Baseball - Wikipedia
Baseball - Wikipedia
org/wiki/Baseball
1 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
In the United States and Canada, professional Major League Baseball (MLB) teams are divided into
the National League (NL) and American League (AL), each with three divisions: East, West, and
Central. The MLB champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. The top
level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba
between the West League and East League. The World Baseball Classic, organized by the World
Baseball Softball Confederation, is the major international competition of the sport and attracts the
top national teams from around the world.
2 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Sources
Further reading
External links
The game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home
plate at 45-degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the
270-degree area outside them is foul territory. The part of the field enclosed by the bases and
several yards beyond them is the infield; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield. In the
middle of the infield is a raised pitcher's mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its
center. The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be
of any material and height. The fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is
baseball's field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well.[5]
There are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat, and the glove or mitt:
The baseball is about the size of an adult's fist, around 9 inches (23 centimeters) in
circumference. It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide, with
3 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
red stitching.[6]
The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood. Other materials are
now commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a hard round stick, about 2.5 inches (6.4
centimeters) in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a
knob. Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches (86 centimeters) long, and not longer
than 42 inches (106 centimeters).[7]
The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers.
As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific
needs of different fielding positions.[8]
Protective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters.[9]
At the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players of the fielding team arrange themselves
around the field. One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitcher's mound. The pitcher begins the
pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward
home plate. Another fielding team player, the catcher, squats on the far side of home plate, facing
the pitcher. The rest of the fielding team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—
who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines (basepaths) between first,
second, and third base—and three outfielders. In the standard arrangement, there is a first
baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base, a second baseman to the right of second
base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third baseman to the right of third base. The basic
outfield positions are left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. With the exception of the catcher,
all fielders are required to be in fair territory when the pitch is delivered. A neutral umpire sets up
behind the catcher.[10] Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well.[11]
Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the
4 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands. A runner on first base must attempt to
advance if a ball lands in play. If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it
becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they occupied when the play began. If the
ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has flied out and any runners on base may
attempt to advance only if they tag up (contact the base they occupied when the play began, as or
after the ball is caught). Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is
in the process of delivering the ball to home plate; a successful effort is a stolen base.[14]
A pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball. A batter against whom
three strikes are recorded strikes out. A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a
base on balls or walk, a free advance to first base. (A batter may also freely advance to first base if
the batter's body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone, provided the batter does
not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.)[15] Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the
umpire's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone, a conceptual area
above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and belt down to the
hollow of the knee.[16]
While the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in the
field is attempting to record outs. In addition to the strikeout,
common ways a member of the batting team may be put out
include the flyout, ground out, force out, and tag out. It is
possible to record two outs in the course of the same play. This
is called a double play. Three outs in one play, a triple play, is
possible, though rare. Players put out or retired must leave the
field, returning to their team's dugout or bench. A runner may A shortstop tries to tag out a runner
be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against who is sliding headfirst, attempting
another player on the team. Stranded runners do not benefit to reach second base.
the team in its next turn at bat as every half-inning begins with
the bases empty.[17]
An individual player's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base,
hits a home run, makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team's third out, even if it is
recorded against a teammate. On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the
batter's hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting
caught stealing (tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this sort of incomplete plate
appearance starts off the team's next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter
the previous inning are erased. A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and
thus can score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player has completed a plate
appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player's team have
all taken their turn at bat in the batting order. The batting order is set before the game begins, and
may not be altered except for substitutions. Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that
player may not reenter the game. Children's games often have more lenient rules, such as Little
League rules, which allow players to be substituted back into the same game.[18][3]
If the designated hitter (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility
is to bat (and run). The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the
5 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
batting order, but does not field. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine
players and a fielding arrangement of nine players.[19]
Players
The number of players on a baseball roster, or squad,
varies by league and by the level of organized play. A
Major League Baseball (MLB) team has a roster of 25
players with specific roles. A typical roster features the
following players:[20]
Other
The manager, or head coach, oversees the team's major strategic decisions, such as establishing the
starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions
during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are typically assisted by two or
more coaches; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting,
fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches are
stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, whom
occupy designated coaches' boxes, just outside the foul lines. These coaches assist in the direction of
baserunners, when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and
runners, during pauses in play.[26] In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and
coaches generally wear their team's uniforms; coaches must be in uniform to be allowed on the field
6 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Any baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the outcome of each play.
At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone,
and call balls and strikes. Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it
easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs. In MLB, four umpires are used for
each game, one near each base. In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in
the outfield along the foul lines.[28]
Many of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental
fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and,
to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed
pitchers.[29] A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup, who knows the team
will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher, may respond by starting one or more of the right-
handed backups on the team's roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch
hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable
matchups with their substitutions. The manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed
pitcher-batter matchups and the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed
matchups. With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting
position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful
fielder (known as a defensive substitution).[30]
With a runner on base and taking a lead, the pitcher may attempt a pickoff, a quick throw to a
fielder covering the base to keep the runner's lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out.[35] Pickoff
attempts, however, are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher's movements before and
during the pickoff attempt. Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a
7 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
balk against the pitcher, which permits any runners on base to advance one base with impunity.[36]
If an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may call for a pitchout, a ball thrown
deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a
base.[37] Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may
employ a shift, with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions.
With a runner on third base, the infielders may play in, moving closer to home plate to improve the
odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to
carry through a drawn-in infield.[38]
The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision.
Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game
rounders, popular among children in Great Britain and Ireland.[42][43][44] Baseball Before We
Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (2005), by American baseball historian David Block,
suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this
position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each
other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and "tut-
ball".[42] The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty
Pocket-Book, by John Newbery.[45] Block discovered that the first recorded game of "Bass-Ball"
took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player.[46] This early form of the
game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants.[47]
By the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as
early forms of baseball being played around North America.[48] The first officially recorded baseball
game on this continent was played in Beachville, Ontario, Canada on June 4, 1838.[49] In 1845,
Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City's Knickerbocker Club, led the codification of the
so-called Knickerbocker Rules.[50] While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers
played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in
8 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the "New York Nine" defeated
the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings.[51] With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of
modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century.[52]
The National Agreement of 1903 formalized relations both between the two major leagues and
between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of
the country's minor professional leagues.[61] The World Series, pitting the two major league
champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall.[62] The Black Sox Scandal of the 1919
World Series led to the formation of a new National Commission of baseball that drew the two
major leagues closer together.[63] The first major league baseball commissioner, Kenesaw
Mountain Landis, was elected in 1920. That year also saw the founding of the Negro National
League; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was
joined by the Eastern Colored League.[64]
A large number of minor league teams disbanded when World War II led to a player shortage.
Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of the All-American Girls Professional
9 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Baseball League to help keep the game in the public eye.[70] The first
crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-
controlled professional ball occurred in 1945: Jackie Robinson was
signed by the National League's Brooklyn Dodgers and began playing
for their minor league team in Montreal.[71] In 1947, Robinson broke
the major leagues' color barrier when he debuted with the
Dodgers.[72] Latin American players, largely overlooked before, also
started entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two Chicago
White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban-born
Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars.[73][74]
Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major
league teams had a black player on the roster.[73]
In 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. There had
long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the
abuse of illegal steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue
only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of
performance-enhancing drugs before 2004.[81] In 2007, Bonds became MLB's all-time home run
leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major league and minor league attendance both reached
all-time highs.[82][83]
10 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
In 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first
baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa,
Veracruz.[88] The first formal baseball league outside of the United
States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a
rich baseball tradition. The Dominican Republic held its first
islandwide championship tournament in 1912.[89] Professional
baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries
between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922),
Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico
(1938).[90] The Japanese major leagues have long been considered
the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United
States.[91]
After World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin
Sadaharu Oh managing the American countries, most prominently Venezuela (1946) and the
Japan national team in the Dominican Republic (1955).[92] Since the early 1970s, the annual
2006 World Baseball Classic. Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four
Playing for the Central
leading Latin American winter leagues: the Dominican Professional
League's Yomiuri Giants
Baseball League, Mexican Pacific League, Puerto Rican Professional
(1959–80), Oh set the
professional world record for Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. In
home runs. Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990) and China (2003) all have
professional leagues.[93]
Many European countries have professional leagues as well; the most successful, other than the
Dutch league, is the Italian league, founded in 1948.[94] In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver
medal at the Olympic Games.[95] The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball
Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different
countries. Other competitions between national teams, such as the Baseball World Cup and the
Olympic baseball tournament, were administered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF)
from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create
the current joint governing body for both sports, the World Baseball Softball Confederation
(WBSC).[96] Women's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in numerous countries.[97]
After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was
dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee
meeting. It remained part of the 2008 Games.[98] While the sport's lack of a following in much of
the world was a factor,[99] more important was MLB's reluctance to allow its players to participate
during the major league season.[100] MLB initiated the World Baseball Classic, scheduled to
precede its season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament. The inaugural
Classic, held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a
significant number of MLB participants.[101][102] The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its
2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic.[103]
11 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries
where it has a following. All of these sports use a clock,[104] play is less individual,[105] and the
variation between playing fields is not as substantial or important.[106] The comparison between
cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball's distinctive elements are shared in various
ways with its cousin sports.[107]
No clock to kill
In clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds
the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively
against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock,
thus a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and
rallies are not constrained by time. At almost any turn in any
baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of
aggressive strategy.[108] Whereas, in the case of multi-day Test
and first-class cricket, the possibility of a draw often
encourages a team that is batting last and well behind, to bat
defensively and run out the clock, giving up any faint chance at A well-worn baseball
a win, to avoid an overall loss.[109]
While nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration
of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the 20th
century, games typically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s, they averaged just less than
two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960.[110] By 1997, the average American League
game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate
making for quicker outs than designated hitters).[111] In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that
its goal was an average game of 2:45.[110] By 2014, though, the average MLB game took over three
hours to complete.[112] The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-
innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of
play with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box
more frequently.[110][111] Other leagues have experienced similar issues. In 2008, Nippon
Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding
decade's average of 3:18.[113]
In 2016, the average nine-inning playoff game in Major League baseball was 3 hours and 35
minutes. This was up 10 minutes from 2015 and 21 minutes from 2014.[114]
Individual focus
Although baseball is a team sport, individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure.
In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often
more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: "the pitcher and the
batter in a battle of wits".[115] Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each
12 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this
regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the
importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem
running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the
wicket for an hour or much more. There is no statistical equivalent in
Babe Ruth in 1920, the
cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal year he joined the New
responsibility in this area of play.[116] York Yankees
Similarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul fly
ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but
a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground.[120] A fence in foul territory that is close to the
outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther
away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the
corner. These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside-the-park
home run.[121] The surface of the field is also unregulated. While the adjacent image shows a
traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally
surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare.[122] Some fields
—including several in MLB—use an artificial surface, such as AstroTurf. Surface variations can have
a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning. Similarly,
13 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable
roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played.[123] While football and soccer players deal with
similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much
more standardized. The area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way
foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant.[124]
Organized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is
discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In the late 19th century, a former
cricket player, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, was responsible for the "development of
the box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average, and most of the
common statistics and tables used to describe baseball."[128] The statistical record is so central to
the game's "historical essence" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball.[128] In the
1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics,
initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a "tectonic shift in sports, as
intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics
lines."[129]
The Official Baseball Rules administered by MLB require the official scorer to categorize each
baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency. The score
report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records.[130]
General managers, managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make
strategic decisions.
14 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner's own efforts,
generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball
Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base
The basic pitching statistics include:[133]
15 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Putouts: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly
effects an out
Assists: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball
Errors: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort,
and the batting team benefits as a result
Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors
Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chances
Among the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics.
For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against. If
a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more
likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is
less likely to succeed.[135]
Sabermetrics
Sabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics
and analytical tools. The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves. The term
was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the
Society for American Baseball Research (SABR).[136]
The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two
batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting
average:[137]
On-base percentage measures a batter's ability to get on base. It is calculated by taking the
sum of the batter's successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and
dividing that by the batter's total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus
sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts.[138]
Slugging percentage measures a batter's ability to hit for power. It is calculated by taking the
batter's total bases (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home
run) and dividing that by the batter's at bats.[139]
Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use:
On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batter's overall ability. It is calculated by adding the
batter's on-base percentage and slugging percentage.[140]
Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) measures a pitcher's ability at preventing hitters from
reaching base. It is calculated exactly as its name suggests.[141]
Writing in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as America's national
religion.[142] In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long been "a unique
paragon of American culture"—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal.[143]
Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman
describes "how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba,
[and] how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan."[144] Since the early 1980s,
16 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Overall, baseball has a large following in the United States; a 2006 poll found that nearly half of
Americans are fans.[152] In the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseball's position compared to football
in the United States moved in contradictory directions. In 2008, MLB set a revenue record of
$6.5 billion, matching the NFL's revenue for the first time in decades.[153] A new MLB revenue
record of more than $10 billion was set in 2017.[154] On the other hand, the percentage of American
sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 9%, compared to pro football at
37%.[155] In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%.[156] Because there are
so many more major league games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance.[157] In
2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7%
off the record set the previous year.[82] The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell
by 6.6% to 73.4 million.[158] Eight years later, it dropped under 73 million.[159] Attendance at games
held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella set a record in 2008, with 43.3 million.[160] While
MLB games have not drawn the same national TV viewership as football games, MLB games are
dominant in teams' local markets and regularly lead all programs in primetime in their markets
during the summer.[161]
In Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport, combined revenue for the
twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and
Pacific Leagues, was estimated at $1 billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year was
approximately 20 million. While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent
and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant. There are concerns that
MLB's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home
17 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
A varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high
schools and colleges in the United States.[170] In 2015, nearly half a million high schoolers and over
34,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams.[171] By early in the 20th century,
intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is
immensely popular there.[172] The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the National High
School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring, and the even more important National High
School Baseball Championship in the summer—are broadcast around the country. The
tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-
capacity stadium where they are played.[173] In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state
system of physical education, which begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven are sent
to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the
national baseball team.[164]
In popular culture
Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere.
Dozens of English-language idioms have been derived from baseball; in particular, the game is the
source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms.[175] The first networked radio broadcasts in
North America were of the 1922 World Series: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play-
by-play from New York City's Polo Grounds on WJZ–Newark, New Jersey, which was connected by
wire to WGY–Schenectady, New York, and WBZ–Springfield, Massachusetts.[176] The baseball cap
has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries
where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom.[177]
Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment. One of the first major examples, Ernest
Thayer's poem "Casey at the Bat", appeared in 1888. A wry description of the failure of a star player
in what would now be called a "clutch situation", the poem became the source of vaudeville and
18 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Literary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring The American Tobacco
Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud's The Natural (the Company's line of baseball
source for the movie), Robert Coover's The Universal Baseball cards featured shortstop
Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop., and W. P. Kinsella's Honus Wagner of the
Pittsburgh Pirates from
Shoeless Joe (the source for Field of Dreams). Baseball's literary
1909 to 1911. In 2007, the
canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon; the card shown here sold for
columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Young, and Peter $2.8 million.[174]
Gammons; and the essays of Roger Angell. Among the celebrated
nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter's The Glory of
Their Times, Roger Kahn's The Boys of Summer, and Michael Lewis's Moneyball. The 1970
publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton's tell-all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning
point in the reporting of professional sports.[181]
Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms. Baseball cards were introduced in the
late 19th century as trade cards. A typical example featured an image of a baseball player on one
side and advertising for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they were produced widely as
promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies. The 1930s saw the popularization of
the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics
and biographical data. Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of
the much broader trading card industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-
sports-related fields.[182]
Modern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York
writer Daniel Okrent and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams
from the list of active MLB players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes
based on the players' latest real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became a
phenomenon. Now known more generically as fantasy baseball, it has inspired similar games based
on an array of different sports.[183] The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new
fantasy sports-related websites. By 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were
playing fantasy sports, spending $800 million on the hobby.[184] The burgeoning popularity of
19 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among
fans, only later among baseball professionals.[185]
Baseball portal
Baseball awards
Baseball clothing and equipment
Glossary of baseball
List of organized baseball leagues
Related sports
1. Sargis, Joe (August 3, 1981). "The World Games slipped out of town Monday, quietly..." (https://
www.upi.com/Archives/1981/08/03/The-World-Games-slipped-out-of-town-Monday-quietly/8794
365659200/) United Press International. Retrieved August 13, 2018.
2. "Official Rules of MLB, 2017" (http://mlb.mlb.com/documents/0/4/0/224919040/2017_Official_B
aseball_Rules_dbt69t59.pdf) (PDF). 2017.
3. League, Little. "Rules, Regulations, and Policies - Little League" (https://www.littleleague.org/pla
ying-rules/rules-regulations-policies/). Little League. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
20 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
21 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
10. Porterfield (2007), pp. 16–18, 25, 34, 35; "Official Rules/9.00—The Umpire (Rule 9.03a)" (http://
mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/09_the_umpire.pdf) (PDF). Major League
Baseball. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011323/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downl
oads/y2008/official_rules/09_the_umpire.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009.
Retrieved February 3, 2009.
11. "AP source: 7 umpires rotate at World Series" (https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2014
/09/29/ap-source-7-umpires-rotate-at-world-series/16437053/). USA Today. Associated Press.
September 29, 2014. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
12. "Official Rules/5.00—Putting the Ball in Play. Live Ball" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y200
8/official_rules/05_putting_ball_in_play.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20090205011326/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/05_
putting_ball_in_play.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3,
2009. "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.09)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/of
ficial_rules//06_the_batter.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://web.archive.org
/web/20090205011324/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.p
df) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009. "Official
Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.06, 10.12)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y20
08/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20090205082219/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_
the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3,
2009.
13. Epstein, David (August 8, 2011). "It's All About Anticipation: Ryan Howard and Rafael Nadal
don't have quicker reflexes than you do. They hit the fastest pitches and return the hardest
serves because they can see the future" (http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/
MAG1188950/index.htm). Sports Illustrated. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
14. "Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rul
es/02_definition_of_terms.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://web.archive.org
/web/20090205011321/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_
terms.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009. "Official
Rules/5.00—Putting the Ball in Play. Live Ball (Rule 5.09e)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/
y2008/official_rules/05_putting_ball_in_play.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20090205011326/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rule
s/05_putting_ball_in_play.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved
February 3, 2009. "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.05a)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downl
oads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20090205011324/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06
_the_batter.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
"Official Rules/7.00—The Runner (Rules 7.08d, 7.10a)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y20
08/official_rules/07_the_runner.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20090205011328/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/07_the_run
ner.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009. "Official
Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.07)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/officia
l_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20090205082219/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_officia
l_scorer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
15. "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.08b)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official
_rules//06_the_batter.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Retrieved April 12, 2012.
22 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
23 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
27. "The Fans Speak Out" [Baseball Digest staff], Baseball Digest, August 1999, pp. 9–10; "Official
Rules/3.00—Game Preliminaries (Rule 3.15)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official
_rules/03_game_preliminaries.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20090520205621/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/03_game_p
reliminaries.pdf) (PDF) from the original on May 20, 2009. Retrieved April 27, 2009.
28. Zoss (2004), p. 293; "Official Rules/9.00—The Umpire" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y20
08/official_rules/09_the_umpire.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20090224215915/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/09_the_u
mpire.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 18, 2009.
29. Bast, Andrew (July 18, 2008). "Southpaw's Revenge" (http://www.newsweek.com/id/146842).
Newsweek. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
30. See, e.g., Davis, Hank, Small-town Heroes: Images of Minor League Baseball (Univ. of Iowa
Press, 1997), p. 186.
31. Paine, Neil (August 13, 2015). "Game Theory Says R.A. Dickey Should Throw More
Knuckleballs" (https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/game-theory-says-r-a-dickey-should-throw-mo
re-knuckleballs/). FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
32. "The Mechanics Of A Breaking Pitch" (https://www.popularmechanics.com/adventure/sports/a3
207/1283161/). Popular Mechanics. December 6, 2004. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
33. Walsh, John (December 20, 2007). "Fastball, Slider, Change-up, Curveball—An Analysis" (htt
p://www.hardballtimes.com/main/article/fastball-slider-changeup-curveball-an-analysis/). The
Hardball Times. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
34. Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 192.
35. McCarver, Tim; Peary, Danny (2013). Tim McCarver's Baseball for Brain Surgeons and Other
Fans: Understanding and Interpreting the Game So You Can Watch It Like a Pro. Random
House. pp. 71, 272–273. ISBN 9780307831774.
36. "Balk" (http://m.mlb.com/glossary/rules/balk). Major League Baseball. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
37. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 126–132.
38. Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 45.
39. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 5, 46–47.
40. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 42–43, 47–48.
41. Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 186.
42. Block (2005), pp. 86, 87, 111–113, 118–121, 135–138, 144, 160; Rader (2008), p. 7.
43. "Rounders (English Game)" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/510872/rounders).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
44. Cohen, Claire (February 2, 2015). "Save rounders! It's the only sport for people who hate sport"
(https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/11384071/Rounders-Its-the-only-sport-for-peo
ple-who-hate-sport.html). The Telegraph. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
45. Block (2005), pp. 139, 140, 151, 164, 178, 179, et seq.; Hellier, Cathy. "Mr. Newbery's Little
Pretty Pocket-Book" (http://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume2/june04/pocket
book.cfm). Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. Retrieved April 12, 2008. See Wikisource edition
of A Little Pretty Pocket-Book.
46. "Why isn't baseball more popular in the UK?" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-2342590
7). BBC News. July 26, 2013. Retrieved July 26, 2013.
24 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
47. Block (2005), pp. 58, 160, 300, 307, 310; Miller, Doug (August 2, 2005). "Pittsfield: Small City,
Big Baseball Town" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060321043321/http://boston.redsox.mlb.co
m/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20050802&content_id=1154441&vkey=news_bos&fext=.j
sp&c_id=bos). Major League Baseball. Archived from the original (http://boston.redsox.mlb.com
/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20050802&content_id=1154441&vkey=news_bos&fext=.js
p&c_id=bos) on March 21, 2006. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
48. Block (2005), pp. 4–5, 11–15, 25, 33, 59–61, et. seq.
49. Giddens, David (June 15, 2017). "How Canada invented 'American' football, baseball,
basketball and hockey" (https://www.cbc.ca/sportslongform/entry/how-canada-invented-america
n-football-baseball-basketball-and-hockey). Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved
June 4, 2019.
50. Sullivan (1997), p. 292.
51. Sullivan (1997), pp. 32, 80, 95.
52. Tygiel (2000), pp. 8–14; Rader (2008), pp. 71–72.
53. Rader (2008), pp. 9, 10.
54. Tygiel (2000), p. 6.
55. Rader (2008), p. 27; Sullivan (1997), pp. 68, 69.
56. Sullivan (1997), pp. 83, 130, 243.
57. Sullivan (1997), p. 115.
58. Heaphy, Leslie, "Women Playing Hardball", in Baseball and Philosophy: Thinking Outside the
Batter's Box, ed. Eric Bronson (Open Court, 2004), pp. 246–256: p. 247.
59. Rader (2008), p. 71.
60. Sullivan (1997), pp. 243–246.
61. Rader (2008), p. 110; Zimbalist (2006), p. 22. See "National Agreement for the Government of
Professional Base Ball Clubs" (http://roadsidephotos.sabr.org/baseball/1903NatAgree.htm).
roadsidephotos.sabr.org. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
62. Sullivan (1997), pp. 13–16.
63. Powers (2003), pp. 39, 47, 48.
64. Burgos (2007), pp. 117, 118.
65. Sullivan (1997), p. 214.
66. Zoss (2004), p. 90.
67. Zoss (2004), p. 192.
68. Burk (2001), pp. 34–37.
69. "History of Little League" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070514082459/http://www.littleleague.
org/about/history.asp). Little League. Archived from the original (http://www.littleleague.org/abou
t/history.asp) on May 14, 2007. Retrieved June 26, 2007.
70. Lesko, Jeneane (2005). "League History" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110724213445/http://a
agpbl.org/index.cfm/pages/league/12/league-history). All-American Girls Professional Baseball
League Players Association. Archived from the original (http://www.aagpbl.org/index.cfm/pages/
league/12/league-history) on July 24, 2011. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
71. Burgos (2007), p. 158.
72. Burgos (2007), pp. 180, 191.
73. Powers (2003), p. 111.
25 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
74. "Baseball: White Sox and Fans Speak Same Language, with a Spanish Accent" (https://query.n
ytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E06E3DD113FF935A15753C1A9639C8B63). The New
York Times. October 26, 2005. Retrieved February 4, 2009.
75. Powers (2003), pp. 178, 180, 245.
76. Powers (2003), pp. 184–187, 191, 192, 280–282.
77. Simmons, Rob, "The Demand for Spectator Sports", in Handbook on the Economics of Sport,
ed. Wladimir Andreff and Stefan Szymanski (Edward Elgar, 2006), pp. 77–89.
78. Koppett (2004), pp. 376, 511.
79. Koppett (2004), p. 481.
80. Koppett (2004), p. 489.
81. Rader (2008), pp. 254, 271; Zimbalist (2007), pp. 195, 196; Verducci, Tom (May 29, 2012). "To
Cheat or Not to Cheat" (http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2012/magazine/05/29/baseball.steroids/
index.html). Sports Illustrated. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
82. "MLB Regular-Season Attendance Just Shy of Last Year's Record" (http://www.sportsbusinessd
aily.com/article/124427). Street & Smith's SportsBusiness Daily. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
83. "Minor League Baseball History" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090120173052/http://web.mino
rleaguebaseball.com/milb/history/). Minor League Baseball. Archived from the original (http://we
b.minorleaguebaseball.com/milb/history/) on January 20, 2009. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
84. Bjarkman (2004), p. 73; Burk (2001), p. 58.
85. "Canada: Baseball participation, popularity rising across the nation" (http://www.wbsc.org/canad
a-baseball-participation-popularity-rising-across-the-nation/). World Baseball Softball
Confederation. October 12, 2016. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
86. Flaherty, David H.; Manning, Frank E., eds. (1993). The Beaver Bites Back?: American Popular
Culture in Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 9780773511200.
87. Riess, Steven A. (2015). Sports in America from Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century: An
Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 172, 656–657. ISBN 9781317459477.
88. Terry (1909), p. 506.
89. Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv.
90. Bjarkman (2004), pp. 356, 123, 137, xxiv, 11, 233; Gmelch (2006), p. 296.
91. McNeil (2000), p. 113.
92. Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv, xxv; Burgos (2007), p. 46.
93. Bjarkman (2004), pp. 362, 368; Gmelch (2006), pp. 100, 75, 59.
94. Bjarkman (2004), pp. xv.
95. Mayo, Jonathan (January 28, 2009). "Perspective: Baseball in the Holy Land" (http://web.minorl
eaguebaseball.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090127&content_id=501366&vkey=news_milb&fe
xt=.jsp). Minor League Baseball. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090131063101/http://
web.minorleaguebaseball.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090127&content_id=501366&vkey=ne
ws_milb&fext=.jsp) from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved February 5, 2009.
96. "International Baseball Federation (Confederations/Member Federations)" (http://www.ibaf.org/).
International Baseball Federation. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090306131244/htt
p://www.ibaf.org/) from the original on March 6, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
97. Seymour Mills, Dorothy (2009). Chasing Baseball: Our Obsession with its History, Numbers,
People and Places. McFarland & Company. pp. 169–170. ISBN 9780786455881.
98. "Fewer Sports for London Olympics" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_20
12/4658925.stm). BBC News. July 8, 2005. Retrieved September 16, 2008.
26 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
27 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
116. Morton, Richard, "Baseball in England", Badminton Magazine, August 1896, pp. 157–158: "The
scoring is one of the most interesting features in this new importation from America [baseball].
Every detail of play is recorded, and a man's mistakes are tabulated as well as his successes...
A line in a cricket score may read, 'Lockwood, caught Stoddart, bowled J. T. Hearne; 30.'...
[T]here is so much that is left out! There is no mention of the fact that O'Brien missed Lockwood
before he had scored, and that somebody else failed to take a chance when his score was ten.
These are items that go to make cricket history; but there is no record of them in the analysis...
The man who catches a ball is thought worthy of mention, but the man who muffs one does not
suffer by publicity."
117. "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game. (Rule 1.04a)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/
y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official
_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved
February 2, 2009.
118. Nightengale, Bob (August 20, 2008). "No. 8: Out in Left Field in Houston's Crawford Boxes" (htt
ps://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2008-08-20-bestseats-minutemaid_N.htm). USA Today.
Retrieved February 17, 2009.
119. Powers (2003), p. 85.
120. Powers (2003), p. 219.
121. Puhalla, Krans, and Goatley (2003), p. 198; Shaikin, Bill (May 27, 2006). "Guerrero Becomes
Mr. Inside" (http://articles.latimes.com/2006/may/27/sports/sp-angels27). Los Angeles Times.
Retrieved February 17, 2009.
122. "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game. (Rule 1.04)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y
2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_r
ules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved
February 2, 2009.
123. Shaikin, Bill (October 8, 2002). "No Fly Ball Routine in Dome" (http://articles.latimes.com/2002/o
ct/08/sports/sp-angnote8). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
124. Puhalla, Krans, and Goatley (2003), p. 207.
125. Keri (2007), pp. 295–301.
126. Gilbert, Steve (September 30, 2008). "Wrigley's Winds Don't Rattle Lowe" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20081201003317/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080930&content_id=3575
106&vkey=ps2008news&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb). Major League Baseball. Archived from the
original (http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080930&content_id=3575106) on
December 1, 2008. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
127. Sheinin, Dave (March 26, 2008). "After Move, a Breaking In Process" (https://www.washingtonp
ost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/24/AR2008032402798.html). The Washington Post.
Retrieved February 17, 2009. See also Powers (2003), p. 85.
128. Tygiel (2000), p. 16.
129. Schwarz (2004), p. 50.
130. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rul
es/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_s
corer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
28 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
131. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.02a, 10.04, 10.21b)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/ml
b/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y20
08/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009.
Retrieved February 22, 2009.
132. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.07)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y20
08/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_
the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22,
2009.
133. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.15, 10.17, 10.19, 10.21a, 10.21e)" (http://m
lb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League
Baseball. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downl
oads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 24,
2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
134. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.09, 10.10, 10.12, 10.21d)" (http://mlb.mlb.c
om/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League
Baseball. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downl
oads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 24,
2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
135. See, e.g., Albert, Jim, and Jay Bennett, "Situational Effects", ch. 4 in Curve Ball: Baseball,
Statistics, and the Role of Chance in the Game, 2d ed. (Springer, 2003), pp. 71–110.
136. Gray, Scott, The Mind of Bill James: How a Complete Outsider Changed Baseball (Doubleday,
2006), p. ix.
137. Guzzo (2007), pp. 20–21, 67; Schwarz (2004), p. 233; Lewis (2003), p. 127.
138. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.21f)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y20
08/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_
the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22,
2009.
139. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.21c)" (http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2
008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10
_the_official_scorer.pdf) (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22,
2009.
140. Guzzo (2007), pp. 22, 67, 140; Schwarz (2004), p. 233.
141. Guzzo (2007), pp. 140–141.
142. Cohen, Morris Raphael, "Baseball as a National Religion" (1919), in Cohen, The Faith of a
Liberal (Transaction, 1993 [1946]), pp. 334–336: p. 334.
143. Stark, Jayson (February 8, 2009). "A-Rod Has Destroyed Game's History" (http://sports.espn.g
o.com/mlb/columns/story?columnist=stark_jayson&id=3892788). ESPN.com. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20090210124048/http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/columns/story?columnist
=stark_jayson&id=3892788) from the original on February 10, 2009. Retrieved February 8,
2009.
144. Bjarkman (2004), p. xix.
145. Bjarkman (2004), pp. 159–165.
29 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
146. "Opening Day Rosters Feature 230 Players Born Outside the U.S." (https://www.mlb.com/news/
opening-day-rosters-feature-230-players-born-outside-the-us/c-116591920) Major League
Baseball. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
147. Bjarkman (2004), p. 487.
148. Castillo, Jorge (January 16, 2012). "Puerto Rico Traces Baseball's Slide to the Draft" (https://w
ww.nytimes.com/2012/01/17/sports/baseball/puerto-rico-traces-decline-in-prospects-to-inclusion
-in-the-baseball-draft.html). The New York Times. Retrieved January 25, 2012.
149. Hernandez, Dylan (March 21, 2017). "World Baseball Classic keeps sport relevant in Japan" (ht
tp://www.latimes.com/sports/la-sp-us-japan-hernandez-20170321-story.html). Los Angeles
Times. Retrieved April 26, 2018.
150. Riess (1991), pp. 69–71.
151. Riess (1991), pp. 247–248.
152. Jones, Jeffrey M. (April 4, 2006). "Nearly Half of Americans are Baseball Fans" (http://news.gall
up.com/poll/22240/nearly-half-americans-baseball-fans.aspx). Gallup. Retrieved May 31, 2018.
153. Kercheval, Nancy (October 1, 2008). "Major League Baseball Revenue Reaches Record,
Attendance Falls" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110629051650/http://www.bloomberg.com/ap
ps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=asFEMjfiKA5s). Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original (htt
ps://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=asFEMjfiKA5s) on June 29, 2011.
Retrieved February 8, 2009. Battista, Judy (December 9, 2008). "Feeling Pinch, N.F.L. Will Cut
About 150 Jobs" (https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/sports/football/10nfl.html). The New
York Times. Retrieved February 8, 2009. Haudricourt, Tom (October 20, 2007). "Bases Loaded"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20090706194429/http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brewers/2940537
4.html). Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original (http://www.jsonline.com/sports/
brewers/29405374.html) on July 6, 2009. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
154. "Report: MLB revenues exceed $10 billion for the first time" (https://www.usatoday.com/story/sp
orts/mlb/2017/11/22/mlb-revenues-exceed-10-billion/890041001/). USA Today. November 22,
2017. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
155. Bonesteel, Matt (January 10, 2018). "Despite all the bad news, poll shows football still is
America's favorite sport by a wide margin" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/w
p/2018/01/10/despite-all-the-bad-news-poll-shows-football-still-is-americas-favorite-sport-by-a-
wide-margin/). The Washington Post. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
156. "Professional Football Continues Dominance over Baseball as America's Favorite Sport" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20110110073300/http://www.allbusiness.com/sports-recreation/sports-
games-outdoor/11762627-1.html). Business Wire. AllBusiness. January 27, 2009. Archived
from the original (https://www.allbusiness.com/sports-recreation/sports-games-outdoor/1176262
7-1.html) on January 10, 2011. Retrieved September 15, 2010.
157. McGinty, Jo Craven (April 10, 2015). "Popularity Contest: Baseball vs. Football" (https://www.ws
j.com/articles/popularity-contest-baseball-vs-football-1428679449). The Wall Street Journal.
Retrieved May 18, 2018.
158. Brown, Maury (February 25, 2010). "MLB Sees a Record $6.6 Billion in Revenues for 2009" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20101027080204/http://bizofbaseball.com/index.php?option=com_co
ntent&view=article&id=4124%3Amlb-sees-a-record-66-billion-in-revenues-for-2009&catid=30%
3Amlb-news&Itemid=42). Biz of Baseball. Archived from the original (http://www.bizofbaseball.c
om/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4124:mlb-sees-a-record-66-billion-in-reve
nues-for-2009&catid=30:mlb-news&Itemid=42) on October 27, 2010. Retrieved September 17,
2010.
30 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
159. Jeff Passan (April 16, 2018). "10 Degrees: MLB's enormous attendance drop due to bad
weather or something far worse for baseball?" (https://sports.yahoo.com/10-degrees-mlbs-enor
mous-attendance-drop-due-bad-weather-something-far-worse-baseball-152051024.html).
Yahoo Sports. Retrieved June 16, 2018.
160. "Minor League attendance tops 42.5 million" (https://www.milb.com/milb/news/minor-league-att
endance-tops-425-million/c-148297748). Minor League Baseball. September 9, 2015. Retrieved
June 16, 2018.
161. Baseball Returns As Playoff Format Debate, Houston Astros Cheating Scandal Raise
Questions About Future Of ESPN, Turner TV Rights (https://deadline.com/2020/02/baseball-ho
uston-astros-playoff-format-changes-tv-rights-1202859213/)
162. Whiting, Robert (April 11, 2007). "Is the MLB Destroying Japan's National Pastime?" (http://ww
w.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2007/04/11/baseball/is-the-mlb-destroying-japans-national-pastime/).
The Japan Times. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
163. González Echevarría (2001), pp. 76, 133, 278–279, 352.
164. Weissert, Will (March 5, 2009). "Cubans' Baseball Dreams Take Root on Rocky Fields" (https://
www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2009-03-05-3277668016_x.htm). USA Today. Associated
Press. Retrieved April 28, 2009.
165. González Echevarría (2001), p. 366.
166. "Little League International General Media Guide 2018" (https://ll-production-uploads.s3.amazo
naws.com/uploads/2017/12/General-Media-Guide-1.pdf) (PDF). Little League Baseball. 2018.
p. 3. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
167. Fisher, Mark (April 5, 2015). "Baseball is struggling to hook kids – and risks losing fans to other
sports" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/nationals/baseballs-trouble-with-the-youth-curv
e--and-what-that-means-for-the-game/2015/04/05/2da36dca-d7e8-11e4-8103-fa84725dbf9d_st
ory.html). The Washington Post. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
168. "History of the Babe Ruth League Program" (https://www.baberuthleague.org/history.aspx).
Babe Ruth League Online. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
169. Frommer, Frederic J (April 6, 2009). "Baseball to Add Women to Olympic Bid" (https://www.usat
oday.com/sports/olympics/2009-04-06-2437047144_x.htm). USA Today. Associated Press.
Retrieved April 29, 2009.
170. Bradford, Marcia (2008). "Expanding Opportunities on the Ball Fields" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20090209193735/http://www.sportseventsmagazine.com/article/baseballsoftball/207/).
SportsEvents Magazine. Archived from the original (http://www.sportseventsmagazine.com/artic
le/baseballsoftball/207/) on February 9, 2009. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
171. "Estimated probability of competing in college athletics" (https://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/
research/estimated-probability-competing-college-athletics). National Collegiate Athletic
Association. March 2, 2015. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
172. Bjarkman (2004), p. xxiv; Gmelch (2006), pp. 23, 53.
173. Ellsesser, Stephen (August 11, 2006). "Summer Tournament Is Big in Japan" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20091014063836/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20060810&content_id=1
602960). Major League Baseball. Archived from the original (http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.js
p?ymd=20060810&content_id=1602960) on October 14, 2009. Retrieved April 28, 2009.
174. "Honus Wagner Card Sells for Record $2.8 Million" (http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?i
d=3007893). ESPN. Associated Press. September 6, 2007. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
175. Kte'pi (2009), p. 66.
176. Rudel (2008), pp. 145–146.
31 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
177. Lam, Andrew (July 6, 2007). "Too Much Self Esteem Spoils Your Child" (http://www.sfgate.com/
opinion/openforum/article/Too-much-self-esteem-spoils-your-child-2552521.php). New America
Media. Retrieved May 2, 2009. "Happy 50th, Baseball Caps" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_new
s/magazine/3660333.stm). BBC News. April 27, 2004. Retrieved May 2, 2009.
178. "AFI 10 Top 10—Top 10 Sports" (http://www.afi.com/10top10/sports.html). American Film
Institute. June 17, 2008. Retrieved May 2, 2009.
179. Zoss (2004), pp. 373–374.
180. "The Best of the Century" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,36533,00.html).
Time. December 26, 1999. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090504145236/http://www.t
ime.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C36533%2C00.html) from the original on May 4,
2009. Retrieved May 2, 2009.
181. Neyer, Rob (June 15, 2000). " 'Ball Four' Changed Sports and Books" (http://static.espn.go.com
/mlb/ballfour/neyer.html). ESPN.com. Retrieved May 12, 2009.
182. Zoss (2004), pp. 16–25.
183. Zoss (2004), pp. 27–31.
184. "Fantasy Sports Industry Grows to an $800 Million Industry with 29.9 Million Players" (http://ww
w.prweb.com/releases/2008/07/prweb1084994.htm). PRWeb. July 10, 2008. Retrieved
October 25, 2011.
185. Lewis (2003), pp. 86–88.
Bjarkman, Peter C. (2004). Diamonds Around the Globe: The Encyclopedia of International
Baseball. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-32268-6. OCLC 58806121 (https://www.worldcat.org/ocl
c/58806121).
Block, David (2005). Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (https://a
rchive.org/details/baseballbeforewe00davi). University of Nebraska Press.
ISBN 978-0-8032-6255-3. OCLC 70261798 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70261798).
Burgos, Adrian (2007). Playing America's Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line (https://a
rchive.org/details/playingamericasg00burg). University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-25143-4. OCLC 81150202 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/81150202).
Burk, Robert F. (2001). Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920.
University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4961-3. OCLC 28183874 (https://www.wo
rldcat.org/oclc/28183874).
Charlton, James (ed.) (1991). The Baseball Chronology: The Complete History of the Most
Important Events in the Game of Baseball. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-523971-5.
OCLC 22704314 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22704314).
Clarke, William Jones & Fredrick Thomas Dawson (1915). Baseball: Individual Play and Team
Play in Detail (https://archive.org/details/baseballindivid00dawsgoog). Charles Scribner's Sons.
OCLC 2781766 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2781766).
Gmelch, George (2006). Baseball Without Borders: The International Pastime. University of
Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7125-8. OCLC 64594333 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/645
94333).
González Echevarría, Roberto (2001). The Pride of Havana: A History of Cuban Baseball.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514605-9. OCLC 46601626 (https://www.worldcat.org/
oclc/46601626).
32 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Guttmann, Allen (2007). Sports: The First Five Millennia. University of Massachusetts Press.
ISBN 978-1-55849-610-1. OCLC 5912442808 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5912442808).
Guzzo, Glenn (2007). The New Ballgame: Baseball Statistics for the Casual Fan. ACTA.
ISBN 978-0-87946-318-2. OCLC 123083947 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123083947).
Keri, Jonah (ed.) (2007). Baseball Between the Numbers: Why Everything You Know About the
Game Is Wrong. Basic. ISBN 978-0-465-00547-5. OCLC 77795904 (https://www.worldcat.org/o
clc/77795904).
Koppett, Leonard (2004). Koppett's Concise History of Major League Baseball. Carroll & Graf.
ISBN 978-0-7867-1286-1. OCLC 54674804 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54674804).
Kte'pi, Bill (2009). "Baseball (Amateur)". In Rodney Carlisle (ed.). Encyclopedia of Play in
Today's Society, Volume 1. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4129-6670-2. OCLC 251215353 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/oclc/251215353).
Lewis, Michael M. (2003). Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game. W. W. Norton.
ISBN 978-0-393-32481-5. OCLC 54896532 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54896532).
Mahony, Phillip (2014). Baseball Explained (https://web.archive.org/web/20140813034018/htt
p://www.baseballexplained.com/). McFarland Books. ISBN 978-0-7864-7964-1. Archived from
the original (http://www.baseballexplained.com) on August 13, 2014.
Mandelbaum, Michael (2005). The Meaning of Sports: Why Americans Watch Baseball,
Football, and Basketball and What They See When They Do (https://archive.org/details/meanin
gofsportsw0000mand). PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-330-2. OCLC 55539339 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/55539339).
McNeil, William (2000). Baseball's Other All-Stars: The Greatest Players from the Negro
Leagues, the Japanese Leagues, the Mexican League, and the Pre-1960 Winter Leagues in
Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic (https://archive.org/details/baseballsotheral000
0mcne). McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-0784-2. OCLC 42976826 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/
42976826).
Morris, Peter (2007). Level Playing Fields: How the Groundskeeping Murphy Brothers Shaped
Baseball. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1110-0. OCLC 70884952 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/oclc/70884952).
Porterfield, Jason (2007). Baseball: Rules, Tips, Strategy, and Safety. Rosen.
ISBN 978-1-4042-0991-6. OCLC 67773742 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/67773742).
Powers, Albert Theodore (2003). The Business of Baseball. McFarland.
ISBN 978-0-7864-1426-0. OCLC 50866929 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50866929).
Puhalla, Jim, Jeff Krans, and Mike Goatley (2003). Baseball and Softball Fields: Design,
Construction, Renovation, and Maintenance. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-44793-1.
OCLC 50959054 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50959054).
Rader, Benjamin G. (2008). Baseball: A History of America's Game (3rd ed.). University of
Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07550-6. OCLC 176980876 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1769
80876).
Riess, Steven A. (1991). City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of
Sports. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06216-2. OCLC 23739530 (https://www.wor
ldcat.org/oclc/23739530).
Rudel, Anthony J. (2008). Hello, Everybody!: The Dawn of American Radio (https://archive.org/
details/helloeverybodyd00rude). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-15-101275-6. OCLC 192042215
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/192042215).
Schwarz, Alan (2004). The Numbers Game: Baseball's Lifelong Fascination with Statistics.
Thomas Dunne. ISBN 978-0-312-32222-9. OCLC 54692908 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/546
92908).
33 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Stallings, Jack; Bob Bennett, eds. (2003). Baseball Strategies: Your Guide to the Game Within
the Game (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780736042185). American Baseball Coaches
Association/Human Kinetics. ISBN 978-0-7360-4218-5. OCLC 50203866 (https://www.worldcat.
org/oclc/50203866).
Sullivan, Dean (ed.) (1997). Early Innings: A Documentary History of Baseball, 1825–1908 (http
s://archive.org/details/earlyinningsdocu00sull). University of Nebraska Press.
ISBN 978-0-8032-9244-4. OCLC 36258074 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36258074).
Terry, Thomas Philip (1911). Terry's Mexico: Handbook for Travellers (2nd rev. ed.). Gay and
Hancock, Houghton Mifflin, and Sonora News. OCLC 7587420 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7
587420).
Thurston, Bill (2000). Coaching Youth Baseball: A Baffled Parents Guide (https://archive.org/det
ails/baffledparentsgu0000thur). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-135822-4. OCLC 43031493 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43031493).
Tygiel, Jules (2000). Past Time: Baseball as History (https://archive.org/details/pasttimebaseball
0000tygi). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508958-5. OCLC 42290019 (https://www.wo
rldcat.org/oclc/42290019).
Votano, Paul (2013). Stand and Deliver: A History of Pinch-Hitting. McFarland.
ISBN 978-0-7864-1588-5. OCLC 52047315 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52047315).
Zimbalist, Andrew (2007). In the Best Interests of Baseball?: The Revolutionary Reign of Bud
Selig (https://archive.org/details/inbestinterestso00andr). John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-0-470-12824-4. OCLC 62796332 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62796332).
Zoss, Joel (2004). Diamonds in the Rough: The Untold History of Baseball (https://archive.org/d
etails/diamondsinroughu0000zoss). University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-9920-7.
OCLC 54611393 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54611393).
Dickson, Paul. The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, 3d ed. (W. W. Norton, 2009).
ISBN 0-393-06681-9
Fitts, Robert K. Remembering Japanese Baseball: An Oral History of the Game (Southern
Illinois University Press, 2005). ISBN 0-8093-2629-9
Gillette, Gary, and Pete Palmer (eds.). The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia, 5th ed. (Sterling,
2008). ISBN 1-4027-6051-5
Peterson, Robert. Only the Ball was White: A History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black
Professional Teams (Oxford University Press, 1992 [1970]). ISBN 0-19-507637-0
Reaves, Joseph A. Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia (Bison, 2004).
ISBN 0-8032-3943-2
Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. Baseball: An Illustrated History (Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).
ISBN 0-679-40459-7
34 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03
Baseball - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
35 of 35 06/03/2020, 19:03