
others.Thesepr ivil
egedi ndivi
dualscanbecomebr idgest hathel pot herscr oss
fl
oodedr i
versbetweent hei
rsinfull
iv
esandt hehol yli
vesdemandedbyGod

PROPHECY:
DEFI
NITI
ON
Prophet;thewordoccuri
npopularspeecht odesi
gnateapersonwhopr edi
ctt
he
fut
ure.Howev erHebr
ew prophet
swer enotprimari
lyofthisty
pe.Prophecyasa
phenomenoncannothav eaclearl
yident
if
iabl
edefi
niti
on,butwealsohavelogi
cal
i
nconsistencenott
odefi
ne.
soweneedawor ki
ngdefi
nit
ion.

Prophecyifi
tistobeunderstoodhavetobedefi
nedinter
msofcharact
eri
sti
cs
becausethebi
bleourmaj
orsourceof
fer
snodef
ini
ti
onofwhatapr
opheti
s.

Thebibli
calwor dnabihav eanydef i
nit
emeani ngi nHebr ewt hatwecandi scer n.The
wordpr opheti sder ivedf rom t heGr eektransl ationofNabiwher ethet r
ansl at
ors
haveopt edt ospeaki nt henameofGodorani nter
pr eteroft hewi llofGod r at
her
than‘mant i
s’(adi v
iner, seer,soothsay er)
.Sot hewor dpr opheti sani nt
erpretedone
anddistancedf rom t heHebr ewt ext.Thoughdi ff
iculttodef i
net hebestwaywecan
comeupwi thadef init
ionofapr ophetisthroughi tschar acteri
sti
csasdescr ibedin
thebibl
ei nDeut18: 9-22.Af t
ercondemni ngt henon- Israeli
tepr acti
cesofsor cery,
divi
nati
on, necromancye. t
.c.thewr it
ercontinues‘ Iwi l
lr aiseapr ophetlikey ouf r
om
amongt heirbrethrenandIwi l
lputmywor dsi nhismout handheshal lspeakt o
them al
lt hatIcommandhi m’( Deut18:18).Itisi nlightoft histhatform criti
csl i
ke
WestermannandGunkelar guet hattheor acl esoft hepr ophet sbeganwi ththe
messenger ;sstyle‘thussay st heLor d…’impl y i
ngt hatt hemessagewasnotf r
om
themselvesbutf rom t heonewhosentt hem.Sopr ophet swer emessenger sor
i
ntermedi ari
es.Accor dingt oJ.Mui l
enburgapr ophetisdescr i
bedasamout hpiece
ofYahweh.

Prophecyt hereforei sani nsti

tuti
ont hroughwhi chGodcanspeakt hetruthabout
somehi st
oricalsituati
onisv er
balized.AccordingtoH.HGuthri
e, aprophett heref
ore
i
sav ehicl
et hroughwhi chthetruthaboutsomespeci fi
csi
tuati
oni sverbali
zed.Itis
becomi ngt hemeanswher ebyGoddef inesthemeani ngofhistory.ForH.HRowl ey
theprophetwhoi sproperlysocal l
edwasamanwhoknewGodi ntheimmedi acyof
experiencewhof eltinescapableofGodandwhosewor dwasatbot t
om ar evelat
ion
ofthei ssueoft hatlif
ewhot hereforedeclaredtheissueandpl eadedwi t
hmant o
av oidi tbycl eansingandr enewingt hei
rlives.Theyser vedasmodel sofspi r
it
ual
hei ght swhi chal lpeopl emightsomedayr each.I nthi
swaypr ophetsfunct i
onedas
i
ndi v idualswhohadbeendi vi
nelychosent or efor
m allaspect sofhumansoci ety
.
Prophet ’
st askwasnotonl yt opreach,hewasal soappoi ntedt obeassay erand
test er.( Jer6: 7)
.Hehadt oexami nehi speopl edisti
nguishingbet weent hatwhi ch
wasgoodandt hatwhi chwasev i
l.
.Accordingt oJ.Lindblom i twasont her esultof
thisexami nationthatt hecont entofapr ophet ’smessagedepended.I nact ualfact
prophet sareseenaspeopl eappointedbyYahweht omoni torhispeopl e’spr ogress
ordecl i
nei nobedi ewncet oYahweh’ swi l
landt ostri
vet okeept henat i
onont he
cour seor i
ginall
yint endedbyhi mfori t
sgood.TheI srael
iteshadbeenuni tedby
cul ture,r eli
gionbei ngoneoft hecomponent s.Theyknew t hatreli
gionst emmi ng
from t hecov enantr elat
ionshi
pwi thgodwast henat i
on’sstrengthandt her easonf or
i
tsexi stence.

Accordi
ngt oMar ara,theconceptofpr ophecyi nZi mbabwei susuallyassociated
wit
ht henotionofoneper sont hatis,apr ophett ell
i
nganot herhisorheri ssues.
Thereisanelementofpr edict
ionwhi chisinvolved.Thecommont rendinZi mbabwe
i
st hatpeopl
et alki
nt ermsof‘ kuporofi
twa’( bei
ngpr ophesied)orinthecont extof
whitegarmentchur ches‘kushandirwa’.Prophecyi nZimbabwei sassoci at
edwi th
i
ndependentAf r
icanchurchescommonl ycalled‘Vaposi t
ori
’
.Somepr omi nentnames
i
nthiscategoryareJohaneMasowe, JohaneMar ange,andErnestPaulMwazha.

Zimbabwehasal sowi tnessedtheriseofmanypr ophetsinthePent ecostaldomain.

Someoft hesear eMakandi wa( Unit
ed Fami l
yI nt
ernati
onalMi ni
str
ies),Prophet
UerbertAngel(Spiri
tEmbassyMi nist
ri
es)
,pr ophetAndr ew Wut aunashe( Famil
yof
God),and prophetPassi on Java( Ki
ngdom embassyMi nist
ries)
.Some oft he
prophetshaveact ual
lybeencr edit
edwi t
ht heabi li
tytor evealpersonaldetail
sof
peopleincl
udi
ngt headdr ess,
phonenumber s,datesofbi r
thtoment i
onbutaf ew.

PREDI
CTI
ON(
FORETELLI
NG)ANDPROCLAMATI
ON(
FORTHTELLI
NG)

Proclamat i
oni saddr essi ngoftheprevaili
ngsituati
onandpr edi
cti
onisfor
etell
i
ng.In
addressingt hepr evail
ingsi t
uati
onpr ophetsof tenalludedt oeventsyettocome.
Prophecywasf i
r standf or
emostamat terofconv eyingt hemessageofGodt othe
i
mmedi ateli
st ener snotamat t
erofpr edict
ingthef uture.Itbecomesobv i
ousthat
thewor dsoft hepr ophetwer econcernedwi threpentanceorabsenceofi t
.Howev er
i
ndeal i
ngwi t
ht hepr esentprophetsof tenalludedt ot heev ent
st ocome.Thi s
actuall
yshowst hatpr edict
ionandpr oclamationwer einterwovenbutemphasiswas
onpr oclamation.

Accordi
ngtoJ.Mui l
enbur
g,prophetscamewi thapar ti
cul
arwordf orapar ti
cul
ar
ti
me.Thisshowsthattheywerenotmer eprognosticator
swhoseai m wast oshow
ordemonstr
atet
hatGodknowst hefutur
e.Ifatallprophetstol
dthef ut
ure,i
thada
bear
ingonthepr
esent.Theyweretheretoint
erpretcert
aineventsandadv i
sepeople
onwhatactiont
ot ake.B.
W.Andersonarguest hatprophecyinIsraelisassoci
ated
wi th a par ti
cul art radit i
on and exper ience.I sraelor i
gi nat ed wi t
ht he exodus
exper ienceandt hecov enant .Mosesdecl aredt hewi l
lofGodt oPhar aoht hati st o
freeI srael it
es.Pr ophet swer et her et oadv iseI srael i
test oputawayf orei gngodsand
wor shi pYahwehonl y.Howev erot herschol arsquest i
onMosesasapr ophet .G. Von
Rad’ sobser vationi smor epl ausi ble.Hear guest hatpr ophecyi nI sraeli sassoci at ed
wi thei theracul t
,l eader shiporbot h.Pr ophet swer ecal li
ngpeopl et opr act ical
hol i
nessandr epent anceandwer eadv i
singpeopl etoputt hei rtrusti nYahweh,e. g.
Isaiahar guest hatbehi ndt hescenest herei sYahweh,t hesov ereignr uler .The
secr etsoft heLor dr eveal edt ohi spr ophet shi snotpr imar ilyknowl edgeoft hef ut ur e
ev entsbutGod’ sgov ernanceoft hewor ldwher ebysi nsar ej udgedandr epent ancei s
accept ed.SoI sr ael i
tepr ophet smadepr edict i
onsont heconv i
ctiont hatYahwehwas
shapi ngt hecour seofev ents,l eadi ngf r
om t hepr esenti ntot hef utur e,e. g.Amos
predi cteddoom becauseofpeopl e’sdi sobedi ence.Accor dingt oVonRad,pr ophecy
i
nt hiscasedi dnotannouncewhatwoul dhappenbutwhataccor di ngt oGod’ s
j
ust icewasi nev itabl e,e.g.becauseofi t
ssi nsJer usalem hadt oper ish( Jer7: 13- 20) .
Thi si snotpr edict ionei theri nt hesenseofsoot hsay i
ngorasar esul tofsome
techni calski l
ls.Thi si st hepr oclamat ionoft heact sofhol yandr ight eousGodwho
doesnotl eav esi nsunpuni shedandy etshowsmer cyt oal lwhol ov ehi mt okeephi s
commandment s( Exodus20: 5-6) .Pr ophet spr eachedf ut ur edi sast er saswel las
sal v
at ione. g.Amos5: 18- 24,becausewhatt heypr edictedwasnotamat terof
changebutr estedatGod’ sgov ernance.Thepr ophet scoul dpr ocl aim wi thmat terof
cer t
ai nty,disast eraswel lassal v ation.I saiahf ori nstancegav ehi schi ldrennames
thatepi tomi zedhi smessage,Spoi lspeedpr eyhast ens,r emnantshal lr eturn.Thus
heshowedt hathehadnodoubtaboutwhatwoul dhappenort hatdi sast erwi l
lcome
att heappoi nt edt imes.I ti spr eci selyt hi sal l
ianceofpr ocl amat ionandpr edi ct ion
thati st he hal l-mar k ofa t rue pr ophet .Pr ev i
ousl ypr ophecywas speci fical ly
predi ctionbutwi tht hecl assicalpr ophet st hev iew hasbecomepr ev alentt hatt he
truef unct i
onofapr ophetwast obecomeat eacherofet hi calandr eligi
oust rut h.
Howev ert heynev ersei z edt obeseer s,thei rfacei salway st ur nedt ot hef utur e.They
standi nt hecounci lofYahwehandi tiswhathei saboutt odot hatt heydecl aret o
men.Thei rconv ict ioni st hatt hedest r
uct ionoft henat i
oni si nev i
tabl eandt heydwel l
ont henat ureofYahwehandont hemor aldeci sionofpeopl et oi mpr esst hei r
conv ict i
onont henat i
on( Amos4: 12).

ROLESOFPROPHETS
MESSENGERSOFYAHWEH

Theaut hori
tyenjoyedbypr ophet
samongt hei
rpeopledependednatural
l
yonthefact
thattheywer ebearersoft hedivi
neword.Theywer ecommi ssionedbyGodand
understoodt hemselvesasmessenger sofYahwehhencet heyusedt heprophet
ic
formula‘Thussay stheLord’.Thustheywerepri
maril
yspokespersonsforGodtohis
people,denounci ng them oft hei
rsins,pleasi
ng withthem t orepentto God,
encouragingthem tofollowthewill
ofGodi nal
lphasesofthei
rli
fe.
Isr
aeli
epr ophetswerespokespersonsformonot hei
sti
cYahwism.Keyf eaturesof
Yahwism t hat f
ormed the core of prophet
s ar e monothei
sti
c,et hi
caland
j
udgement aldi
mensionsofYahwi sm t
hatstoodatt hecentr
eoft hemessageof
eachoft heancientIsr
aeli
teprophet
s.Theset hreehadnopar al
lelsint heANE
prophecy,i.e.t
heywereessent
iall
yini
queandmadeI srael
i
teprophecyuni que.The
apodeit
iclawasexempl i
fi
edintheDecalogueist
hebasisofmonot heisti
cYahwi sm.

‘
youshallhav enoot hergodsbef oreme…’( Exodus20:3).Theapodeit
icl aw i
s
bel
iev
edt obeaut hentictoIsrael
.Ifpr
ophet
swer espokespersonsofmonot hei
sti
c
Yahwism,thenbasical
lytheyinter
pret
edtheapodict
icl
awst hatwer
eatthecent r
eof
Yahwism whichimpl i
est hattheprophet
sspokeandr epr
esentedthatwhichwas
uni
quetoIsrael
.

Howev erscholarsl
i
keG.Fohrerar guethattheapodi ct
icrul
esofconductwer enot
necessari
lyuniquet
oIsrael
.Butoneshoul dnotethatmattersofrel
i
giousprinci
plei
n
theapodicti
clawhadnopar al
lelintheANE.Pr ophetswereprimari
lyspokesper
sons
ofthesemat t
ersofrel
i
giousprinci
plethatwereuniquelyI
srael
it
e

I
NTERCESSORS

Thisissomebodywhopl eadsonbehal
fofpeopl
etoYahweh,e.g.Gen20:7,Amos
7:
1-6.Theint
ercessor
yr ol
eisexpr
essedinthetel
l
sofEli
jahwhohel pedonethe
widowsofZarephathtodiscov
erinherhouseoi
landmil
kt okeephersel
fandher
sonti
llt
henextgoodrains.

CULTI
CFUNCTI
ONARI
ES

Accor di
ngt oVonRadsupportedbyA.Johnsonpr ophet
swer eculti
coff
iceholders
thoughwecannotdenyt hatprophetsweresomehow linkedtot hecul
ticpatt
ern.
Theywer e chi
efrepr
esentat
ives ofthe heavenl
ycouncil,di
vinel
yappointed to
proclaimthewor dofGodt ot hepeopl
e.Theysoughtnor oyalorecclesi
asti
cal
favours,sincethei
rli
veswer ecompl et
elydir
ectedanddeci matedbyt hedivine
suzerain.

COVENANTMEDI Seenot
ATORS( esabov
e)

SOCI
ALREFORMERSCALLI
NGFORSOCI
ALJUSTI
CE.

Prophet
swer espeaki
ngonbehal
fofthel
essprivi
l
egedinsocietyandbecomethe
mouthpiecesofthosewhohadnopowert ostandforthei
rrights.I
ntimesofil
l-
tr
eatmentandi nj
usti
cesuchpr
ophet
sstoodfortheordinar
ypeopl ewhohadno
powertoconf r
ontleader
sandkingsinsoci
ety,forexampleEl i
jahandNaboth,
NathanandDavid.

Thepoorwer edepriv
edofl andandwealth,wi
dows,t
hef at
her
lessandtheweak
could notprotectthemsel
ves.Prophet
s dir
ect
ed t
hei
rmessages t oleader
s or
off
ici
alsofinsti
tut
ionsinsociet
ywhohadpowerandaut hori
tyi
nthesocialli
feof
JudahandI
srael
.(1Ki
ngs21,
Amos5:
7-10,
Isai
ah1:
21-
26.

Issuesofweal t
h,pursui
tofitandpossessi onofi twerealsoaddr
essedbyprophets
becauset heywer esourcesofcorruption.Amos’message-r i
chwouldbuil
dhewn
stonehouses,l ar
gev i
neyarde.t
.c.themostv ul
nerabl
einsociet
ywer eoppressed
l
iket hewi dowsand ophans-t hatwasv i
olati
on ofjusti
ce.Hencemessageof
j
udj ementtotheIsrael
it
eswasar esultofinjusti
ce

ADJUDI
CATEI
NTER-
TRI
BALDI
SPUTES

Bef
oret
hemonar chyprophetswouldattr
ibalcentr
esadj
udi
catei
nter
-t
ri
baldisput
es.
Sothedesignat
ionofal eaderofthet ri
besi ntimeofdanger,off
ici
ateatt he
cer
emonyofcov enant
.Abov e al
lthi
ngs the leaderwas t
her
et o maintai
nt he
cat
egor
ical
lawoft hecovenanti
ntheli
feofthetri
bes.

POLI
TICALADVI
SORS

Whenki ngshi
pwasest abl
i
shedi nIsraelmuchoft her esponsibi
li
tyoftheformer
covenantrepresentat
iveswasassumedbyt heking.Howev ert
hekingwasnot
permit
tedtobecomet heofficialspokesper
sonofthedei ty.Theref
orepr
ophecywas
establ
ishedtocheckandbal ancet hepowersoft
heki ngs.Pr ophet
swereinvol
vedin
anoint
inganddet hr
oningofki ngs.

Whenev eraki ngi sent hronedanddet hronedpr ophet sarei nvolved.Herepr ophets
areseent obepl ay i
ngal eadingr oleint hef ormat i
onoft heki ngdom.Soatt i
mes
prophet sar er egar dedasr evolutionar i
es.Forr eli
giousandsoci alchangest obef ull
y
addr essedt herewasneedt or emov epol iti
calleaderst hear gumentbei ngt hat
reli
giousandpol i
ticalpr acti
ceswhi chwer eabr eacht ot heSi naicovenantwer e
beingpr omot edbyt hepol iti
calleader shiphencet herewasneedt oremov et hem to
promot egenui ner eform backt ot hest i
pulationsoft heSinaicov enant.Thusi tisnot
surpr i
singt onot et hatwhenev eraki ngisent hronedordet hroned, apropheti sbeing
i
nv olvede. g.El ishaanoi ntedJehuwhi l
et heOmr i
deswer est i
l
linpowerandJehu’ s
revolutionl eadt osomer el
igi
ousandpol it
icalchange.Howev eri ti
sinteresti
ngt o
notet hatpr ophet snev erheadedanymov ementi nI sr
ael,tor eplacethemonar chy
wi t
hanot herf orm ofgov ernmentt hatitmi ghthav ebeent houghtt oprefer.Thisis
truef ort herei snoi ndicat i
ont hatt hepr ophet i
ctraditi
onev erpossessedei therthe
tasteort het alentf orpr acticalpol i
ti
cs.Whenev erprophecyi nter
venedi nt hese
mat ters,itwasnotf oranyot herr easonbutf orspiritualr
easons.

Theywerenotagainstmonar
chi
calr
egi
me,againstdecl
ineofI sr
aeli
tel
aw and
cust
om,agai
nstencr
ochmat
esoft
hemagnet
s,agai
nstapostasyandagai
nst

oppr
essi
onoft
hehumbl
ecl
assofI
srael
.Inf
actt
heywer
eagai
nstt
hei
nst
it
uti
onof
theki ngswhi chwer ef ai
li
ngt oadequat elyex pressl oyalt
yt oGod.Pol iti
csand
reli
gionwer einterwov enandsi ncepr ophet sdi dnotl iveini v
or yt owersepar ated
from thel i
v esoft heirsocietytheywer enotpuppet si nthehandsofanar bi
trarydeity
.
God used pr ophetsasspokesper sonswi thoutv i
olati
ng theirown per sonalit
ies
hencet heywer enothol l
owt ubes.Sot heyr eaffi
rm Yahweh’ ssov erei
gnst ayint he
poli
ticalspher einwhi chI sraelli
ved.Thi smadeal togetheraheadoncol li
sionwi th
the eff ectwhi ch was made t of urtherI srael’
s pol i
ticalsecurity especiall
ywith
dipl
omacyandpol icyofmi li
taryarmament .Atonepoi ntwef i
ndpr ophet sgiving
oraclest oat tackshowi nghar moni ousco- oper ati
onbet weenpr ophetsandmi l
it
ary
l
eader ship.Pr ophet sneart hePhi li
stineGar risoninacl earindicationthatpr ophets
wer epol it
ical.Therear etheretoi nciteIsr
ael it
est oengagei nhol ywaragai nstt he
Phili
stineenemy .

COURTOFFI
CIALS

Prophetswer econsultedwhengr eatev entswer ei mpendingmost l

ybef oreand
duringwar se.
g.AhabandJehoshaphatt ri
edtoensur evi
ctoryovertheAr ameansat
Gil
ead.Jehoshaphatwi shed to heart he wor d ofYahweh and summoned 400
prophets( 1Kings22).Thuswhenent eri
nguponi mportantundertaki
ngt heki ng
constantlyappl
iedtothepr ophet
sf orthewor dfr
om Gode. g.DavidhadNat hanas
hi
scour tprophet,
Rehoboam hadShemai ah,andJer oboam hadAhi j
ah.Howev eriti
s
notalway sthecasethatprophetswer ef ortheki
ngs.Pr ophet’si
ndependenceoft he
ki
ngmi ghtmakehim andsensort heki ng’sacti
on, e.g.AhabhatedMi caiah(1Ki ngs
22:8).

EARLI
ESTFORMS/
MANI
FESTATI
ONSOFPROPHECYI
NISRAEL

FORMSAPPROVEDI
NTHEBI
BLE

DREAMS

Iti
sanev entthatisseenbyani ndiv
idualwhenhe/shei sasleep.Godcanv isi
ta
personinadr eam andspeakwi t
hhi m,forexamplet
hepropheticcallofSamuelwas
madepossi bl
et hroughdr eam ( 1Samuel3: 1ff
).I
nDeuteronomy13: 1ff‘
ifapr ophet
hasarisenamongy ouoradr eamerofdr eams…’cl
earl
ypoi nt
st otheexistenceof
thi
saspecti nAnci entI srael.Itshoul d benoted t
hatdr eamsr eceived bynon-
Isr
aeli
tesneededaHebr ewi nterpreter
,forexampleJoseph( Genesis41:25-
33)was
call
ed from pr i
son t oi nterpretPhar aoh’s dr
eam.Dani elalso inter
pret
ed ki ng
Nebuchadnezzar ’
sdr eam ( Daniel2:24-
45).

LOTS(
URI
M ANDTHUMMI
N)

Thesewer
ecasttodet
ectagui
lt
yper
son.I
nJoshua7:
14-
19Joshuadi
scov
eredby
l
otsthepersonwhohadoff
endedGodbytaki
ngspoi
lsf
rom t
hedoomedci t
yof
Jer
icho.Achanwascaughtandwasst
onedt
odeat
hint
hev
all
eyofAchor
.

Lotswereprobabl yputinabasi
nandr api
dlyr
ot at
ed.Theanswerwasgi venbyal
ot
whichleaptfir
st.thismethodwassomet i
mesdi vi
nator
y,e.
g.theusageofsacred
stones(ur
im andt humin)i
ntheOldTestament.Uri
m andthumminwer efoundi
nsi
de
anephod.Itseemsaccor di
ngto1Samuel2: 18and2Samuel6: 14,theephodwas
somekindofadr essli
keanapron(astheword‘gir
ded’maysuggest).

Howev erin1Samuel23:6,9and30:
7anephodwassomeki ndofsymbol i
cvest
ment
thatwaskepti nasanct uaryandwouldbecarri
edalongbyt hepriestorprophet
duri
ngmi l
i
tar
yexpedit
ions.Theuri
m andthumminwer epartofthi
sv estment
.The
mainpur poseofthi
spracticei
stodeter
minethewil
lofthedeityordeit
iesonwhat
courseofactiont
otake.Theobject
swererel
igi
ousl
ysymbolic.

Useofsacr edstonesisf
oundi n1Samuel14:41-43.Saulusedthesestonesto
detecttheguil
tyacti
onofJonathan.Theseobjectscanbecompar edtohakata
(casti
nglot
s)i
nZimbabwe.Theseobj
ect
sneedsomeonewhoi sarel
i
giousoff
ici
al.

Thediff
erenceist
hatinIsr
aeltheephodi
nwhi chthel
otsaref
oundwassomeki nd
ofdresswhereasinZimbabwel ot
sareei
therbonesordri
edtr
eebucksorshel
l
sof
snai
l
sorseacr eat
uresorevenstones.

Justlikehakataurim andthummi n(t

wosidesofpar tofanephodt hatweremar ked
dif
ferentl
y)wer eusedt odeter
mineort omanifestthedivi
newi l
lint ermsofy esor
no,thisoneandnott hatone.Thesy mbol
icnatureandt hefactthatt heephodwas
keptatasanct uary,i
t’
smostpr obabl
etohavebeenapr iest
lyobjectusedt operfor
m
pri
estlydut i
es.Howev erdeter
miningandinterpr
eti
ngt hewi l
lofGodwer eusuall
y
propheticfuncti
ons.Solotsi
nt hi
scasefal
lintherealm ofaprophet.

VI
SION

I
tisanappear anceseenbyani ndivi
dualwhi chisinaccessi
bletoeverybodyelse.
Thev i
sionmaybeseenwhenonei si necstacy.Aper sonmayseeei t
hersy mbol
whichar eint
erpretedorr ealexper i
ence.Itemst hatmayappeari nav isi
onmay
dependont hepr ophet’
sper sonalbackground,forexampl ei
fIsai
ahwasor i
ginal
l
ya
pri
esti
ti sunderstandablethatheexper i
encedav isi
onint hetemple.I
fAmoswasa
far
mer,t heimager ydrawni nhisvisioninvolvespests.Visi
onsar eoneofGod’ s
methodsofdi v
iner evel
ati
on( Number s12:6)

ECSTACY (
seenot
es,
B.W.Ander
sonpage250andBi
shaupgs7-
13)

FORBI
DDENMETHODSOFPROPHECY/
DIVI
NATORYPRACTI
CES

Therei
sast r
ongcondemnati
onofthesefor
msinDeuteronomy18:10‘Ther
eshal
l
notbefoundamongyouanyonewhoburnshi
sson/daughterasanoff
eri
ng,any
one
whopr act
icesdivi
nati
on,asoot hsayer
,anauger,orasorcer
eroramedium,or
wi
zard,oranecr omancer…’
.Div
inationi
saprocessofdi
scoveri
ngt
heunknownor
t
hefuturethroughsuper
natur
almeans.

ASTROLOGY

I
ti st hestudyofheav enl
yphenomenon,forexamplestars,moon,sune. t
c.thi
s
met hodwascommonamongstt heBabyloni
ansastheywereskill
edinforet
ell
i
ngthe
futurefrom themov ementofstar
sandpl anet
s.Duringthet i
meofJer emiahhe
attackedbit
terl
ytheworshi
poftheQueenofheaven(themot hergoddess(Jeremi
ah
7:18).Thisi
salsocondemnedinDeuter
onomy4:19.

NECROMANCY

Itisthepr ocessofseeki
nggui dancef rom thespiri
toft hedead.Thi
smet hodis
strongl
ycondemnedbot hi
nLev it
icallawsandi ndeuteronomicwri
ti
ngs,f
orexample
i
nLev i
ti
cus20:28‘i
fapersont urnst omedi um andwizardsplay
ingtheharl
otaft
er
them,Iwi llsetmyfaceagainstt hatper sonandwi l
lcuthim offfr
om amonghi s
people’.Thoughcondemnedt hispr act
icewasst i
l
lpracti
cedintheeighthcent
ury
(Isai
ah8:19-20).

Necr
omancyi
ncl
udest
woi
deas:

 Worshi
pofancest
ors
 Thedeadbei
ngconsult
edt
odet
ermi
net
hef
utur
e.

1Samuel28:
1ffSaul
consul
tedt
hewi
tchofEndort
orai
set
hespi
ri
tof
Samuelwhowasdead.

HEPASTROPHY

I
tistheprocessofdivi
ningfr
om thel
i
v erofthesacrifi
cedanimal.Ezekiel21:
21‘For
thekingofBabyl
onstandsatthepart
ingoft heway ,attheheadoft woway stouse
div
inati
onheshakesthearrows,
heconsulttheteraphim, hel
ooksatt heli
ver’
.I
twas
onlycommonlypract
icedamongtheBaby l
onians.

HYDROMANCY

Thi
sreferstotheuseofwateroriti
sdiv
inat
ionbywater.I
tisal
ludedt
oinJoseph
nar
rat
ivesingenesi
s44:
5.‘
itisnotfr
om t
histhatmyLorddri
nks,
andbythi
sthathe
di
vi
nes…’

RHABDOMANCY
Thi
srefer
st otheuseofdi v i
ningsti
cksorcast ingofar
rowsasinEzeki
el21:
21.The
samemet hodisi ndi
rectl
yalludedtoi nHosea4: 12‘Mypeopl
einqui
reofathingof
woodandt hei
rstaffgivesthem oracles…’athingofwoodcoul
dhav ebeenpl
aywith
wordswhichmi ghtbear eferencet
odi vi
ningrodsorsti
cks.

RERAPHI
M

Theuseoft eraphi
m orhousehol dimageswasquitecommonamongpeopl eof
MesopotamiaandPal est
ine.Theywereasignofaut
hori
tyandlandownershi
pbut
werealsousedforthepurposeofdiv
ini
ng.Thi
smethodisal
ludedinZechar
iah10:
2
‘
Fortheter
aphim ut
ter
snonsense…’

DISCUSS THE EARLI

EST FORMS OFPROPHECY I
NISRAELAND OUTLI
NE THE
FUNCTIONSOFEARLYI SRAELI
TEPROPHETS.

HOW ANDWHYPROPHETI
CBOOKSWERECOMPI
LEDANDPRESERVED

1.Smal lcol lect i

onsoft hesay i
ngsoft hepr ophetwer emadedur ingt he
prophet ’
sl ifetime,byt hepr ophetorhi sdi sci ples.Messagewast he
productoft hecommuni tyandnoti ndividual .Sonsoft hepr ophet sar e
knownt oal sohav ehadat askofpr eser vingpr ophet ictradi t
ions.
2.Tr ansmi ssiont hroughanumberofuni dent i
f i
edgener at ions.Uni tsof
tradi ti
ondev elopedi ndependent lyandci rcul at edor all
yindependent ly.
3.Whensay ingscamet ot heat tentionofci v i
corr el
igiousaut horit
ies
theymusthav ebeenwi delyrepor t
ed,f orexampl eAmazi aht hepr i
estin
char geatBet hel
,wasabl etoquot easay ingofAmosasgr oundsof
ext raditi
nghi m( Amos7: 11)andhi st ri
al fort reason.
4.Insomecasessay ingsandst orieswoul dhav eci rculatedi ngr oupsof
disci plest obeconsi gnedt owr it
ingonl ywhenmemor i
esbegant ofade.
5.Ut terancesofpr of essi onalpr ophet swer epr obabl ypreser v edamong
thet empl eandcour tr ecor ds.
6.Lat eront hewor dswer eputt ogetheri ntosmal luni tsofl i
terature
(per iscopes)f ol
lowi ng a numberofcr i
t eria,f orexampl ei fi thad
commonsubj ectmat terort r
aditi
onusedt hesamecat chwor ds,for
exampl e‘Fort hreet r ansgr essionsandf orf our …’orcommont heology,
forexampl e2Ki ngs2wher ewehav easer i
esofmi racles.
7.Redact or sl atercompi ledper i
scopesi ntocont inuousnar rati
v es.

CHARACTERI
STI
CS OF PRI
MITI
VE PROPHECY I
N I
SRAEL (
PRE-
CANONI
CAL
PROPHECY)

1.Theyoper
atedingr
oups/bands/
guil
ds.
2.Theyneededmusicinorderforthem t
obet urnedi
ntot
hepr
ophet
ic
mood
3.I
twascontagiousi
nnature
4.Miracl
esweremorepr
onounceddur i
ngt
hisperi
od.
 5.Thei
rmessageswerenotwr
it
tendown
6.Earl
ypr
ophetswereseer
sorvi
sionar
ieswhohadcl
air
voy
antpower
s.
7.Theywereecst
ati
cs

WHYWERETHEYCOMPI
LED

 Polit
icaldi saster
s,forexampl et hef allofJerusalem andsubsequent
depor tation,seem t o hav e pr ovided a power fulst imulus t
ot he
preser vationofpr ophet i
csay ings.Pr obabl
yt hef ir
stcompi lat
ionof
prophet icmat eri
aldatesbackf r
om t histime.
 Topr eser vepropheticmat erial
.
 Tor ecor danddeposi taf t
erdi sappoi ntmentaspr oofint heeventof
futur
ef ulfil
mentofhi s/herpr ophecy.
 So thatt hepr ophecymi ghtbenef i
tbypr ovidi
ng l essonstof uture
gener ations( posteri
ty).
 Tokeept hepr opheti
ct radit
ionalive.
 Tomai nt ainar el
iabl
er ecordoft hepr opheticl
iter
ature.

‘
PROPHETSSHOULDNOTBESEENASAUTHORSANDPOETS( H.GUNKEL)BUTAS
MESSENGERSOFYahweh(
J.ROSS)
’.EVALUATETHESETWOPERSPECTIVESON
I
SRAELI
TEPROPHETS.

AUTHORS

Accordi
ng to H.Gunkelprophet
s were author
si nthei
rown r
ightwho were
part
icul
arl
ypoetsbecauseoft
henatur
eoft hei
rworksandhowt
heydeli
ver
edthei
r
message.

I
nt heirwrit
ingprophet
susedpoet i
cdev i
ces,theseincl
uder
epeti
ti
on,f
orexampl e
l
i
nking( ini
ti
al,
crossandfinall
i
nking),
paral
lel
ism int
hecaseofHebrewpoet
ry-i
nit
ial
,
f
inal,synonymousandsy nthet
icparal
lel
i
sm.

Apartf
rom repeti
ti
onpr ophet
salsoplaywit
hwor ds(par
onomasia)andpanning,
onomatopoeiaandotherpoeti
cdevi
cestothi
seffect.Thef
orm ofsomeoracl
es,for
exampl
ear r
angementinstanzasmayalsobecit
edt odemonst
ratethesamepoint
..

WEAKNESSES

Arrangementi
ntostanzasofpr opheti
coracl
esi salat
erdevel
opmentthatcannotbe
attr
ibut
ed t
ot heprophet s.Al so,evenatt hepoi ntofdeli
veri
ng t
heirmessage,
somet i
mesitwast heirsecretar i
eswhocapt uredandwr otethewor dsandthese
wer ethepeopleresponsi bl
ef orthearti
sti
cskill
st hatwentinto wri
ti
ngoft he
propheti
cbooksandnott hepr ophetsthemselves.

PROPHETSWEREMESSENGERSOFYAHWEH.
ProphetsweremessengersofYahwehbecauseofthenat ur
eofthei
rtaskandal so
how theydeli
ver
edtheirmessage.Thi
sisprimari
l
ybasedont hedefi
niti
onoft he
term Nabiassomeonewhospeakonbehal fofanother.Whenappli
edt oIsrael
i
te
prophecyaNabiwasamessengerofYahwehwhocommuni cat
edthedi vi
newi l
l.
Theuseoft hemessengerstyl
eorpropheti
cformula,‘
thussaystheLord…’canbe
usedtosupportt
hattheyweremessenger
sofYahweh.

Pr
ophetsrecei
ved cal
l
sfrom Yahweh.They were notmen ofself-
appoi
nted
mi
nist
ri
es.Thei
mpli
cati
ont
heref
orei
sthatt
hesour
ceoft hei
raut
hor
it
ywasYahweh.

ECSTACY

AccordingtoB. W Anderson,ecstacyisanexper ienceofbeingov ercomewi than

emot i
onsopower fulthatselfcont
rolorreasonmaybesuspended.I tdoesnotar i
se
fr
om mer eemot i
onalrapturebutfrom t
hespi ri
t(ruah)ofYahwehwhi chf all
supona
person.Ittakescontroloft hesel
fandmakesoneani nst
rumentofdi vinewil
l.In
suchast ateunusualthingshappen,egEl i
jahov ertookt
hechari
otofAhab( 1Kings
18),Saulstri
ppedof fclothesandl aynaked( 1Samuel19: 19-
24).Ittransfor
msa
propheti.
emadehi m anotherman( 1Samuel 10:
6) .

I
tcanbedi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies:

1.Cont agiousi
.eelectr
icegwhenSaul metabandofpr ophet
sonhi sway
toGibeahandf al
lint
oesctacy.
2.OrgiasticegEl ij
ahov er
tookthechariotofAhabf r
om MtCar melto
Jezreel.
3.Passi veegwhenEl i
shav i
sit
edDamascus,Hazelcamet oseehi min
ordert oseekanor acleaboutBenhadad’
ssicknessandEli
shatoldhi
m
thatheshal ldie.Eli
shathengazedandst aredsteadil
yathi
m andhe
burstintotears.

RELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEENECSTACYANDPROPHECY

Someschol arsarguethattheter
m prophetori
ginat
edf r
om theagitatedbehaviorof
ecstatics. Accordi
ngt oRobinsonnoHebr ew prophetwouldv enturetopr ophecy
withoutani ni
ti
alexperi
enceofanext r
a-ordi
narycharact
er,
thatis,ecstacy
.Itserved
ast hecl i
mat eofpr ophecy.Cert
ainl
ythisconditi
onwast hemedi um ofgenui ne
rel
igiousexperienceinwhichtr
ueconductwithGodwasachi eved.

Accordi
ng to J.Lindblom ecstacy was physi
calev i
dence which showed that
someonehast hespiritofYahweh.Itgav epr
ophet sauthori
tyhencedisti
nguished
them fr
om or
dinar
ypeopl e,
egisSaulamongt hepr ophets?’i
twasnormal l
yinduced
bymusi candithadi nfl
uenceinpoli
ticsegDeborahl edpeopleinwarandi nspi
re
them withmusic.Propheticguilds,forexamplet hosestati
onedneart hePhilistne
garr
isonwerefunctionalinthehol ywars.Musicwasusedt oi nducepat r
iot
ism i n
people.Theanalogyofot hergroupsofYahweh’ sdev oteessuchast heRechabi tes
aretheprophet
icguilds.Associationofsaulwitht hesonsoft hepr ophet
saf terhe
had been setasidet o deli
verI sraelsuggestthattheywer ear el
igi
o-pat rioti
c
mov ementmakinguseofder visht echni
ques.

MODEOFOPERATI
ONOFPROPHETI
CGUI
LDS

1.Theecst at icslivedi nbands( groups)undert heleadershi

pofaf at
her
(ab)andt heywer et hesonsoft hepr ophet( benehannebi i
m) .The
father’
sspi ri
twasshar edamongt hesons( Number s11,2Kings2,1
Sam 19: 24) .Thef unctionoft hechi efpr ophetwast ot eachthesons
the secret soft he prophet i
cof fice whi l
et he sonssuppor ted and
l
egi t
imizedt heaut horit
yoft hef ather .
2.Ecstacywasi nducedbymusi c( 2Ki ngs3: 15)
3.Ecstati
c/f renci edbehav i
or.
4.Decentralizat i
onofcommuni tyhousehol dsforexampl esomel i
vedin
Bethel,Gilgal ,
Jer i
cho( 2Ki ngs2: 1-5)
5.Prophesiedv i
olently(1Kings18: 28)
6.Usesy mbol icactst odemonst rate( 1Ki ngs22)
7.Theyusesl ogant orefertot hel eader saschar i
otandi tshorsemen( 2
Kings13: 12, 14).

FUNCTI
ONS/
ACTI
VITI
ESOFPROPHETI
CGUI
LDS

v. Theecst at i
csl ivedi nbands( groups)undert heleader shi pofaf at her( ab)
andt heywer et hesonsoft heprophet( benehannebi im) .Thef ather ’
sspi ri
t
wasshar edamongt hesons( Number s11, 2Kings2,1Sam 19: 24) .The
functionoft hechi efpr ophetwast ot eacht hesonst hesecr etsoft he
propheticof ficewhi l
et hesonssuppor t
edandl egitimizedt heaut hor i
tyof
thef ather.Pr obabl y ,prophecyl iket heof ficeoft hepr iesthad t o go
throughsomef or m ofl earning.Somay bether esponsi bi
lityoft hef ather
was t o aut hent icat et hatone has under gone t hrough al lstages and
thereforequal i
fiedasapr ophet .Theassumpt i
onher ei st hati fpr ophet s
usedcul ti
cobj ect s,itsimpl ymeantt hatonehadt ol ear nandpr ophecyi s
notsomet hingt hatcomesspont aneousl y(2Ki ngs4: 38- 41) .Sot heywer e
professionallyt rainedandper hapspai df oraser vice,egAhi jahi sbei ng
paidwhenhedel i
v eredt hemessageofJer oboam ( 1Ki ngs14) .
vi
. Thef atheranoi nt edandwoul dsendsonst oanoi ntki ngsv i
ndicat i
ngt he
l
eader ship oft heanoi nted indiv i
dualbybest owi ng upont hem cer tain
charisma( 2ki ngs9) .Sot heywer emessenger soft hef atherswhowoul d
atonepoi ntanoi ntki ngs.
v
ii
. Thesonsi npar ti
cul aract edaspol i
ticalcommi ssarsandwoul dgat herat
milit
arygar risonsi nabi dt oboostt hemor aleoft heanoi ntedki ngsand
theirsoldiersast heyf i
ghtagai nstt heirenemi es.Sot heywer ef unct ional
 duri
nghol ywar s,egwhenI sraelf oughtagainstthePhili
sti
nes,theguilds
werestationedneart hephil
istinegar r
ison,pr
obablytoweakent heenemy
byproclaimingt heirdefeatinadv anceaswel laschantingwarsongs.So
theyfuncti
onasami l
itar
yband.
v
iii
. Theywer euphol dersofmonot heism justli
kethei
rfather
s.
ix. Theywer eindust ri
oust hati st heycoul d cook,farm,gat herfood for
themselves.
x. Theycouldal sopr ophecy.
xi
. Theyalsohadcul ticfuncti
ons.Theywer eexpert
sati nt
ercessor
ypr ay
er s.
Someoft hem act edast empl eper sonnel.

COMPAREANDCONTRASTPROPHETI
CBANDSI NANCIENTISRAELANDSIMILAR
PHENOMENON I
N AN AFRI
CAN I
NDEPENDENT CHURCH OF YOUR CHOI
CE IN
ZI
MBABWE.

Zvi
rat
idzo(
revel
ati
ons)andi
tsspl
i
ntergr
oupsMabasaev
aposi
tor
i(act
sofapost
les)
anddhambuza.

SI
MILARI
TIES

1.Secretplaceofmeeting( mativ
imana)amy steri
ouspl
ace.
2.Thepr esenceofaf atherwhoi st hechi
eft r
ainerandthesurr
oundi
ng
disci
pleswhoareappr entices.
3.Basicprocessofincubat i
ont hatthegraduatesf r
om t
heretal
kabout,
thati
ncludesthesecretsofheal i
ngandperformingmiracl
es.
4.I
nducementofecst acyt hroughmusicanddance.

DI
FFERENCES

Kindofr ecr
uit
sandt heirbackgroundsarediffer
ent.I
tseemsappr enti
cesinthe
Africanindependentchur
chesar edrawnf r
om thosecandidateswhoi ni
ti
all
ywere
possessedbyspi ri
tsmakingdemandsupont hem tobet radi
ti
onalhealersand
throughsomemy st
eri
ousprocessthespiri
tiscleansedandconvert
ed/t er
medso
thatthesepeoplecannowbeheal erswit
hinthechurch.

Mir
acl
esperformed al
mostal
wayshav
eto do wi
th heali
ng and t
heirpr
ophesy
al
waysinvol
veswit
chhunti
ng.Thi
sisamarkeddi
fferencewithAncientI
srael
i
te
pr
ophet
icbands.

HOW ECSTACYORI
GINATEI
NISRAEL

Ecst
acyl
i
kepr
ophecyi
sabor
rowedphenomenonf
rom t
heAnci
entNearEast
.It
s
ulti
mat eor i
ginist racedbackt oThr acewher ei tspr eadintoGr eeceasacul tof
Dionysiusandi ntoAsi aMi norandSy ri
a.Itisli
kelyIsraelfi
rst becomesacquai nted
wi t
hecst aticprophecyi nCanaanwher ei twasconnect edwi thBaalr eli
gion.Baal
prophetsi mporteditf r
om Phoeni cia.ProbablyIsr
aelitesborrowedecst aticprophecy
from theCanaani tesasi tdidsomuchel se.Thisissuppor tedbyt hef actt
hatthere
aresimi l
ariti
esbetweenI sraeli
teecst acyandAnci entnearEast , egtheMesha-st el
e
foundi nDi bonint heJor danregiondat edinthenint hcent ur
y.Thest elerecordsa
commandr elayedt okingMeshaf r
om t heMoabi t
eGodKemi sht oat t
ackat own
calledNebo.Themessagewasr elayedbyanecst aticfigur
eegt heElijahandEl isha
narrati
vesr evealacl oseconductbet weenI sr
aelandCanaani teci t
iesandt esti
fyto
theexistenceofacer t
aintypeofor gi
ast i
cprophecyi mportedint oIsraelbyJezebel
thewi f
eofAhab.

Ther ear esomesi mi l

ariti
esbet ween450pr ophet sofBaalandt hesonsofapr ophet
associ atedwi thEl ij
ahandEl isha.TheEl ijah-El i
shanar rat i
v esr ev ealacl osecont act
bet weenI sr aelandPhoeni cianci tiesandt est ifyt ot heexi st enceofacer tai
nt y peof
orgiastic pr ophecyi mpor t ed i ntoI sraelbyJezebel -t he queen. The Wen Amon
i
nci denti sanot herexampl eofecst aticpr ophecyi nt heanci entNeareastsi mi lart o
thatofI srael .Int heMar it extt herear erepor tsaboutsev er alcommuni cat i
onsf rom
thedei tiesegDagan,Adadt oZi mr ilim.Thesemessagesar er epor tedt ohav ebeen
passedt hr oughecst ati
c( Muhhum)empl oy edi nat empl e.TheMeshast elef oundi n
t
h
Diboni nt heJor danr egi ont hati sdat edi nt he9 cent ury .Thest elar ecor dsa
commandr elayedt oKi ngMeshaf rom t heMOABI TEGODKemi sht oat tackat own
calledNebo.Themessagewasr elay edbyanecst at icf igur e.Someschol arsl i
ke
Blenkinsoppar guet hatt her ei shugemat er ialint heMar ilet ter sdeal ingwi thecst ati
c
i
nter medi ar i
est hatchar act er izewhatmusthav ebeenaf ai rlyst andar dpat terni nt he
ANEur bancent reswi thwhi chI sraelhadt ies.I nf actbot hANEandI srael i
teecst acy
wer est i
mul atedbyr ythmnofmusi candbodymov ement s(3: 15) .Bodyi sst i
mul ated
i
ntohy per -action.Howev erschol ar sobser v edt hatI sr ael i
t eecst acywasnotj usta
mer eemot ionalrapt ur ebutwasf rom t hespi ritofYahweh( ruah) .Mor eov errarel ydo
we f i
nd I sraelite pr ophet s del ivering t hei rmessage i n ecst acy .Basi ng on t he
def i
niti
onofecst acy , t
hati s, suspensi onofsel f-
consci ousness, someschol arsar gue
thatt her ei sadi fficultythatar i
seswi thtryingt ounder standI sr ael i
tepr ophet ssol el
y
asecst at i
csbecausegoi ngbyt hedef i
niti
oni twoul dappearI sr aelit
epr ophet swer e
notecst at i
c.Theyar guet hatI sraelitepr ophet snev erl ostt hei rconsci ousness.Text s
cit
edt osuppor tt hev i
ew t hatI srael itepr ophet swer eecst at icsar enotexpl iciteg
Number s11: 11-30i ssai dt obeanachr oni sti
c.Mor eov ert her eisnoequi v alent
Hebr ewt er mf orecst acy .Thoughschol ar smayacceptt hatI srael it
epr ophet swer e
ecst ati
ci tseemst hisphenomenonwaspr evailingdur ingear lyphasesofpr ophecy
andseemst obest udiousl yav oidedbycl assi calpr ophet s.B. W Ander sonar gues
thati fpr ophecywasbor rowedwhatwasbor r owedwast ransf ormedt osui tt he
Israeli
teenv ir
onment .

ECSTACYASANI
SRAELI
TEPHENOMENON
Itappearf ort hef i
rsttimei nt her eli
abl er ecordsofI sraelinconnect ionwi tht he
electionofSaulwhoi nsti
tutedt hepr ophet icgui l
ds( 1Samuel10: 1, 1Samuel19: 24) .
These pr ophet s ar e connect ed wi th pol i
ticalsi t
uation dur ing t he phi li
stine
oppr essi onofI srael.Thesour ceoft heecst ati
cexper iencei st hespi ri
tofGod.
Samuelpr obabl yal ignedwi tht hem becauseoft heirloyaltytoYahweh.Howev erits
l
ikelyt hatecst aticpr ophetsexi st edpr iort oSamuelbutt heywer et akenf orgr anded
(1Samuel3: 1).Mostschol arsi nt erpretNumber s11: 10-30,thatist hei ncidentoft he
ordinat ionoft he70el dersasmar kingt hebegi nningofecst aticpr ophecyi nt he
wi l
derness.I nt hiscaseecst acyor iginat edwi t
hinI sraelandwasGodi nspired.
Schol ar sli
keBl enkinsoppmayar guet hatt hispassageappear st ol egi t
imi zeecst at i
c
prophecybyder iv
ingi tfr
om t hespi ri
tofMoseswhi chi tselfhaddi vineor igin.Spi ri
t
transfer redf rom Mosest ot heel derscausedt hem t opr ophecyecst atically.Howev er
thisv iew hasbeencr i
ti
cizedbyM.Not h.Forhi mi ti sdoubt fulwhet hert hisi san
authent i
cepi sodef rom theMosai cper i
od.I nthej udgementofmanyschol ar st hi
si s
anachr onisti
c.Anachr onism ist hest or yt el
ler’st echniqueordescr iption oft he
Mosai cper iodi nt ermsofl anguageorexper i
enceofal aterti
me.Onecanconcl ude
thatecst acyi spar tandpar cel oft heear liestfor msofpr ophecyi nIsr ael .

RELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEENPROPHECYANDTHECULT

Ther el
ati
onshi pbet weenpr ophetandpr i
estandpr ophetandcul tusisnotcl ear.At
onet i
mei twascust omar ytof i
ndi nHebr ewr eligionat ensionbet weenpr ophetand
9
priestorcul t. Atpr esenti tismor ecommont of i
ndschol arssuggest ingt hat
prophet smayhav ebeenapar toft hecul tus,associ at
edwi thpr i
estsincul t
icr i
tual.
Asweshal lsee, ant i
-culti
cpr onouncement soft heei ghthcent uryprophetsappeart o
givesuppor ttot hef i
rsthy pothesis,butt hereisaconsi der abl
eamountofev idence
tol endcr edencet ot hesecond.Thepr ophetsencount eredbySaulwer efrom t he
shr i
neatGi beat h- el
ohi m,"thehi l
loft hegods"( ISam.10: 5) .Thepr ophetSamuel was
trainedbyt hepr i
estEl iandper formedasapr i
est .Asweshal lsee,Ezeki el,t he
prophet ,hadpr iestlyinterests.Isaiahr ecei vedhi ssummonst oprophesywi t hint he
templ epr ecincts.Aubr eyJohnsonhaspr oposedt hatpr ophet sandpr iestswor ked
sidebysi dei nYahwehshr inesandi nt heJer usalem t empl e,andheconcl udest hat
whent hepr ophet scriti
cized, t
heyst oodwi t
hinthecul t
usseeki ngt ocorrectabuses.
Forhi m prophecyf ormedaf r
eebuti ntimat ecul tassoci ation.

S.Mowi nkelarguest hatprophecywasconnect edwiththecul t.scholar sarguethat

prophecy ev ol
ved from pr iesthood.The ar gumentbei ng that ,because oft he
i
nadequacyandcor rupttendenci esoft hepr i
estl
yof fi
ceasdemonst ratedbyt he
sonsofEl i
,thelackoft hev oiceoft heLordduringtimeofEl inecessitat edSamuel ’
s
call
.PriestsandLev i
teswer econsi deredtobegi f
tedwi t
ht hespi r
itofYahweh.They
wereconsul tedbyt hel ocalpeoplef ortheguidanceofYahweh.Thi sfunctionisalso
appli
cabl etot hepr ophets,e. g.Samuelwasconsul t
edf ort hel ostass,Ahi jahis
consultedbyJer oboam’ swi feper t
ainingtheil
lnessoft heirchild.Prophet i
cguilds
werelinkedt ocul t
iccent r
es.Gadi srefer
redtoasDav id’
sseer .Elishai svisi
tedbya
Shunami t
ewomanatt hecult.Sot hereisanov erl
appingoft hef unctionsofaseer ,
prophetandpr iest
.Pr ophetswer eei t
herpermanentlyortempor ari
lyconnect edwith
sanctuar i
es.
FUNCTI
ONS

1.Giv
ingor acl
es
2.Helpinginbatt
lesandof fer
ingsacri
fi
ces
3.I
nterceding.
4.Theywer eexpertsinprayer
5.Receptionofrevelat
ionisalwaysfoundaroundt
hecul
t

Ther oleoft hepr ophetsassetf or thi nt hepr ophet i

cwr i
tingsi sto pr oclaim
Yahweh'swor dor ,ast heterm nabiimpl ies,toactasYahweh' sspokesmen.Dur i
ng
thepasthal fcent ury,propheticutter anceshav ebeensubj ectedt of or
m cr i
tical
analysi
s,andithasbeendemonst r
at edt hatoracularf ormsstem from cultic,legal,
heral
dicandot hersoci ocul
turalsources.Someut terances,suchast hoseofAmos,
maybeassoci atedwi thfestaloccasionsl iketheNew Yearobser vance.Judgment
pronouncement sr eflectfor
msusedi nl awcour tstatement sorinproclamationsbya
royalmessenger .Some sal vati
on or acl esempl oypat ternsused i nlament at i
on
ri
tual
sori nmi nst relsy.Ther esul
tsoff orm crit
icalst udiesshouldnotbeusedt o
anchorthepr ophet sinanyoft hegr oupsf rom whi cht heyborrowedt hei
rl it
er ary
forms,butrat
hert odemonst rat
ethev ersat i
li
tyoft hespokesmenf orGodwhower e
capable ofempl oy i
ng manywel l
-known l i
ter
arypat t
erns to communi catet heir
message.

I
ti sof t
enpoi nt
edoutt hatprophetsdemonstrateextensi
veknowledgeofHebr ew
tradit
ions.Thi sistrue,butthepr ophetsarenotconf i
nedbypasthi story
.Wov en
throught hepr opheti
cworksar erefer
encestomajorthemesoft hesal
v ati
onhist
ory
oft henat ion:elect
ionorchoi ceoft hepeopl
ebyGod,t heExodusort hesavi
ng-
preservationoft hepeople,thecov enantbonds,theoccupati
onofCanaanwi th
divinehelp, andtheDavidi
cli
newi thit
smessiani
c-ki
ngshipover
tones.

Therewerev ar
iousmeansofdet ermini
ngt hewil
lofYahwehatcul ti
ccentr
es.There
arealsovari
oust ypesofor acles,e.g.judgement,assuranceandsal vat
ionoracles.
Thereareplaceswel lknownf oror acl
egi vi
ng,
e.
g.Elishaandt heShunami t
ewoman
refert
othenewmoonandSabbat hsuggest i
ngthetimet oreceiv
eanor acle.Sothe
functi
onoftheOl dTest amentpr ophetsinassociat
ionwi ththecultasaninstit
uti
on
i
snoti nquesti
on.Ther ealquestionhast odowi t
htheext endoftheassociati
on

But
,asweshal lsee,t
heprophet
sal
soturnedawayfr
om tr
adit
ions:Amosrev
ersed
t
hepopularconceptof"Yahweh'
sday"andJeremi
ahproposedanew covenantto
r
epl
acetheold.

Theprophet
sal
sochall
engedcurr
entpr
acti
ces.Cult
icri
tual
,withit
semphasi
supon
whatamandoesinrit
ual,
ispl
ayeddown,andmor alt
hemes, concer
nedwi
thwhata
11
manisinhumanassoci
ati
ons,
areemphasi
zed.

Thus,thepr ophetsshouldnotbeuni ver sall

ycategor
izedasant i
-cul
ti
cpreachers,
as
upholdersofpastt radit
ions,aspr edictorsoft hefutureorasmor al
ist
s.Theyar e
bestr ecognized aschar i
smat i
cper sonal i
ti
es,menundert hecompul si
onofan
experi
encet hatcausest hem t outter,despi t
eopposi t
ion,challenge,mockeryand
i
mpr i
sonment ,t
hewor dstheybel i
evedt obeYahweh' swor dsgiv entothem,words
repr
esent i
ngYahweh' swi l
l,Yahweh'si ntenti
ons,Yahweh'spur poses,andYahweh' s
acti
on.Thei rconcernwaswi ththeirowni mmedi atepresent .Iftheunder standing
andint erpretati
onoft hatimmediatepr esentdemandedr ecollecti
onsf rom thepast
orindicationsofwhatt hefut
uremi ghthol d, t
henpastandf uturewer eut i
l
ized.Ifthe
bestandmostmeani ngfulpr
esentati
oncal ledf ordramati
cenact ment ,uti
li
zingl egal
ormour ningorf ol
ksongmodesofut terance,t henthesef or
mswer eused.Tor esist
thedemandsofGodort ofl
eefrom t heirassi gnedr ol
ewasi mpossible.Onecoul d
onlyr espond t o whatYahweh r equired and suf f
ert he consequences i nt he
convictiont hatYahwehwoul dprovet heut terancet obetrue.

HowYahweh' swordcamei snotknown.Ri tesofi ncubat i

on,inwhi cht hei ndi
v i
dual
sleptinaholyplaceandr eceivedamessagei ndreamsorv i
sions, werepr acti
cedi n
theNearEast .WhenDani el(orDan'el
)intheUgar i
ticst or
yofAqhtdesi redason, he
12
spentsev en daysand ni ghtsi nthe sanct uaryunt i
lhe r ecei
v ed a r evel
ation.
13
Incubati
onr i
teswerenotunknownt otheHebr ews, butthereisnocl earev i
dence
thatpropheti
cmessageswer er ecei
vedthrought hist echni
que.Nev erthelessvisions
wer eexperi
enced,forIsaiah'
spr opheti
csummonscamei nav isioni nt hetempl e
area,andvisi
onarypatt
ernsappeari nthepr opheciesofAmos, Jeremi ah, Ezeki
el and
14
others.

Freeassociati
onr i
tesareknownt ohavebeenut i
li
zedbyseer s.Thewhol emindand
personali
tyoftheseeri sfocuseduponasi nglei
tem,orpr oblem;al lelseisblanked
outinwhatmi ghtbestbedescr i
bedasat rancestate.At rai
noft houghti sbegun
l
eadingt oananswert ot heprobl
em ortoanor acle.Thereis,asweshal lsee,some
i
ndicati
ont hattheprophetsmayhav eut
il
izedsomef orm ofthistechnique,acquir
ing
oracl
esf r
om concent r
ati
ononapotofboi li
ngwat er(Jer.1:
13f .)oronamant est
ing
awal l(
Amos7: 7f .
).

Somepr ophet
icor acl
esr ef
lectpersonalexperi
enceseithersocialori
ntr
ospectiv
e.
SomeofHosea' spr ocl
amat i
onsgr ewoutofhi sunfort
unatemar ri
ageandsomeof
Jeremiah'
soutofv i
li
fi
cati
on byhi scountrymen.On t heot herhand,certai
n of
Jeremiah'
sandIsaiah'sexperienceswerepersonalandinward,suggest
ingthatthey
devel
opedoutofi nwardl i
steningorconcentrat
ionthatproducedment alimages,
mentalcommuni cati
on cul minati
ng in what mi ght be termed an "ineff
able
15
experi
ence"(
cf.Jer.20:7-9)
.

Perhapsitisbesttogenerali
zeanddescri
beprophet
icexper
iencesasmanyand
vari
ed.Lackofdet ai
ledinfor
mationint
heBibl
epr ev
ents,i
nt heli
ghtofpr
esent
knowledge,
realpr
ecisioni
nanaly
sis.

Thecl ashbetweenprophetsandpr i
estshasbeentakenbysomescholarstomean
thattheyar et
wodisti
nctgroups.Prophetswer
enotnecessari
l
yagainstthecul
tbut
i
tsabuse.Thet woof fi
cesco-exist
ed.Cultwasf r
om thebeginni
ng,thetangi
ble
expressionofthefai
thofIsrael
.Itwast her
ehear
salofGod’smight
ydeedsandhi s
self-
disclosur
eofthepast.

Ant
i-cul
ti
cverses,e.
g.Amos5: 3,Isai
ah1:11-12ar eagainstformalizat
ionofexter
ior
worshi
pwheni thadnocor respondinginteriordisposit
ions.Israelhadcomet o
bel
i
ev ethatrit
uals and ceremonycoul d atone fort heirsins.God r ej
ectsthe
par
aphernal
i
aofext ernalobservanceunlessiti saccompani edbysoci alj
ust
iceand
considerati
onf ortheunder pri
vil
eged.Pr ophetsi nsi
stedt hatmer eout wardf orms
divorcedfrom inwardmeani ngandpr acti
cesofgenui nepur it
yar er esented.God’ s
concer niswit
hmor alobedienceandnotpr escribedrules.Exampl est osuppor tthis
are1Samuel 15:22,Hosea6: 6,Amos5: 21-25,Isaiah1:10-15,Jeremiah6: 20, 7:
22-23.
Prophet swereagai nstthecul tbecausei thadbecomesomuchi nstit
utionali
zed,
theirconcernwast hatithadbecomedev oidofsi ncerit
y.Ithadbeenpr act i
cedby
i
mmor alpeoplewhower esyncreti
candapost ate.

Yahwi sticprophetism almostcer tai

nlyremainsincloserappor twiththecult.They
somet imesspoket hel anguageoft hecult
.Howeveritdoesnotnecessar i
lyf ol
low
thatthegr eatOl dTest amentpr ophetwasacul torgui l
dpr ophet.Prophetsand
priest
swer enotsoposi t
ivel
yandconst ant
lyopposedassomet imesassumed.I ti
s
signif
icantthatthesefigureswer ethemosthi ghl
yrankedint hetradi
ti
onofJudai sm.
MosesandEl i
jahhaddualr oleofpriestandprophet.MoseswasaLev it
eandEl ij
ah
conduct edsacr i
fi
ces.Inf actpr ophetsoperatedwi t
hintheest abli
shedpriesthood
andcer emoni alri
tualestablishedbyMoses.Sacr if
iceswereameansofexpr essing
obedience.

Howev erprophetsemphasi zedt hatsacrif

iceswer enottobeanendi nthemselves
asI sraelthought,butt heywer eameanst oanend.Pr ophetswereseenatcul ti
c
centres as exper t
s ati ntercessorypr ayer s.Theywer et hereto bri
ng people’
s
peti
t i
onst oGodandcommuni catedi v
ineanswer sindi
cati
ngwhet herornott he
sacrifi
cewasaccept edbyGod.Onspeci alrel
igi
ousf est
ival
ssuchascov enant
renewalt heymayhav eani mpor tantannouncementoft hedemandsandpr omises
oft hecov enant.Pr ophetswer eal socour tadvisorse.g.Nathanacour tprophet
sanctionedt herul
eoft heDav i
dicdy nast
y.

METHODSUSEDBYPROPHETSTODELI
VERTHEI
R
MESSAGES
SYMBOLI
CACTI
ONS

B.W Ander
sondefi
nedsymboli
cactionsas‘
actedoutparables’.Theywereoracl
esin
aprophet’
sbookwhichwereactedinreall
i
fe.Theseoracleswer econnectedtothe
messagetobedeliver
ed.Theydiscl
osethemessageofYahweht ot
hepeopl eand
they emphasi
se t
he main i deas ofthe message so t hatpeople can easil
y
underst
andthemessage.

Qui
t eanumberofpr ophetsgavetheirchil
drensymbolicnamessot hattheymaybe
wal
ki ngsignsorpl
acardstothepeopl e.TheprophetMosesgav ehissonssymbol i
c
names;Ger shom whichremindsIsraeli
testhattheywer e‘Soj
our
ners’and‘El
iezer’
whichr emindsthem ofdeliver
ancef r
om Pharaoh( Exodus18:3-
4).Thepr ophet
Hoseaal sogavehischil
dr ensymbol i
cnames:Jezr eelnamedi nconnectionwi th
Jehu’sbloodbathinthev all
eyofJezr eel,Notpit
iedmeaning Yahweh’spat ience
wasexhaust edandfi
nall
yNotmypeopl eshowi ngthatYahwehhaddi ssolvedt he
covenantbetweenhi
m andI sr
ael.InfactthenamesofHosea’schil
drendemonst r
ate
thedeterior
ati
onofther elati
onshipbetweenYahwehandI sr
ael.Howev erGod’ s
j
udgementwasnothi slastwor d.Afterpunishmentthesenameswer er eversed
showingthatYahwehhadr econcil
edwi t
hhi speopl
e.

Thepr ophetI saiahal sohadnamedhi schi ldrensy mboli

cnamessot hatt heywi llbe
visualaids.Hegav eoneofhi ssonst henameShearJashubmeani ng‘ ar emnant
shal lreturn’aftert heSy ro-
Ephrami t
ecr isis.Heal sogav ehissecondsont hename
‘
Mahershal alhashbaz’ meaning‘ t
hespeedspoi lhastens’,pointi
ngt ot heweakness
oft hecoal it
ion.theonl ysymbolicactionsper f
ormedbyt hepr ophet s.Fal sepr ophets
alsoper formedact i
ons.Thepr ophetZedeki aht hesonofChenaahmadehi mself
i
ronhor nssy mbol izingv i
ctor
y.Itwasdur i
ngami li
tar
ycampai gnagai nstSy ri
aov er
theci tyofRamot hGi lead.Ahabtheki ngofI srael andJehoshaphatt heki ngofJudah
j
oi nedt ogetheragai nstSy r
iaandbef oret heywentf orawart heyi nqui r
edoft heLor d
from t hef ourhundr edcour tprophetsofBaalwhobel ongedt oKi ngAhab.Wi thone
accor dt heypr omi sedt hesetwoki ngs, ‘goupf ort heLordwi llgiv
ei tintot hehandof
theki ng’.THEt woki ngswereassur edofv ictory,thatiswhen Zedeki ahpr oceeded
tomakei r
onhor nsi nabi dtoi nducebel i
efi nt hetwoki ngst hatsur el
yt heLor d
commandedorgav et hem this t obeaf al
sepr ophetwhent het woki ngswer e
def eatedbySy riaandki ngAhabdi ed.Hencet heef fi
ciencyoft hismet hodwas
quest ionablechi eflybecausei twasal sousedbyf alsepr ophets.

Thi
smet hodwasacommonmet hodt
hatJer
emi
ahused.Someoft
hesy
mbol
i
c
act
ionsi
nthebookofJer
emi
ahar
e:

1.Thepoti nt hehandsofapot ter-asy mbolicacti

onwhi chdemonst ratet hat
Yahwehwast her etopuni shIsraelasacor r
ecti
v emeasur e.
2.Thebrokenpot teryinthev al
leyofHinnom orTopet hwhi chsy mboli
zedoom.
3.Jeremiah’spur chaseoft helandatAnat hothsymbol izingr est
orati
on.
4.Ay okebari nthepr ophet’
sneckwhi chsymbol i
zeBaby lonianexil
eandsl avery
.
Hananiaht hef alseprophetbr okehi sbarsandassur edt heJudeanst hatt he
exil
eperiodwasnotgoi ngt olastfor70y earsaspr ophesi edbyJer emi ah.He
prophesi
edt hati twast olastfortwoy ears.Jeremiahpr oceededtomakei ron
yokebar sinabi dtopr ov etohisaudi encethecer taintyoft heimpendi ng
catast
rophe.

Theaccount
scont
ain:

3.God’
sinstruct
iontoperf
ormt heact
ion.
4.Adescript
ionoftheacti
onit
self
5.Anexplanati
onofi t
smeani
ng
6.Theysomet i
mesi ncl
udeastatementmadet
oonl
ooker
s.
7.Asinav isi
onemphasi sinthet exti
snotontheact
ionbutont helesson
conveyedbyt heact
ion-usual
lythatGodwasgoi
ngt
oacteit
heragainstoron
behalfofhispeopl
e(Hosea1:1-2)

SI
GNI
FICANCEOFTHI
SMETHOD

1.Symbol icact i
onact edasv i
sual aidst otheaudi enceai dmemor y.Theyser ved
notonl ytor epresentandmakeev identapar t
icularfact ,butalsot omaket his
factar eal
ity.
2.Theyt easet hemi ndi ntoact ivet hought .Inf actt heydenyt hehear erst he
atti
tudeofaspect at or .Sot heywer emeantt oar ouset heemot i
onsoff earor
hope, accordingt oci r
cumst ances.Thuswhatwasdonepower full
yr ei
nforced
whati ssai d.Sy mbol icact ionsr epr esent ,indicate,poi ntt oordemonst rate.
Ther eforet heypoi ntbey ondt hemsel vest osomet hi ngel se.Theyser vedt o
representt ot heby stander sanobj ect,anoccur r
ence,acour seofev ent s
whi chwer eofpar ticul arsi gni f
icance.Ther eforet herei saconnect ionwi ththe
totalmessageoft hepr ophet .
3.Theywer eusedt oat t
r actt heat tentionoft hepeopl e.Theyal way shadsucha
structur east oevokei nt heconsci ousnessoft heby standerst hef actwhi ch
thepr ophethadi nmi nd.
4.Theywer emeantt oi ll
ust rateser iousnessoft heact i
onsbasi ng on t he
philosophyt hatact ionsar emor eef fect i
vethanwor ds.
5.Theyexpr essGod’ si ntent i
ons,e. g.dest r
uction.Theyar esy mbol icway sin
whi chGodi ntendst oactt owar dshi speopl e.
6.Ithel pedpeopl et or emember ,see,j udgeandact .Accor dingt oLi ndblom
prophet sfrequentlyact edi nunusualway sinor dert oder ivehomet heoracles
theyut t
ered.

WEAKNESSES

1.Scholarbyt henameEdmundSi gmundv iew symboli

cactionsassi gnsof
shearmadnessandsi gnofexhibi
ti
onism.Af teracloseanal ysi
sbetween
Isr
aeli
tepr ophet
swhoper formedsymbol i
cact i
onsandhi sinsanepatience
ont heissueofbehav i
orandhecomet oconcl udethatsymbolism i
sshear
madness.
2.Itwaspr oblemati
cbecausefal
seprophetsusedt hi
smethod.

SONGS(
FUNERALDI
ERGE)
/LAMENT

TheprophetAmosi n5:2sungaf uner

alsongtotheIsraelit
eswhenhewant edto
provehisaudi
encet heinevi
tabil
it
yofdoom thathewaspr onouncing.Thi
sisa
funer
allamentoverIsr
aelasi fshewereacorpsereadyf orburi
al.HesawI srael
i
nacof f
inwait
ingforburial
.Attachedtothesongist hei ssueoflamentwhi ch
usuall
ybegi
nswi t
hawoecr y( woe…)Amos5:18,4:4-5,Isaiah5:1ff
.woespeech
i
sapronouncementwhosetonei
sdeepandf
ullofgr
ief
.Iti
sint
roducedwi
th
cat
chwor
d,‘Woetoyou…’
(Amos6:
4-6)

PARABLES

Parablesarecompar i
sonswhi chusest or
ytell
ingtechniquesanddetai
lsdrawn
from every
daylif
eexperiencesinordertopresentreli
gioustrut
hinawaywhi ch
attr
actstheatt
entionofthelist
enerorreaderbyitsvi
vidnessorstr
angenessand
thusprovokesfurt
herref
lecti
onandappr opri
ateacti
on.

Whenpr ophetNat hanr ebukedkingDav i

dforhi ssinsinseduci ngUriah’swi f
e
Bathshebaandmur deri
nghi m.Nathanusedapar ableoftherichmanwhot ooka
poorman’ sonl ylamb.Theuseofpar ablesforsinnerstocondemnt hemsel v esi
s
apr opheticdev ice(2Samuel12: 1-14).Dav i
dwasmadet ocondemnhi mself.
Davidwasal socaughtoutagai ninthesamewaybyt hewisewomanoft erkoa(2
Samuel 14:1-23).Thesamemet hodwasusedbyt heprophetIsaiahin5:1ff,when
heusedt hepar abl
eoft hev i
neyardwher eJudahwasconsi deredasthechosen
vi
nepl antedonf er
ti
leandwel lprepar edlandbutr egardl
essoft heeffortsmade
toensureagoodhar vestthefi
eldyieldedwi l
dfruit
s.

Theparabl
ewasgi v
ent o expressGod’ slov
ef orJudahand also t
ojusti
fy
puni
shmentthatshouldbegivent otheJudeans.God’
slovei
sshownbyhi scare
i
nplanti
nghisvineyard.Hepunishesitbecauseitcoul
dnotproducethefr
uitof
obedi
ence,
hencepuni shmentwasi nevi
tabl
e.

Thepr ophetJeremiahalsoempl oyedt hesamemet hodwhenhewant edtoprove

toJudaht hatYahwehwasgoi ngt ospoi lthepr i
deofJudah, intheparabl
eoft he
waistcloth(Jeremiah13:1-
11) .InJer emi ah18: 1-
17hegav eanotherparabl
eof
thepot t
er.I
nt heparableJeremiahwant edt odeliv
erthemessaget hatYahweh
wasgoi ngt opuni shtheJudeansasacor r
ecti
vemeasur e.Inhisadv i
cet o
Zedekiahandt hosewhohadsur vivedt hef i
rstdeportat
ionhegav etheparabl
eof
thegoodandt hebadfigs.I
nt hepar ableJer emiahconsi der
edt heexi
lesasgood
fi
gs.(Jer24:1-
10)

SI
GNI
FICANCE

 Theywer eusedasweaponsofwar f
areinr
esponsetocrit
icism ofopponents.
 Todenyt hehearerstheatti
tudeofaspectator
.Sot heyt easethemi ndinto
acti
vethought.
 Iti
soneoft hevari
edway sthroughwhichpr
ophetsspokeaboutt hesphereof
God’skingl
yrul
eandpowerwhi chdemandsobedience.
 Asachal l
engetomy t
hical
lybuil
tworld

WEAKNESSES
Themessagecoul d bei nt
erpret
ed di
ff
erent
lybytheaudience.Forexampl
e
Nathan’
sparabl
etoDavid,Daviddidnotknowthatt
heri
chmani nthestor
ywas
ref
erri
ngtohim.Sot
hepr ophet’
smessagewasnotrecei
vedasanti
cipat
ed.

MI
RACLES

Miraclei
ssomethingthathappenscontr
arytonature.I
tisanext
ra-
ordi
nar
yev ent
.
Thismet hodwasusedbypr ophetstoshow thatthespir
itofgodwaswor king
throughthem.Prophetsusedt hi
sasawayofi nduci
ngbeli
efinthei
raudi
ence
thattheywerenotmer el
yordinarybei
ngs,butwer ebei
ngusedasmout hpi
eces
ofYahweh.

Deuter
onomy13: 1-
12seem tosuggestthatmir
acleswereonewaypeoplecould
usetodist
ingui
shtruef
rom f
alseprophets.‘
i
faprophethasar
isenamongyou,or
adreamerofdreamsorgivesyouasignandwhathet ell
syoucometopass…’

Thear
chet
ypal
figur
eMosesper
for
medqui
teanumberofmi
racl
es:

1.Changi ngther odintoaserpentbefor

ePharaoh.
2.Changi ngwat erintobl
ood
3.Tenpl agues
4.Struckwat ersoft heRedSeaandpar ted
5.Provisionofmannaandquai ls
6.Makebi tt
erwat ersweet
7.Struckt herockwi thhi
srodwhent heyrunoutofwat
er.

El
ij
ahandEli
shawerecarboncopiesofMoses.Eli
jahinhisbat
tl
ewit
hBaali
sm
perf
ormedmir
acl
es.i
n1Ki ngs17:
1ffheannounceddroughtt
oprovet
hati
twas
Yahwehwhoprov
idedrai
nsandnotBaal.

 El
ij
ahmul ti
pli
edthefoodofthewidowofZar ephath.
 Calledf
iref
rom heaventoconsumesacrif
ice(1Kings18:
31f
f)
 RaisedthewidowofZarephath’
sson.
 Str
uckthewat ersofJor
danandwat erpar
ted
 Kil
l
ed400pr ophetsofBaalsi
nglehandedl
y
 Takentoheav enbywhir
lwind

ELI
SHA

1.HealedNaamant hel
eper(2Ki
ngs5:1ff
)
2.Rai
sedt heShunami t
ewoman’ssonfrom thedead(
2Kings4:
8-25)
3.Puri
fiedthewateratJeri
cho(2Ki
ngs2:19-25)
4.Fi
ll
edt het r
encheswi t
hwaterduri
ngt hebatt
lewit
ht heMoabit
es(
2Ki
ngs
3:
4ff)
5.Fl
oatedt heaxe.
Allt
heaboveweremessagessentbymeansofmi r
acl
es.Theypointt
opr ophet
s
asmessenger
sofYahweh,reveal
i
ngYahweh’compassionandsinceil
lnesswas
l
inkedwi
thevi
lthesemi
racl
esweresigni
fi
canti
nthefi
ghtagai
nstevi
l.

RHETORI
CQUESTI
ONS

Thesewer equest
ionswhichrequi
rednoanswer.Theywerether
etoprovokethe
audiencetoponderseri
ousl
yabouttheprophet
’smessage.Whenprophetsused
thi
smet hodtheywantedtheaudi
encetoanswerthemsel
ves.

Amosusedt hi
smethodquiteoft
en,forexampleAmos9: 7‘Arey ounotl i
kethe
Ethiopeanstome…’Her eAmoswant edtheIsrael
it
est onoti
cet hattheywer eno
l
ongercoddl ed.Yahwehhaddesacril
i
sedthem becauseoft hei
rf ai
luretocompl y
witht he covenantsti
pul
ati
ons.Amos 3 i sf ul
loft hese rhetoric quest
ions.
Jeremiah13:223alsousedthismethod.‘
cantheEthiopeanchangehi sskin…’

WEAKNESSES

Att imesthi
smet hodisr at
herconfusingespeci
all
ytot heaudiencewhohad
preconcei
ved underst
anding of God.For exampl e,‘Arey ou notl i
ke t
he
Ethiopi
ans…’
.Israel
i
tesf ai
lto gr
asp thissi
ncet heyregarded t
hemselvesas
sacred anduniquenationnottobecompar edwithsurroundingnati
ons,wor
se
sti
llwit
hthei
renemies.

LETTERS/DELEGATI
ON

Att imes prophet s passed theirr esponsi

bil
it
ies tot hei
raudience t hr
ough
disciples.Thismet hod wasconv enientwheret heprophetwasbar r
ed from
talkingt ohisaudi encedirect.Forexampl eduringther ei
gnofJehoaki mt he
prophetJer emi ahhav i
ngbeenl abell
edapubl icenemyandat r
ait
orwasbanned
from pr ophesy i
ngi nthenameofLor d.Jeremiahdi ct
atedhisor acl
est ohi s
secr etar
yBar uchwhom hesentt oJehoakim withthescroll
.Hei
nstructedBaruch
tor eadt hescroll
beforetheking.

Jeremiahalsowrotealett
ertotheexi
lesi
nJeremiah29.Inthelet
terheinf
ormed
theexil
esthatexi
lementwast olastf
or70yearsi
ncontrarytoHannaniahafal
se
prophetwhohadpr edi
ctedthati
twast ol
astf
ortwoyears.

WEAKNESSES

Thoughthismethodwasef f
ecti
ve,si
nceaprophetcoul
dconveymessagetoa
di
stantaudi
ence,t
hismethodhadalsosomeli
mitat
ionsi
nthatt
her
ewerecert
ain
areaswhichneededemphasisandf urt
herexpl
anati
onswhichmightnothave
beenheardorseenfrom t
hemessage.
SERMON/ORACULARFORMULA

Prophetscouldusewor dofmout htoconveyt hei

rmessagest otheaudience.
Theynormal l
yusemessengersty
leorpropheti
cf or
mul a,‘
Thussay st heLord…’
or
‘
Heart hi
swor dt
hattheLordhadspoken…’(Amos1: 3,6,
9,3:1).
Thiswasmeantt o
convi
ncet hei
raudiencet
hatthemessagewasnotf rom theirthi
nkingbutf r
om
theonewhosentt hem.Theywereclai
mingthattheirauthori
tywasf rom Yahweh.

At
tachedtothismethodist
hei
ssueofsermonswhereapr
ophett
ookadv
ant
age
ofagat her
ing,saytemplewor
shipper
s,e.
g.Jeremiah7and26anddeliver
messagetothepeople.

WEAKNESSES

Fal
sepr ophetsalsoclaimedt ohaveappoint
edbyYahwehandal sousethe
messengerst yl
e,e.g.Zedekiah t
he son ofChenaanah (
1 Kings22:
11)and
Hannaniah(Jeremiah28:2f
f).Soatti
mesitwasdi f
fi
cultt
odisti
ngui
shtr
ueand
fal
seprophetssincebothwereclai
mingtohavebeensentbyYahweh.

ALLEGORY

An allegoryisconsider
ed asan i magerystorywhosedet ai
lshav ea di r
ect
appli
cat i
ontoarealli
fesi
tuati
on,t
hatis,t
hecharactersinthestorycorresponds
withsomet hi
ngelseinareall
ifesi
tuat
ion,
e.g.Hosea’smatrimonialexperi
enceis
oft
eni nt
erpr
eted asanal l
egoryand nothistor
icalevent.Itwasact uall
yan
i
magi narystorywhichwasgi v
entov i
suali
zether el
ati
onshipthatwasbet ween
Isr
aelandYahweh.

I
MAGERY/METAPHORI
CALLANGUAGE/PI
CTORI
ALLANGUAGE

Itwasamet hodusedbypr ophetstodeli

vert hei
rmessagei npict
orialform.A
prophetcouldsel ectwordswhi chwouldcr eatepictur
est othemi ndsoft he
audience,e.
g.Amos3: 12wher eAmospi cturedtheusel essremnantt hatwas
goingt obesav edfrom thecomi ngpunishmentasf ollows;‘
Asashepher d
rescuesfrom themout hoft heliontwolegsorapi eceofanear ,soshal lt
he
peopleofIsr
ael whodwellinSamar i
aberescued’

The pr
ophetHosea mor e of
ten than notused met aphori
callanguage and
compari
sonsespeci
all
ywhenhewasdescr ibi
ngthesi
nsofI srael
.Tobeginwith
hi
smatrimoni
alexper
ienceswhichisgiv
enaspartandpar celofhi
scallnar
rati
ve
wasmeanttobecompar abl
etoIsrael
’
sharlotr
yandinf
ideli
ty.

Accor
dingt
oHosea1:
2,hewasaskedt
otakeawi
feofhar
lot
ryandhav
echi
l
dren
 ofharl
otrychieflybecausetheIsrael
it
eshadf orsakent hei
rLor
d,goingaf t
erother
gods.Insomei nstanceshecompar edIsraeltohal f-
bakedcake7: 11,stubborn
hei
fer4:16.Israel’
sloveiscompar edtoamor ningcloudanddew,6: 4.Jeremiah
cal
lhisaudi encenott odeviatefrom theirLordj ustast heleoparddoesnot
changeitsspot soranEt hi
opi
anhi sskin.

TRUEANDFALSEPROPHETS
CRI
TERI
AUSEDTODI
STI
NGUI
SHTRUEANDFALSEPROPHETS

Sincearound2009,Zi mbabwehaswi tnessedanunpr ecedent edsur geofChr isti

an
preacherswhocal lt hemsel vespr ophet s/ esses.Char acteristically,theseso- call
ed
prophets/essesclaimt owor kmi racl es;especi al l
ymi raclest hat‘ contradict’nature.
Thishasear nedthem mul ti
tudesofbot hadmi rersandcr iti
cs.I nteresti
ngly,whi l
e
admirersandf oll
ower squot et heBi blet oendor set hem ast r
uepr ophets, cri
ti
csand
scepticsalso cit
et hesameBi blet o char acteriset hem asf alsepr ophets.The
purposeoft hi
sar t
iclei st opr ovet hatbyappeal ingt ot heBi ble,bot hcampsar e
wrong.TheBi bl
edoesnothav ewat er -
tightcr iteri
at odi stingui sht ruef rom f al
se
prophets.Inotherwor ds,therei snodi sti
nct i
onbet weenat r
ueandaf alsepr ophetin
theBi bl
ebecausef undament allyt heyar ebot hcal ledpr ophet s!Thear t
icl
ecl aims
thattheBibleisthesour ceofconf usi onandnott hesol ut
iont ot hedebat eregar di
ng
thedisti
nctionbetweent rueandf alsei nt hecont empor arywor ld.

Zimbabwe has r ecent l

yseen notonl yan i ncr ease i nt he numberofChr istian
mov ement st hathav esof arr adicall
yt r
ansf ormedt heChr is-ti
anl andscape,buti t
hasal soseenaner upt i
onofaphenomenonof‘ prophet s’t hatper form‘ strange’
miracles.Fr om 2009,namest hatincl
ude,pr ophetEmmanuelMakandi waandwi fe,
prophetessRut h ofUni ted Fami lyInternat ionalChur ch,Ueber tAngeland wi fe,
prophetessBev er l
y,prophetTav ongaVut abwasheofHear tfeltInt ernat ionalMi ni s-
tr
ies,pr ophetPassi onJav aandwi f
epr ophet essYasmi nofKi ngdom Embassy ,
prophetAdv entureMut epf a( Rev i
valCentr eWor l
dMi ni stry)
,pr ophetOl iverChi punza
andpr ophet essMakany ara( now l at
e)ofApost ol i
cFl ameMi nistriesofZi mbabwe,
havemadenewsheadl ines.I nmedi atermi nol ogy ,st oriesaboutt hei rexpl oitscoul d
ber egardedast hemostt r
endi ng.Andt hei rpopul arityisi ncr easi ngbyt heday .
Generating muchi nteresti st heirclaimt oper for m‘ ext ra-
ordinar y’ mi raclessuchas
fi
ll
ingpocket s,wal l
etsandhandsofbel i
ev er swi thbanknot esandgol dnugget s.
Afterpray er,f ol
lower sopent heireyesonl yt of indt hei rpocket sandwal l
etsf ullof
moneyandgol dnugget si nthei rpalms.Thesepr ophet sclai mt ohealanyki ndof
si
cknesssuchcancer ,HI V,AI DS andev enr aiset hedead.I nf ullv i
ew oft hei r
congregat ions,somehav ecausedpeopl et oi nst ant lyst opsmoki ng,i nstantlylose
weightupt o30kgs,andi nstant l
ygrow f ullteet ht hathadl ongf al l
en.Theyusual ly
confound t heircongr egat i
ons byt ell
ing t hem t heirhouse number s,cel lphone
number s,I dent it
yNumber s( IDs),carr egi strat i
on number s and t he col our s of
undergar ment st heirfol lower swoul dbewear i
ng.Ot her‘ extraor dinar y’mi racles
i
ncl udechi l
drenbei ngbor nonl yaf terthreedaysorj usthour sofconcept i
onand
i
ncr easi ng f uelin car si nstead ofi tgetti
ng used up asonedr i
ves.Theyal so
speci ali
sei nmaki ngaccur at
epr edicti
onsofeventst hatwil
lhappeni nthenearand
distantf uture.I
nshor t
, theirmi raclesfoll
owcloselythoseperformedbyWestAf ri
can
Pent ecost alprophet ssuchasT. B.JoshuaofSy nagogueChur chofAl lNat ions,
Past orChr i
s Ay akhilome ofChr i
stEmbassy( both ofNi geri
a)and Vi ctorKusi
Boat eng ofGhana who i s Makandi wa’s spi
ri
tualment or,Godf a-ther.Allt hese
mi racl esandt hedoct rineofpr osperi
tywhichist heanchoroft heirpreachingar e
ther eforenotent irel
yunknowni nZi mbabweandi nAf ri
caatl arge.Theyhav ebeen
hear dof ;evenint hehi stor yofChr i
sti
anit
ysuchev entsandteachi ngsar enotnew.I n
fact ,i nt heBi bl
e,wor kingmi raclesseemst o beoneoft hepr eoccupationsof
Israel it
epr ophets, especi all
ypr e-classi
calones.

Fori nst ance,Abr aham pr ayedf orAbi mel echandwasi nstant lyheal ed( Gen.20: 7)
,
Mosespr ov i
dedmannat ohungr yI sraelit
es( Ex.16: 1ff
) ,providedwat eroutoft he
rock( Num.20: 11ff ),atZar ephat hEl i
jahmi r
acul ousl yincr easedf l
ourandoi l,i
n-stead
oft hesecommodi tiesbei ngusedup( 1Kgs.17: 9-16)andher aisedt hedead( 1Kgs.
17:17- 12) ,Elishai ncr easedoi landonej arofoi lfil
ledsev er
aljar sunt i
lt her ewasno
mor eempt yjar( 2Kgs.4: 1ff).Jesusi ntheNewTest amenti sal sodepi ctedasone
whoper f ormedsi mi larmi racl es.Zi mbabweanpr ophet shav et hereforesoughtt o
closelyf ol l
owt hesegr eatOl dTest amentpr ophet i
cf iguresandJesus.Thei rinterest
i
st or e-live,t or e-enactt hebi blicalt imes.I not herwor ds,theyseekt odr amat ise
whatt heyr eadi nt heBi ble.ThusZi mbabwehasal way sbeeni nundat edwi thst ories
ofmi racl ewor ker s,whoper for m mi raclessi mi lart ot heonest hesegr eatmenof
God per formed,f rom t i
met ot ime.Pr ophet si n Af ri
can I nitiated Chur chesand
tradit
ionalheal ersar eknownt oper form suchmi racles.Fol l
ower sofPr ophetE. H.
Gut iandwi fepr ophet essEunorofZi mbabweAssembl iesofGodAf r
icaFor war di n
Faith( ZAOGA- FI
F) ,Andr ew Wut awunasheandwi f e,prophet essRut hofFami lyof
GodChur ch( FOG)andMat thiasandMi l
dredofMat -thi
asandMi l
dredChur chhav e
alsocl aimedt hatt heirleader sper f
or m suchmi r
acl es.Butt hepopul ar i
tyofsuch
i
ndi vi
dual snev err eachedt hatofMakandi wa,Vut abwasheandAngel ,whoat tract
around45000f ollower sev erySundayser vice.Thi shasnev erhappenedi nt he
historyofChr isti
ani t
yi nZimbabwe.Peopl eflockf r
om asf arasMal awi, Sout hAf ri
ca,
Zambi a, andMozambi quet obe‘ mi nistered’tobyt hesepr ophet s.Somesuspectt hat
Makandi waandAngelcoul dbepl ay i
ngAf r
icanmagi cacqui redf rom ei therNi ger i
aor
Ghanawher esuchpr i
estsar ecommonandonef r
om Ghanahasconf essedt hat
sev eralpast orsf rom acr osst hegl obei ncludingf r
om Zi mbabwef lockt ohi mt oget
themagi ct oper f orm suchmi racl esasmaki ngmoney .TheGhanai anmagi cian
claimst hathemakes‘ miraclemoney ’from nowher e.

Also,t
hatthewhol eZimbabweansocietycouldconcent
rat
eonsuchi ndi
vi
dualsto
theextentthatevenpoli
ti
cians,t
echnocr
ats,economist
sdiscussedandconsul
ted
them i
sunprecedentedi
npost -
col
onial
Zimbabwe.

Ther
efor
e,whati
snewi
sthepopul
ari
tyoft
heper
for
mer
sofsuchmi
racl
esandt
he
ri
chpi ckingst heygetf r
om t heseact i
viti
esnott hemi r
acles.I not herwor ds,the
Zimbabweansoci etyisabuzzwi t
ht al
koft heirmi raculousexpl oits.Thedi scussions
rangef rom scept i
cism,out ri
ghtdi s-missaloft hem asf alsepr ophetsandt heir
mi racl
esasmagi ct oadmi rati
on.Att hecent reoft hear gument si stheBible.Those
whodi smi sst hem asf alsepr ophetsappealt ot heBi bleandt hosewhoabsol utely
believet hem ast ruepr ophet salsoci t
et heBi ble.Sucht extsasMar k16:17-18whi ch
claimt hat‘andt hesesi gnswi l
laccompanyt hosewhobel ieve...inmynamet heywi ll
driveoutdemons; .
..speaknew t ongues;..
..theywi l
lpi cksnakeswi t
hhands; .
..
will
drinkpoi son(but )itwillnothur tthem atal l;t
heywi llplacet heirhandsonsi ckpeopl e
andt heywi l
lgetwel l
’and1Cor .2:9,whichsay s,‘Noey ehasseen, noearhashear d,
nomi ndhasconcei vedwhatGodpr epar edfort hosewhol ovehi m’hav eof tenbeen
citedbyt hef oll
ower sindef enceoft heirleader s.Al soquot edof tenisJohn14: 12
whi chhasJesuspr omisingdi sciplesthat ,
‘anyonewhohasf aithi nmewi l
ldowhatI
hav ebeendoi ng.Hewi llevengr eaterthingst hatt hese’.

Fort hef ol
lowersoft heseprophets,thesescr i
pturesarebei ng ful
fil
l
ed i
nt he
ministri
esandmi raclesperformedbyVut abwashe,Makandi waandAngelamong
others.Thepr ophetsatt hecentr
eoft hediscussi
onal socit
et heBibl
et oshowthat
theyar eindeedt r
uepr ophet
s,foll
owersofChr ist
.Themai nimpor tofthisart
icl
eis
todi smisst hecriter
iaseti ntheBi bl
easnotsacr osanctindeal i
ngwi thsucha
compl exphenomenonaspr ophecy,l
etalonedisti
nguishingtr
ueandf alseprophets.
Evidenceshal lbedrawnespeciall
yfrom theOldTestament .

BACKGROUNDTOTHE“
TRUEANDFALSEPROPHECY”DEBATEI
NANCI
ENTI
SRAEL

Thepr obl emsf acedr egar dingthecr iteriatodi sti

nguishwhoi sat r
ueandwhoi sa
falsepr opheti snotamoder nphenomenon.I tismay beasol dast hei nsti
tuti
onof
prophecyi tself
.TheOl dTest amentbear sev idenceofasoci etysimilartoourown; a
soci etygr appling witht hedet ermi nat i
on oft r
uef r
om f alsepr ophecy .Whi l
ei n
anci entI srael,t hesoci etywaspr ovokedbyt heexistenceofconf l
i
ct i
ngmessages
from peopl ewhobot hcl aimedt obepr ophet sofGod,i nourcont empor arysociet
y,
theexi st enceofmenandwomenwhoper form‘ext r
a-ordi
nar y’miraclesseemst o
spar kt hedebat emor ethanconf lictingmessages.Thecl ashesbet weenEl i
jahand
the450pr ophet sofBaal( and400pr ophet sofAsher ah)atMt .Carmel( 1Kgs18:16-
40) ,thatofMi caiahbenI ml ahandZedeki ah( 1Kgs22: 24)andt heonebet ween
Jer emiahandHanani ah( Jer.28)ar econv i
nci ngevidencenotonl ytot hef actthatin
Israelconf li
cti
ng t heologi calconv i
ct i
ons bet ween pr ophets was t he sour ce of
cont radictor ymessagesbutal sothatt hisideologicalclashinmostcasesendedup
i
nr ealphy sicalclashes/ f
ist -
fi
ght
inganddeat h.Thus, propheticconflictinIsraelwas
notuncommonandt her easonsf orthei rclashesv aried.

Accordi
ngtoRober
tCar
rol
l,whi
l
eprophet
icconfl
i
cthadbeenpartandparceloft
he
I
srael
i
tesoci
etymaybefr
om asfarbackasitsori
gins,t
heprobl
em becameacute
t
owardstheendoft
heJudeanKi
ngdom i
nthesixt
hcenturyBCE.
Asonepr ophetsai donet hi
ng, anothersaidtheopposi t
e.Thi sbecameconf usingt o
thesoci etyunt iltheologiansoft heer atookitast heirresponsi bi
li
tyt oadv iset he
societyont hecr iteri
atodi ff
er entiat
et rueandf al
seprophets.Unf ortunately,someof
theset heologianswer einterest edpar t
iesinthattheywer epr ophetst hemsel ves.As
such,t heypr emi sedt hemsel v esast rueandcondemnedasf alsewhoev erhada
contraryt heologi calorpol i
ticali deology tot hei
rs.Whi l
e such pr ophet s-cum
theologianst houghtt heircr iteri
a wer eobj ecti
veand wat er-t
ight,thesuggest ed
cri
teria,aswel ookback,ar ev erybiasedandcanhar dlysolvet hedebat ewi thinour
societies.Bet hatasi tmay ,t hisattemptatest abli
shingcr iter
iaofaut henti
cityof
prophet sinI sraeli scapt uredi nl i
teratur
ebyDeut eronomi stt heologians/editors
(Deut3: 1-
5; 18:15-22),Jeremi ah( 23:9-32)andEzekiel(13).

Howev er,r at
hert hansol v
ingt hedebateasr egardst owhoexact lywasat r
ue
prophetandwhowasaf al
seone,t hecri
teriasetbyt heDeut eronomisttheol ogi
ans
onlyprovidev eryimpor t
anti nsi
ghtsint
othedi lemmat hatbef ellthesocietyofJudah
i
nt ry
ingt of i
shoutf alsepr ophetsfrom t
ruepr ophets.Andt hesamedi l
emmai son
oursocieties.Thecr i
teriasetbyt heDeuter onomi sts(andi ntheent ir
eBi ble)cannot
helpussol vethedebat e.Whi l
ethesecriteri
ahav ebeeni nvokedaswat er-
t i
ghtby
somei nourcont empor arywor l
d,(i
nZimbabwei npar t
icul
ar)int hedebater elati
ngto
numer ous Pent ecostalpr eachers who ar e cal led prophets,t he presentar ti
cle
regardsthecr i
teri
aashav ingf ai
ledtoreal l
ymakeadi st
inct i
onbet weent rueand
fal
sepr ophets.

CRI
TERI
ASETI
NTHEBOOKOFDEUTERONOMY

The bookofDeut er onomyof fersmay be whatcoul d be t he ear l

iestand most
compr ehensi veattemptbyt hesoci etyatest abl ishingcriteri
at odet ermi neaut hentic
andi naut hent i
cpr ophet si nI srael.Fori nstance,i nt wosepar atebutt hemat i
cally
rel
atedt ext s,Deut er onomypr ovidessomecr iteriat hathav ebeenci t edov ertheages
asimpor tantf ordi stinguishingt ruefrom f alsepr ophets,ev eninourmi dst.Thef irst
cri
terionpr o-posedwas‘ speaki ngi nthenameofYahweh’ .At ruepr ophetwast o
speaki nt henameofYahweh.Thi scr i
terionassumest hatinI sraelt ruepr ophet s
weremessenger sofYahweh,hencewer esupposedt ospeaki nhi sname.Andt hey
weresupposedt oi nv i
teli
stener stowor shipYahwehal one.Anypr ophetwhospoke
i
nt henameofanot hergod, oronewhot oldt heI sraeli
tecommuni tyt owor shipother
godsbesi deYahwehwast obest onedt odeat h( Deut13: 1-5).Int hecont empor ary
wor l
d,andespeci al l
yf ort heor dinaryreader soft heBible,thiscr it
er i
oni sclearand
hast hecapaci tytof lushoutf alsepr ophet sf rom t rueprophet s.Howev er ,t
hemat ter
ofdet ermi ningwhet herapr opheti st r
ueorf alsei snott hatsi mpl e.Pr ophecyasa
phenomenoni sv erycompl ex.Themai nweaknessoft hiscr i
terioni st hati nancient
Isr
ael,i tonl ymayhav ecat eredf ort hedi ff erencebet weenf orei
gnpr ophet sand
Isr
aelitepr ophet s.I ndeed,pr ophetsofBaalmostl i
kel
yspokei nt henameofBaal
andt hoseofYahwehspokei nt henameofYahweh.Whatt hismeansi st hatthe
cri
teriondi dnotsol vethepr oblem amongI sraelit
epr ophet swhoal lcl ai
medt o
speakf orYahweh,y ettheyhadcont r
adictor ymessages.Thesamei st ruei nour
modernsociety
.Allindi
vi
dual
swhoclai
mt obepr
ophetsspeaki
nthenameofGod,
ev
en t hough t hei
r messages some-t
imes are contr
adi
ctor
y. Under such
ci
rcumstances,whocouldwecal
ltr
ueandwhoisfal
se?

THECRI
TERI
ONOFPREDI
CTI
ONANDFULFI
LMENT

Itwasmay beduet ot heabov eweaknesst hatDeut eronomi stsi ncl udedanot her
cri
teriont hathadt obeconsi deredal soi nt hedet erminat ionofwhoi sf alseandwho
i
st rue; t
hecr iteri
onofpr edicti
onandf ulfil
ment( Deut13: 1-5; 18:21-22) .Inthi ssense,
Deut eronomyassumest hatat ruepr ophetmustspeaki nt henameofYahwehand
thepr edicti
onmustcomet opassi nt hemannersopr edi cted.Fr om t hepoi ntofv iew
oftheDeut eronomi sttheol ogi
ans,t hecr i
terionofspeaki ngi nt henameofYahweh
wassupposedt obeusedsi multaneousl ywi ththatofpr edictionandf ulfi
l
ment .Ifa
prophetspokei nthenameofYahwehandpr edict
edsomet hingwhi chcomest o
pass, butgoesaheadandcal lsupont hepeopl et owor shi psomeot hergodsbesi des
Yahweh,suchapr ophetwast obest oned( Deut13: 1-2) .I nt hesamemanner ,ifhe
spokei nthenameofYahwehbutt hewor dwasnotf ul fi
lled,suchapr ophetwast o
ber egar dedasaf alsepr ophet ,hencewassupposedt obest onedt odeat h( Deut
13:5; 18:20).Wi ththesecr iteri
a,may benocont empor ar ymanorwomanwhocl aims
tobepr ophetwoul dbest oned.Theyal lwoul dbeat test edast rue,f ormostoft heir
predictionshav ecomet opass.Butatt hesamet i
me, theywoul dal lbest oned, since
someoft heirpr edi
ctionshav enotbeenf ulf
ill
ed.Asnot edi nt hei nt roduct ion,most
(butobv i
ouslynotal l
)oft hepr edictionsbyZi mbabweanpr ophet sf orexampl ear e
accur ateandcomet opassaspr edict ed.I nf act,inZi mbabwe,t hosei nsuppor tof
Vutabwashe,Makandi waandAngelbel ievet hatt hesei ndi vidual sar et r
uepr ophet s
becauset heirpredicti
onshav ecomet opass.

WEAKNESSESOFTHEPREDI
CTI
ONANDFULFI
LMENTCRI
TERI
ON

Cri
ti
quingthetwocri
ter
iapr
oposedbytheDeut
eronomi
sttheol
ogians,Car
rol
lisapt
whenheobser v
edthat,
‘i
twastooov
ersi
mpli
fi
edanapproachtothecomplexmatter
ofprophecy’
.

Thecr i
terialeav eal otofissuesunattendedt o.Fir
stl
y ,t
hecr it
erionofpr edictionand
ful
fil
mentofev entsonlycat ersforprophet swhomakeshor t-
term pr edi
ctions,such
as:tomor rowy ouwi l
ldie,youwi l
lgetmoney ,ornextweekornexty eartherewi llbe
drought ,etc.But ,prophetswhomakel ong- t
er m pr
edicti
onswer el ef
t‘unjudged’ unti
l
suchat i
mepr edict
edhasl apsed.Butsomeoft hesepr edicti
onst ookgener ati
onst o
bef ulf
il
led, hencecausedal otofanxietyint hesociety( Ezek12: 27).Andbyt hetime
thepr edictionwasf ulfi
l
led,theconcer nedpr ophetmayhav edied.Whatt hismeans
i
st hat,pr ophet swhomadel ong-
ter
m pr edictionswoul ddi efalsepr ophets.Inot her
words,t heyonl ycouldbet akenast ruepr ophetsbyl atergener at
ionswhowoul d
havewi tnessedt hef ul
fil
mentoft heirpr edicti
ons.Butagai n,i tdependedont he
memor yoft hepeopl efrom onegener ationt o another ;otherwisemostoft he
predicti
onsoft heseprophet swouldhav ebeenf orgotten.
Thesecondweaknessi sthatt hiscr i
terioni ssel f-cont r
adi ctor y.Whi leaccor dingt o
theset heol ogians,apr edicti
onwassupposedt obef ulfil
l
edmay bei nt hepr ophet ’
s
l
ifet i
me,someoft heseDeut eronomi stt heologi ansi ncludedi nthei rhistor y,long-
term pr edi cti
ons; propheci esthatwer enott obef ul fi
lledi nt hei mmedi atefut ureori n
theirl i
fe-time.Forexampl e, 1Sam 2: 31-36pr edict swhati sint hev erydi st
antf uture
andnoty etconcei vable.1Ki ngs13: 2alsoi ndicat est hatt hepr edictionwasmadeso
manyy ear sbackandt hesoci etymayhav efor got tenabouti t.Anot herinci denti s
thatf oundi n2Ki ngs13: 15-19,wher eEl i
shamadeapr edictionbutdi edbef oret he
predi cti
onwasf ulf
il
led( 2Kgs.13: 20) .Thuswhenweuset hecr i
terionoff ulfil
ment
ofpr edict i
on,El i
shadi edaf alsepr ophet .Thesameconcl usi oncoul dber eached
regar dingJer emi ah.InJer emiah25: 11-12and29: 10,Jer emi ahmadeapr ediction
thatJudahwoul dber eleasedf r
om Baby l
oniansl aver yaf tersev ent yy ears.Basi ng
upont hecr i
teri
onoff ulfi
lmentofpr ediction,Jer emi ahwoul donl ybepr ov enasa
truepr ophetaf t
ersev ent yy ears.Andbyt hatt imeJer emi ahandmost ,ifnotal lthe
peopl ewhower ehi saudi enceswoul dhav edi ed.I nshor t
,Jer emi ah,accor dingt o
thiscr iterion,diedaf alsepr ophet .Thecr i
t er
ionhast hust hepr opensi tytodi smi ss
asf al
seal lthepr ophet swehav ealway sr egar dedast rue, suchasEl isha,Jer emiah,
Mi cahandI saiahamongot hers.Mi cah( 5:5)andI sai ah( 10:5)f orexampl e,pr edicted
thatJer usalem woul d bedest r
oy ed byt heAssy ri
ansi nt heei ghthcent urybut
Jer usalem wasnotdest r
oy edbyt heAssy riansi nt heei ghthcent ur
y .

Itwasdest royed instead byt heBaby l

oniansin587,i nt hesi xthcent uryBCE.
Accor dingt othi
scr it
erion,Mi cahandI saiaharefal seprophets.At hirdweakness
associ atedwiththeDeut er
onomi sttheologians’cri
terionofpredictionandf ulf
il
ment
ofpr ophecyi st hatitmakespr edi
ct i
ont hesol ef uncti
onofpr ophet s.Ofcourse
prophet spredict
edandt hi
sisv erypr onouncedi ntheOl dTest ament .In1Sam.10: 5
forexampl e,Samuelpr edi
ctedt hatSaulwoul dcomeacr ossagr oupofpr ophets,
andi thappened( 1Sam 10: 10).I n1Ki ngs11: 26Ahi j
ahpredictedt hebr eakofthe
kingdom andJer oboam woul dbeki ngov erthenort
her ner
s,Israelandi thappened(1
Kgs.12: 20).Ahijah predicted thatJer oboam’ sillson wasgoi ng to die and it
happened ( 1 Kgs.14:12,17)exact lyaspr edi
cted.Butequat i
ng pr ophecywith
predictionisnotal waysqui t
ecor rect.

Prophet swer efir

standf oremostpr eachers,whosepr eachingwasi n-tendedto
causechangeofat tit
udeandchangeofact ionf rom theaudience.HerbertBessis
thereforerightwhenheobser v
est hat‘
cert
ainlythe( I
srael
i
te)prophetdidpr edi
ctt
he
future.
..butpredicti
on( oft
hef utur
e)wasnott hel ar
gerpartofprophecy ;i
twasas
mucht hepr ophet’
sresponsibi
l
itytoint
erpr
etcor rectl
ythepastandt hepresent’
.

Inotherwor
ds,whatt heypredi
ctedmaybeof fsetbythechangeofbehav iourofthe
people.Infact
,mostoft he greatprophets ofIsraelalways connect ed t
hei
r
predi
cti
onsofdoom andgl oom wi t
hhopeandchanceofr epent
ance.Theyal ways
wantedpeopletorepentsoast oav oi
dconsequenceswhi chtheypredicted.The
fourt
hmosti mportantweaknessoft hecr i
teri
onoff ulf
ilmentofpr edicti
on,as
i
mpl i
edinDeuteronomy13: 1-
5especial
lyist hatevenaf al
seprophetcoul dby
chancepredi
ctwhatcoul dcomet opass.I
not herwords,t
her
ewasalsoagreat
chancethataprophetregardedasgenui
nemightonoccasionbef
alseandt
heso
cal
ledfal
seprophetmightspeakthet
rut
h(1Kgs.13:18)
.

Thi sscenar i
owaswi tnessedi nmanyot heri nst ancesi nt hehi storyofI srael .A
prophetr egar dedast ruewoul dbedecei v edbyGodt opr ophesyf al
sehoods.He,i n
otherwor ds,woul dbegi v enaf alser ev elati
onbyGod.1Ki ngs22i st hecl assi c
exampl eofdi -
v i
nedecept ion;t hef actt hatGodcoul dl i
et ot r
uepr ophet ssoast o
achievecer tai ngoal s.I nt hiscase, Ki ngAhabconsul t
ed400pr ophet sonwhet herhe
hast ogof orwarornot .Theyal lencour agedhi mt ogocl aimingt hatGodwaswi th
theki ngt ogi vehi mv ict or y( 1Kgs.22: 6) .Yet ,t het exti sv erycl eart hatt he400
prophet shadbeenl i
edt obyGod( 1Kgs.22:19- 23) .Thi smeans, hadi tnotbeent he
l
y i
ngspi r
itf rom Godt hatent eredt hesepr ophet s,t heywoul dhav esai dt het rut h.In
fact,itiscl eart hatbef or et hisi ncidentt heyal way st oldt het ruth;t heywer et rue
prophet s.I tal someansaf t
ert hisi ncidentt heybecamef alsepr ophet sort hey
becamet ruepr ophet sagai n.Inot herwor ds,1Ki ngs22makesabol ddecl ar ation
thatbot hat ruepr ophetandaf alsepr ophetwer emedi umsoft hesameGod!Whati s
alsocomi ngoutoft hist exti sthatpr ophet sar enotr esponsi blef ort heiract ionsand
speech.Ther efor e,theycan- notbehel daccount abl esi ncet heyar eonl yagent si n
thehandofGod.Thi sdef eat sDeut13: 5whi chst ipulat est hedeat hpenal tyt ot hose
who pr ophesyf alsehoods.Whywoul dt heybeki ll
edwhent heywer et ruth- fully
serving God by l y i
ng? The concept s ofdi vine decept i
on t oget herwi th di vine
repentance pr o-v ide some of t he most l ikel y av enues f or under standi ng
cont r
adictionsamongI sr ael i
tepr ophet sandev enpr ophet si nourmi dst .Whi l
et he
Israeli
te hi stor y shows t hatt he di v i
ne ( God)coul d decei ve hi s prophet s,Hi s
repentanceal sol efthi smessenger s,t hepr ophet si nl i
mbo.I nsomanyi nst ancesi n
theBi bl
ewear et ol dt hatGodr epent edanddi dnotdowhathehadpr omi sedt odo
(cf.Amos7: 3, 6,).Al thoughpr ophet swer eunder stoodorunder stoodt hemsel v esas
socialandr eligiouscr iticsi nor dert obr ingaboutr efor m,di viner epent anceal way s
l
ef tthem ex- posedasf al sepr ophet s.Thehar sht onewi t
hwhi chpr ophet sr eact edt o
theirunf ulfil
ledpr edi ctionsi ndicatest hatt heywer eaf raidofbei ngl abel l
edf alse
prophet ssi nce t he cr iter ion ofpr edi ction and f ulfil
mentwasi nf ullf orce.For
exampl e,whent hepeopl eofNi nev ehr epent edandt urnedawayf rom t hei rsi nf ul
way s,Yahwehdeci dedt ospar et hem ( Jo- nah3: 4).Howev erJonahcoul dnothav eit.
Jonahi spr epar edt odi et hant ol ivebecausepeopl ewoul dcal lhi m af alsepr ophet
(Jonah4: 3b) .

AndJonahhadsuspi cional readybef or

ehewentt oNineveht hatYahwehwoul dnot
ful
filhiswor ds(Jonah4: 1,2).Thisiswhyinit
ial
lyhefledtoTar shi
sh( Jonah1:3).The
samef rustr
ati
onwi thGod’ sdecept ionorrepentanceisevidentinJer emiah20:7-10.
Ifweappl ythecr it
erion off ulfi
lmentofpr edi
cti
on,thesepr ophetswer ef alse
prophet s.Thusthecr i
teri
oni sweaki nt
hatitdoesnotleaver oom f orboththedivine
andt hesoci et
yt orepent .Inthelightofdivi
nedecept i
onanddi vi
ner epent
ance,t he
cri
terionoff ul
fi
lmentofpr edict
ionasamar koft r
ueprophecyi sr enderedvoi
d.Thi s
becomesgl aringwhenweconsi der1Ki ngs21: 21-29.Weencount erEl ij
ahpr edi cting
disast eront hehouseofAhabandt hedeat hofhi swi feJezebel .Asawayt of ul fi
l
thepr edi ctionbyEl ijah, i
n2Ki ngs9: 1-13Jehui sanoi nt edbyasonofapr ophetwho
hadbeensentbypr ophetEl isha;t hati s,wi thdi vineappr ov al
.El i
shat hr ought he
madmant oldJehut osl aught eral lthemember sofAhab’ sfami l
y( 2Kgs9: 6), ashad
been pr edi ct ed byEl ij
ah ear l
ier.And Jehu t ookt he commi ssion ser iousl yand
exter mi nat edt hehouseofJehuasdi rectedbyt heLor d( 2Kgs.9: 14- 10:36) .Ont he
basi soft hecr i
t er
ionoff ulfil
mentofpr ediction,El ij
ah wasat r
uepr ophetbecause
hispr edi ctionwasf ulfil
led.Yeti nHosea1: 4,af ell
ow I sr
aelit
epr ophet ,Hoseai s
givenawor dbyGodt ocondemnJehuf ordoi ngexact lywhatGodhadcommanded
throught wogr eatpr ophet s,El ijahandEl isha,t omassacr et hehouseofAhabi nt he
Jezr eel v alley !Whi chi swhi ch?Whor eceivedt hewor df rom God?Whatt hismeansi s,
apr ophecyt hatwast akenast ruebyanear l
iergener at i
onmaybei nterpretedi nbad
l
ightbyl at ergener ations.Ori tmeansGodchangeshi smi nd.Whi l
eGodt hought
whatAhabhaddonewaswr ong,hel aterf eltthatwhathehadcommandedwas
wr ongandher epent ed.Butwher edoest her epent anceofGodl eav et hepr ophet s
whower ej ustusedasi nst rument s?Whowasat ruepr ophetbet weenEl ijah,El i
sha
andHosea?Wi tht hissetup,al lwer et r
uepr ophet sandal lwer ef al
sepr ophet s!
Accor dingt oToddHi bbar d, itwasupont heweaknessesoft hecriterionoff ulfilment
ofpr edict iont hatJer emi ahdev elopedot hersuppor tingcr i
teri
at obeconsi der edi n
det ermi ni ng who i sa t rueand who i sa f alsepr ophet .Thechar gesmadeby
Jer emi ahagai nsthi sopponent s/otherpr ophet st hathel abelledfalsepr ov idef urther
criteriaf ordi stinguishi ngbet weenpr ophet s,butt heyar ehowev ernotwi thoutt hei r
ownpr obl ems.Thef i
rstofsuchcr it
eriai simmor ality,par ti
cularl
ysexuali mmor ality
(Jer23: 9- 15) .Thus,Jer emi ahi nJer emi ah23: 9ffbutespeci all
yinJer emi ah26- 29
revised Deut eronomy 13: 1- 5 and Deut eronomy 18: 18-20 whi ch emphasi se t he
criterionoff ul f
ilmentofpr edi ct ionassi nequanonofpr ophecy .

ForJer
emi
ah,
mor
alupr
ight
nessi
stobeconsi
der
edaswel
l
.

THECRI
TERI
ONOFMORALI
TY

Itisgenerall
yassumedt hatmor aluprightnesswasexpect edofpr ophet siftheyhad
tobeconsi deredaut hentici ntheI sraelit
esoci et
y.Al t
houghi tisnotknownexact l
y
how pr evalentt hi
s pr actice ofsexuali mmor ali
ty was among pr ophets,the
accusationi sast r
ongonesuggest ingt hatthismayhav ebeenar ealcausef or
concern.Accor dingt oJer emi ahanypr ophetwhoi si mmor alisaf alseone.Tr ue
prophetsmustbemor all
yupr i
ght .Andt hishasi nfluencedt hewaywej udgemen
andwomeni nourmi dstwhocl aimt obemessenger sofGod.Any onewhocommi ts
adulter
yorf ornicati
oni sdi smi ssedasaf alseprophet.Andany thingheorshesay s
i
snott akenser iously.InZi mbabwef orinstance,formerAr chbi shopf orBulawayo
diocese,PiusNcubecommandedgr eatr espectasapr ophetofGodunt ilin2007
whenhewascapt uredonsur vei l
lancecamer acommi t
ti
ngadul terywi thanumberof
women.Si ncet hen, theZimbabweansoci etygener al
lydoesnotr egardhi m asaman
ofGodany mor e.Bet hatasi tmay ,thecr i
teri
oncanbedi smissedasweakont he
foll
owi nggr ounds.Fi r
st,wehav epr ophet sint heIsraeli
tesoci etywhol ivedmor ally
quest ionablelives;y ett heyarecal ledt ruepr ophetsandt heirwor dswer er evered.
Hosea, forinstancemar ri
edapr ostitutecall
edGomer ,thedaught erofDi blaim( Hos.
1:2,3).Andi tisexpl ici
ti ntheBi blethatshewasapr ost i
tut
e,anadul ter ouswoman.
Ther efore,bymar ryi
ngGomer ,Hoseacommi ttedani mmor alactbef or et heLor d.It
i
snoti ndicatedi ntheBi bl
ewhet hershest oppedheri mmor alway saf termar riageor
not.Butt akingcuef r
om t hedi vorceandr emar ri
age( Hos.2- 3),shecont inuedher
tradeev enaf t
ermar ri
age.Thi ssuggest sthatHoseal ivedanadul terousl i
fe.Yet ,he
wascal ledat ruepr ophet .Al-t
houghi tispossi blethatsexuali mmor ali
tywasnot
under stoodi nt heanci entIsraeli
tesoci etyinthesamewayaswedot oday , Hosea’ s
mar riaget oGomer ,apr osti
tut
e( Hos.1- 3)woul dhavebeencondemnedasi mmor al
byhi ssoci ety( cf
.Deut .24:2-4).Thus,wi t
ht hiscrit
erion,Ho- seai saf alsepr ophet,
yetal loft her eader soft heBi bler egardhim asat ruepr ophet .Act uallymoder n
preacher softenr efert ohi sbookandev ent ot hemar ri
agei t
selfasav erygr eat
l
esson!I nthesameway ,ac-cordingt othiscriteri
on,Isaiah’ssexualr elationswi tha
prophet ess( I
sa.8: 1-
3)woul dhav ebeencondemned.

Ofcour set her ear eschol arswhopr esumet hatt hispr ophet esswashi swi fe,but
ther ei snoi ndicat ioni ntheBi bl et hatI saiahwasmar riedt ot hiswomanhehad
sexualr elationswi th.Itispossi blet hatshewasj ustapr ophet ess, whet hershewas
mar riedornotwedonotknow.Themat terbecomeswor sei fshewasmar ried.That
means, Isaiahwoul dhav ecommi ttedadul ter y.Second, ont hebasi soft hiscr it
er i
on,
Isaiahcanber egar dedasf alsepr ophetbecausehewal kednakedf ort hreey ears
(Isa.20: 3) .Al thoughhewasdr amat isingt hemessageofYahweh,nakednesswas
consi der edani mmor alactunl essonewasmad.Besi des, itwasashamef ulthingt o
benakedt hroughoutt hebi blicalper iod( Gen.3: 7;9: 20f f;Rev .3: 18).Al so,El isha’s
cur singoft hechi ldrenwasahor rendousactt hatr esultedi nthedeat hoff orty-t
woof
them ( 2Kgs2: 23- 24).Thisconst it
ut esav er yimmor alactt hatcanbeequat edt o
terror istact s.Mor eso, t
heact iviti
esofEl ijahandEl i
shaqual if
yt hem asmer cenar i
es,
yett heyar enotr egarded asf alsepr ophet s.Theywer eassoci ated mor ewi th
bloodshedt hanl ifepr eservation.Theycausedv ariousbl oodbat hsi nI srael( 1Kgs
18:40;2Kgs1: 9-12;9: 10)t ot heext entt hatev enl at ergener at i
onsofpr ophet s
condemnedt heiract s(Hos.1: 4).Sur elymenofGodshoul dhav ebeenknownf or
goodt hanf ormassacr es!Wi thoutr eal i
singt heweaknessesofhi scr i
terionofmor al
upr ight -ness,Jer emi ahgoesf urthert osetot hersubsi di arycr it
er i
aofmor ali
tyt hat
het houghtcoul dbeusedt odi ff
er entiat et ruef r
om f al
sepr ophet s.Accor dingt ohi m,
sincet heywer ei mmor al
,falsepr ophet sl ie,decei vepeopl eandst ealor acles( Jer .
23:23- 32)f rom t ruepr ophet s;t hosepr ophet swho hav ebeeni nGod’ scounci l
.
Basi cal ly,speci fi
cel ementsi nt hechar gewer ecritici
smsoft het echni quesusedt o
recei v eor aclesbyt hesepr ophet s.Theyar eaccusedofusi ngdr eamsandbor rowi ng
orst eal i
ngeachot her’soracles.Af terst eal ingor acles, theywoul donl yappealt ot he
messengerf or mul at hatwascommonwi tht ruepr ophet s, ‘
Thussay sYahweh. ..
.’(
Jer .
23:31) ,asi ft heywer esentbyGod.Al thought hiscr it
er ioni squi t
eat t r
act iv
e,i tis
fraughtwi thweaknesses.I nf act ,allthecr i
t eriasetf orthi nJer .23: 9-32st i
l
lleav ea
l
ott obedesi r
ed.Forex ample,whil
eJer emi ahpositi
onshimselfasmor all
yupr i
ght,
hecanhi mselfbedi smissedasf alse.InJer .38:24-
27,hel i
edt opr ot
ectKi ng
Zedekiah.Var iousotherpr ophetssti
llwouldf al
lbyt hewayside.Mi cai
ahbenI mlah
al
sodecei vedKi ngAhabt hathewasgoi ngt owinsoheshoul dgoupandputupa
fi
ghtwi thSy r
ia( 1Kgs.22: 16).Heonl ycouldt el
lthetrut
haf tersomepest er
ing;
otherwisehewaspr eparedtoliesoast ospeakt hesamewor dwi thotherpr ophets.
Hehadheededadv icef r
om Ki ngAhab’ smessengerwhot ol
dhi m nott ospeak
againstthewor dofot herprophetst hattheki nghadconsul t
edear l
i
er .Wi t
ht his
samecr i
teri
on, Eli
shawoul dbedi smissedf orusingdecepti
onagainstBen- Hadad( 2
Kgs.8:7-15) .

Afterall
,theaccusationthatotherprophetsofJer emiah’ser awer epreachinglies
anddecei twouldonl ymakesensei ft heydel iberatel
ychoset ol i
eanddecei ve
people.Yet,iti
sclearf r
om otherbibli
caltexts( Ezek13;14: 1-11;Deut.13:3)that
these people mayhav e been honestlypr eaching whatt heywi thoutanydoubt
consider
edt obetruth.I
notherwor ds,t
heirv i
sionsmayhav ebeenf al
se,butwithout
reali
si
ngitthem-selv
esorwi t
houtthem intenti
onal lydesigningt opreachfalsehoods.

Aswenot edabov ewiththe1Ki ngs22i nci

dent
,atrueprophetcoul
dbedeceivedby
Godt olie.Accordingt oCar r
oll,now ifYahwehusedt hefalseprophetsorthe
i
dolat
erst odeceivecommuni tyandi ndivi
dual
s,orifhet est
edthecommuni tyby
fal
sedreamersorpr ophetsasi sclearinDeut13:3,inwhatwaywer eJeremiahand
Ezeki
elri
ghttocl aimthatYahwehhadnotsentt heprophetswhopr ocl
aimedsuch
fal
sevisi
ons(Jer.23:21;Ezek.13:6)?

Indeedt hesepr ophetswer esentbyYahweh.I nf act,itcouldbeJer emiahand

Ezekielwhoar eliar
s.Theirbelieft hatthesepr ophetswer enotsentbyYahwehi sa
l
iebecauseasamat t
eroff actt hesepr ophetswer esentbyYahweh.Fur t
her,
Jeremiah’ sat t
ackon t heuseofdr eams( Jer.23: 25-28)and t heuseofot her
prophets’or acl
es( Jer.23:30)i sv eryprobl emat i
c.TheBi blehaspl ent
yofpl aces
wheredr eamsar eregardedasal egit
imat ewayofr eceivi
ngor acl
esori nspiration
from Yahweh.I not herwor ds,Yahwehi nt hehistoryofanci entIsraelhasonv ar i
ous
occasionscommuni catedhi swi llthr
oughdr eams,( Gen28: 12-
17;40-41),(1Ki ngs
3:5-
15),Joel( 2:28)andDani el.Ev eni nDeut13: 1,3t herei sani mplicati
ont hat
dreamswer eaf ormalwayofr eceivi
ngr evelati
onf r
om God.Thesamehi ghr egar d
fordreamsasamet hodi nwhicht hedivi
necommuni catedt opeopl eexi
stedacr oss
theanci entNearEastespeci allyi nEgypt ,tot heext entt hatwhatJosephdi di n
Genesis40- 41byi nterpret
ingdr eamswasnotunknown.

ThesameistrueintheNew Test
ament
.Dreamsarenotcondemned.Theyar
ea
l
egi
ti
matewayofrecei
vi
ngi
nspir
ati
onf
rom t
hediv
inewor
ld(
Heb.3:1)
.

Tot her
eforecl
aimthatrecei
vi
ngmessagest
hroughdr
eamsi
samar
kofbei
nga
f
alsepropheti
smispl
aced.

Jer
emi
ah’
saccusat
iont
hatf
alsepr
ophet
sst
ealor
acl
esf
rom ot
herpr
ophet
sact
ual
l
y
backfir
es.Ont hebasi
soft hi
scriter
ion,evenJeremi
ahhi msel
fwouldbedi smissed
asaf alseprophetandal otmor eprophetsthatwer egar
dast r
ue,suchasI saiah,
Micah,AmosandJoel ,becauset heseprophetshavesomeoft heiror
aclesthatare
i
dentical,bet
rayi
ngthefactthattheywer e‘stol
en’f
rom oneanother.Forinst
ance,
I
sa.2: 2-4andMi cah4:1-3arebasi call
yoneandt hesameor aclegivenbyt wo
di
ffer
entpr ophet
sapparentl
yinthesamecont ext.

Accor di
ngt othecri
terionofJeremi ah,onepr ophetstolef r
om anot her.Soei ther
Isai
ahwasaf alseprophetorMi cah,orev enbot hwer efalsepr ophets.Thesame
couldbesai daboutAmos1: 2;Jer .25:30andJoel3: 16whi challuset hesame
expressi
on.Theseshar edelementscanal sobef oundinI sa.10:27b-32andMi cah
1:10-15;I
sa.5:
8-10andMi cah2:1-3,Jer.49:7-22andObad.1- 9.Soshal lwedi smi ss
theseasf al
seprophets?Ifwear etoappl ythiscr i
ter
ion,Jeremi ahhi
msel fwoul dbe
dismissed.For,in Jer emi
ah 26: 17-18,Mi cah 3: 12 is cited almostv erbatim,
somet hi
ngthatisveryunusual.Thishaspr ompt edHibbardt oconcludet hat,‘thi
si s
theonlyinst
anceofapr opheti
cbookquot i
ngf rom anotherbynameany -wher eint he
HebrewBi bl
e’.