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Revised Form 3 Science Notes - Sithole
Revised Form 3 Science Notes - Sithole
Communication is any activity or process that results in information being transferred from one
person to another.
Media refers to the means of communication, like radio, computers, television, books,
magazines, newspapers, internet, etc.
Format is the way or method in which information is communicated or presented in the various
media.
Having unlimited access to information has brought many benefits to society. However, there are
also some negative impacts of having unlimited access to information.
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Cultural impact of global communication
Culture is a complicated concept that refers to the way in which a society conducts itself in terms
of its traditions, language, religion, music, writings, art, food and law.
2.Hardware technician
Hardware technicians are people who help to solve problems that people are having with their
computers.
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TOPIC 2: PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
POLLUTION
Pollution is when the environment becomes contaminated (made dirty or unhealthy) by harmful
substances or products as a result of human activities.
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or activity -Tall buildings processes, appearance of an
that has a -Electricity development, area and may stop
negative pylons mining and tourists from
impact on the -Advertising human visiting.
appearance of boards settlement
the -Litter
environment.
Light pollution Any source of Artificial lighting Car headlights, -Can disturb humans
unnatural in cities and street lights, and animals and
light in an towns. illumination of affect concentration
environment. buildings and and sleep.
domestic -Prevents the stars
lightning. and planets from
being visible at
night.
Radio-active The release of -Uranium Waste from Radioactive
pollution radioactive -Plutonium nuclear power materials are toxic
substances. Radon gas stations, gas and can cause
emissions from damage to living
rock, waste things resulting in
from medical increased rates of
and scientific cancer and disease.
activities.
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Controlling Lad Pollution
*Recycling solid waste and litter
*Producing and using biodegradable plastics
*Recycling litter to manufacture new products
*Promoting biogas digesters that produce fuel from manure and other waste
*Making modernized landfills that can process waste instead of just burying the waste
*Using organic litter to make compost heaps
Air
Air pollution can affect your health in the short-term and the long-term
In the short-term, air pollution can cause irritation to the eyes, nose and throat. This can lead to
the development of respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. People may also
experience headaches, nausea and allergic reactions. This can also cause problems for people
who have existing medical problems such as asthma.
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The long term health effects of air pollution can include lung and heart diseases as well as
damage to the brain, nerves, liver or kidneys. It can also cause damage to the lungs of children
and make medical conditions in the elderly worse.
Water
Water that is contaminated with sewage or other decaying organic matter can lead to the spread
of some serious water borne diseases which are caused mainly by bacteria and virus, e.g.
typhoid, cholera, dysentery and hepatitis.
Atoms are the small particles that are the basic building blocks of matter.
A molecule is a particle that is made up of two or more atoms that are bonded together
chemically.
Atom Molecule
There are no chemical bonds in The atom in molecules are joined together by chemical
atoms bonds
An atom has only one nucleus A molecule has more than one nucleus
It is impossible to break an atom You can use chemicals to break a molecule into smaller
into smaller pieces by chemical and smaller pieces until eventually the pieces you are left
means with are the individual atoms that made up the original
molecule
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Elements
An element is matter that is made up of only one type of atom. An element cannot be broken
down to form a different type of matter.
All elements have a name and are symbolized using only one letter or two first letters of its
name.
Element Symbol
Hydrogen H
Helium He
Li
Be
Boron
C
N
Oxygen O
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Periodic Table
There are over 100 elements known by scientists, e.g. Hydrogen, Boron, Oxygen.
Each box of the table corresponds to a single element. For example, the box corresponding to the
element hydrogen looks like this:
In the periodic table there is a group number which shows the number of electrons in the
outermost shell.
There is also a period number which shows the number of shells in an atom.
The above element (hydrogen) is in group 1 and period 1 this means that it has 1 shell which
contains 1 electron.
[NB: The first shell of an atom takes 2 electrons to be stable (full). The second and any other
shell take 8 electrons to be stable (full).]
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The Periodic Trends
A trend is a pattern that let us group things together based on the similarities between objects.
A MIXTURE is a substance that is formed by physically mixing together two or more different
substances. The substances that make up a mixture (the constituents) do not combined together
chemically, e.g. solutions, suspensions, alloys, colloids
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BOILING AND MELTING POINT OF PURE SUBSTANCES
BOILING POINT – This is a specific temperature at which liquid changes to a gas. At this
point there is no gain nor loss of energy.
MELTING POINT – This is a specific temperature at which solid changes to liquid. At this
point there is no gain nor loss of energy since the heat supplied is used to break bonds of a solid
into liquid bonds.
Melting and boiling points of some common substances at standard pressure
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Purification techniques – It is simply a method of separating a mixture into its different
components using physical means / properties.
There are many methods of separating mixtures. It depends on the mixture we have.
1. Separating an insoluble solid from a liquid
a) Decantation – allow solid to settle down (sedimentation) and then pour out (decant)
the liquid carefully eg soil particles and water / water and oil.
b) Filtration – is separation of insoluble substance from the solvent. The liquid that
passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate. The solid that is trapped in the
filter paper is known as the residue eg sand and water solution.
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c) Magnetism – Separating a solid from a solid using a magnet eg iron fillings and
sulphur.
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b) Fractional distillation – The constituents of liquid mixtures are known as fractions
and so, if distillation is used to separate and purify the different fractions from each
other, the process is known as fraction distillation. It works as the simple distillation
but it have a long tube filled with glass beads which helps to separate the two liquids
better. The thermometer used to measure the boiling point of the liquid being
collected. The liquid with a lower boiling point (eg alcohol at 78 C) boils first and it
is collected first and then change the beaker to collect another distillate. The flask is
then heated more strongly to collect the liquid with the higher boiling point (water 97
C). In a way the liquid mixture is divided into two fractions in separate beakers
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Interpret a simple chromatogram
Alcohol (ethanol) will dissolve the ink in a dot and carried it up the strip. As this continued, the
ink spot separated out into different colours. The way in which this happens is that pen ink is a
mixture of different molecules with different colours. These molecules also have different
physical characteristics (such as size and solubility) and so they travel at different speeds through
the paper when they are pulled along the strip of filter paper by the solvent (ethanol).
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Filtration – coffee machine filter ground coffee beans from the liquid coffee, water purification(
filter insoluble particles of soil and organic matter that give drinking water unpleasant taste and
dirty appearance. Some of these particles can be removed from the water by sedimentation).
Distillation-fermented solution is used to brew alcohol( yeast is added to sugar solution and
allowed to ferment for a week or so. A mixture of water and alcohol is produced. The alcohol is
separated from the mixture by fractional distillation to produce wine, whisky, rum, brandy and
vodka).
Purification of crude oil
Crude oil is a mixture of different types of liquid chemicals known as hydrocarbons. These
hydrocarbons have different physical and chemical properties, and so they have different uses, eg
uses of fuels such as petrol and jet fuel, whereas others are used for lubrication and making tar
roads
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Chromatography –used in forensic medicine to identify samples of unknown substances that
are associated with a crime(chemicals, drugs and even ink samples)
-used in sport to detect banned drugs (anabolic steroids and stimulants) in blood and urine
samples obtained from athletes. This prevents athletes from using these substances to gain an
unfair advantage.
-Used in the pharmaceutical industry to control the quality of the chemicals in medicines and to
identify and characterize potential new drugs.
Base – are chemicals that react with the hydrogen ions produced by acids (proton
acceptors). Bases are chemicals that are oxides and hydroxides of metals.
e.gNaOH
DEFINATION OF pH
Scientist use a measurement called pH to measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution in water
is.
The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14.
Solutions that fall at 1 on the scale are strongly acidic and those that reach 14 on the scale are
strongly alkaline.
A pH of 7 indicates that a solution is neutral.
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THE PROPERTIES OF STRONG ACIDS AND WEAK ACIDS
Strong acids
Strong acids include three common laboratory acids; sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid
and nitric acid.
Strong acids donate more hydrogen ions H+ to the solution than a weak acid.
Strong acids react rapidly with metals ,carbonates alkalis and metal oxides
Weak acids
Naturally occurring acids are usually weak acids. Examples; tartaric acid, citric acid
methanoic acid, ethanoic acid and carbonic acid.
Weak acids react slowly with metals ,carbonates alkalis and metal oxides
Strong alkalis
If a strong alkali is added to water it is completely ionised and forms may hydroxyl
(OH-)ions
Strong alkalis react more vigorously than weak alkalis do
Weak alkalis
Partially ionised in water to form a few hydroxyl ions when dissolved in water
BASE ALKALI
A base is a substance that react with an acid Is a base that is soluble in water
and produces salt and water only
EXAMPLES : Sodium hydroxide
Magnesium oxide Calcium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide Ammonia solution
Calcium hydroxide Copper hydroxide
Ammonia solution
Copper hydroxide
Copper (II)oxide
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For example:
Bases are a group of chemicals that have opposite properties to acids. The name of a base usually
starts with the name of a metal and ends in oxide/hydroxide
NOTE: ALL ALKALIS ARE BASES BUT NOT ALL BASES ARE ALKALIS
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APPLICATIONS OF ACID – BASE REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE
A gas is produced-hydrogen
Salt is produced
Heat energy was produced –felt warmth on the test tube
Examples:
Acids are used to create patterns on metals surfaces for decoration, this is called etching
An acid react with a metal (lead) in car batteries –these reactions set up an electrical
charge difference between the positive and negative terminals of the battery. This is what
allows electrical current to flow, which can then be used to start the car.
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In reality lead and copper do react with acid but slowly than the other metals. This is because
a chemical property of copper and lead is that they are not as reactive as other metals.
Burning splint is used to test for hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas produces a pop sound.
A gas is produced
Water produced
Salt produced
Heat energy produced
General word equation
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EXAMPLES OF CARBONATES:
CALCIUM CARBONATE-is a common chemical found in rocks such as marble and eggshells
Carbonates such as magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are another class of
chemicals that are used in antacids medicines; the carbonates relieve indigestion by
reacting with the stomach acid to produce water and harmless salt and carbon dioxide.
Carbonates are also used in fire extinguishers. When pulling the trigger of the fire
extinguisher causes sodium carbonate and sulphuric acid to mix together. The reaction
produce large amounts of carbon dioxide gas and water that are ejected from the
container .These are what extinguish the fire. These type of fire extinguishers are called
soda –acid extinguishers.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
When substances combine to form different materials, a chemical reaction /chemical change
takes place.
A+B C+ D
Reactants products
EXOTHERMIC REACTION –reactions which give out heat once they get going
1. Precipitation method
2. Synthesis – it involves building up complex substances such as compounds from simpler
substances ,usually elements(synthesis means putting things together)Examples:
combustion of magnesium and coal
Magnesium +Oxygen ------------------ Magnesium Oxide
Carbon + Oxygen ----------------------- Carbon dioxide
3. Neutralisation reaction (reaction of acid and alkali)
4. Acid + carbonate
5. Acid + metal
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NAMING OF SALTS
The name of the salt depend on the acid used, the metal or carbonate
When a chemical reaction takes place, there are often visible signs that something is happening.
The common signs are:
Heat is produced
A flame /glowing is observed
Change in colour
Change in state of matter
Production of bubbles
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VARIABLES THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION
Temperature
Particles of size of solid reactants
Concentration of liquids reactants
Presence of catalyst
Increase the pressure of reactants
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APPLICATION OF RATE OF REACTION I EVERYDAY LIFE
Washing clothes in hot water removes the dirt faster than in cold water
Milk turns sour faster when left outside on a warm sunny day than when kept in the
fridge
Yeast makes the bread rise faster when dough is placed in a warm place
Coarse salt dissolves slowly than fine salt
Catalyst -Use of jik, and other stain removers works fast in removing dirt
Making soap
A large pot
Caustic soda /sodium hydroxide
Cold water
Animal fat such as lard or vegetable oil such as olive oil
Mixing pots ,bowls and stirring spoons
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MAKING SOAP IN THE LABORATORY
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WRITE THE WORD EQUATION THAT SUMMARISES THE REACTION OF SOAP
PRODUCTION
Permanent hardness in water is caused by the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium
and magnesium. This type of water can be softened chemically by the use of sodium carbonate
(washing soda)
Hard water is not harmful to our health; however the concentration of minerals in hard water can
cause other problems. Some of the problems associated with hard water include the following:
It forms fur/scale in kettles or other water boilers which can be removed by the use of
vinegar
Forms scum rather than lather/foam, this happens because the calcium and magnesium
ions in hard water react with fatty acids in the soap and form an insoluble, greyish
layer .this is seen floating on the surface of bath water.
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Temporary hardness contains salts of calcium hydrogen carbonates. This type of water can be
softened by boiling
Metals are:
Some metals react very rapidly (vigorously) with other chemicals and these are known as
reactive metals .Examples sodium, potassium and magnesium
Metals react with water to produce metal hydroxide ad hydrogen
METAL + WATER METAL HYDROXIDE +HYDROGEN
Other metals are unreactive with other substances .for example gold, copper and
platinum
METALS
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NON – METALS
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THE CHEMICAL PROCESS OF RUSTING
OXIDATION REACTIONS
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HOW RUSTING OCCURS
PREVETING RUSTING
1. Painting
2. Applying oil/grease
3. Covering with plastic
4. Metal plating-this is when iron /steel is covered with a thin layer of another metal that
does not corrode easily. The thin metal coating is applied to iron /steel by the process of
electroplating which is a type of electrolysis. Metals that are used fro electro plating
are ;tin, chromium ad silver
5. Galvanising-this is covering /coating iron with zinc metal. The surface of zinc metal
oxidises ad forms zinc oxide which is tough and does not let water in. Roofing sheets are
usually galvanised
6. Using a sacrificial metal
7. Adding other metals to iron /steel
CARBON
Define allotrope
List allotropes of carbon
State properties of carbon allotropes
Relate the structure of carbon allotropes to their uses
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Carbon is not the only element which exist as allotropes ;sulphur, oxygen and phosphorus
also exist
Even though allotropes of an element are made up the same atom, they will often have
different physical and chemical properties . For example allotropes of phosphorus are
yellow/white, red, violet and black in colour
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Carbon is an element with a high number of allotropes and scientists have identified eight
different allotropes of carbon
Diamond (gemstone)
Graphite
Glassy carbon
Chaoite
Carbon Nano foam
Lonsdaleite (type of diamond)
Amorphous carbon(found in coal and soot)
PROPERTIES OF CARBON ALLOTROPES
Diamond
Graphite
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USES OF CARBON ALLOTROPES
Uses of diamond
It is used in cutting tools as it is the hardest material known. Used in tools such as drills,
saws and glass/tile cutter
Diamonds are used in making jewellery
Uses of graphite
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ROCKS, MINERALS AND ORES
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COPPER EXTRACTION
A PRECIOUS MINERAL is a rare mineral that is valuable, such as gold, silver and
platinum( precious metals). Another class of precious minerals is made up of so called
gemstones. A gemstone is a precious mineral which, when it is cut and polished, makes an
attractive gem or jewel such as diamond., ruby and emerald.
NON PRECIOUS MINERAL is a mineral that is found in rocks which is usually common
and do not have a high value, or is not very attractive to look at such as
Iron ore, bauxite and quartz.
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ALLOYS
Alloy is a mixture formed from two or more metallic elements. An alloy has different properties
from the metals that it is made from. It because the combination of metals gives rise to a
different arrangement of atoms in the molecular structure of the solid. For example, the resulting
alloy may be harder than its constituent or it may not corrode. An alloy can contain non-metallic
elements as well as metallic elements.
EXAMPLES OF ALLOYS
NATURE OF RADIATION
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SORCES OF RADIATION
Radiation is all around us. Most are natural but some comes from human activity.
Radiation called cosmic radiation comes from the Sun or outer space. This is because of nuclear
reactions taking place in the Sun & other stars.
The air, plants & animals contain radioactive atoms such as Carbon 14. C 14 is a radioactive
isotope of carbon.
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Sources of Radiation From Human Activity
-Nuclear power stations disaster in Ukraine (1986 Chernoloyl) contaminated soil and water.
-Plants that absorbed contaminated soil and water were dangerous for animal consumption.
People got cancer from the nuclear fallout.
-Nuclear weapons testing produce radiation.
-Nuclear power stations and hospitals waste are sources of radiation.
*Medicine
*Research
*Manufacturing
*Non-destructive testing
*Food preservations
*Weapons
*Agriculture
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Dangers of Exposure To Radioactive Emissions
1. Alpha particles-if there are in food, the body is ionised and this may cause cancer
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2. Beta- can damage the red bone marrow causing Leukaemia
3. Gamma- cause severe damage to organisms
*use film badges to check amount of radiation-a film badge measures radiation dose
Nuclear Fission
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SKELETAL SYSTEM
SUPPORT, MOVEMENT (LOCOMTION) & PROTECTION
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The Human Skeleton
It protects delicate organs & structures of the body;
Lungs – protected by the rib cage
Brain – protected by the skull
Vertebral column – protects the spinal cord
Allows for free movement through the muscles across the joints
Forms some blood components – Red blood cells & some white blood cells
Acts as a framework that supports the soft tissues & thus give the body its shape
Store & releases minerals from bone tissues e.g calcium and phosphorus
Scapula
humerus
The ball & socket joint allows movement in three planes. It is formed by the humerus& scapula
at the shoulder.
Hinge joint at
the elbow
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It allows movement in one plane and formed by the ulna &humerus
The surfaces of the heads of bones which move over each other are covered with cartilage –
which is soft slippery & smooth thus minimizing friction.
Each joint in the body is filled with synovial fluid. The synovial fluid lubricates the cartilage to
ensure friction free movement. Refer to the synovial join below
Ligaments are tough structures that hold bones of the joint together. It prevents dislocation of the
bones during movement.
A tendon connects a bone to a muscle to ensure movement when the muscles contract & relax.
Fixed (fused / non-movable joints) in the skull Gliding joint – in the wrist allows
for a smooth gliding movement
Do not permit any movement
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Pivot joint – found between the base of the skull & the vertebrae
Allows for a rotational movement
In case of the limb they may be called Flexor & Extensor muscles based on their effect on the
limb. Flexor muscles bend the limb while extensor muscles straighten the limb.
Example; the biceps muscle flex the arm at the elbow & antagonizes the triceps. The biceps
serve both to rotate the lower arm & flex the elbow. Biceps flex the arm only when the palm is
facing upwards.
When the biceps contract to lift the arm up the triceps relaxes. When the triceps contract to
straighten the arm the biceps relax. The biceps which flex the arm is larger & more powerful
than the triceps which extend it.
POSTURE – refers to the way you hold your body when you are sitting, standing and walking.
If you hold your body in a poor way we say that you have a bad posture and vice versa.
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The effects of good posture The effects of bad posture
It puts less strain on your muscles and so It causes tired and aching muscles that can
reduces the chance that you will have be stiff. This often makes the posture even
muscles stiffness worse.
It reduces the risks of injury when doing It increases the risk of injury because the
activities because your muscles will be muscles are not aligned properly.
aligned (arranged) in the correct way
It helps breathing better because the Breathing is not as easy because the
ribcage and diaphragm are able to move movement of the lungs,rib cage and
easily. This will help you exercise better diaphragm are restricted
The person looks and feels more confident. The [person looks sloppy. If they do not
This affects how people see you and what care about themselves they may also feel
they think about you this way. This can cause a negative feeling
about a person.
IMPORTANCE OF EXERCISE
SIMPLE MACHINES
A machine is a device which makes works easier.
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UNIT 5 FORCE MOTION AND ENERGY
5.4 MOTION
An object will stay in a state of rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted
on by a force.
This law describe what happens when the forces acting on an object are balanced. Objects that
are stationary will remain stationary unless a force acts on the object to move it. Objects that are
moving with a steady speed will continue at that speed unless some force pushes or pulls on
them.
- A book placed on a table it will remain at rest there, unless someone moves it.
- If you stand on a skateboard, you will stand there forever unless someone pushes you
or kick against the ground.
- A tool of an astronaut in space float and will stay in one place. If the astronaut drop
a tool it will move it on a straight line and continue moving in the same direction with
the same speed until is affected by a planet’s gravity.
N.B: - Note that moving object will NOT continue moving, this is because the forces of friction
and gravity cause moving objects to slow down and stop.
‘’ The tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion is known as inertia’’ Due to
inertia, objects resist changes in their motion. A body with a big mass will have a bigger
inertia than a body with a small mass and the bigger mass will resist a change in its state of
rest or uniform motion more than a body with a smaller mass.
- A car travelling at 100km/hr. If the car hit a wall, your body will continue to travel
forward at 100km/hr. This is because your body is resisting the change to its motion
of 100km/hr(uniform motion).
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Newton’s second law of motion
When a force acts on a body, it causes the body to accelerate in the direction of the force.
The acceleration is directly proportional to the ‘size’ (magnitude) of the force, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
This law describes when a force pushes or pulls on an object, it will change the speed of the
object. This will cause it to accelerate. The larger the force, the more the object will accelerate.
The smaller the mass of the object, the more it will accelerate.
- The greater the force acting on an object, the greater the acceleration
- The greater the mass of an object, the less it will accelerate.
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In mathematical terms, this means that: - Force = mass x acceleration
Eg A force of 10N acts on a box which has a mass of 2kg. What will the acceleration of the box
be?
NB:- If more than one force is acting on the object, the resultant force (Fnet) must be calculated
and used in the formula so that Fnet = ma.
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Newton’s third law of motion
If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B will exert an equal force on object A,
but this force will be exerted in the opposite direction.
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This law describes that when a force acts on an object, an equal force always acts in the opposite
direction.
Examples:-
- When a car drives on a road, the car exerts a downward force on the road, and the
road exerts and upward force on the car. The opposite forces are equal and balanced,
so the car does not go flying upwards.
- A book lying on a table exerts a downward force due to force of gravity but the table
exerts an upward force of exactly the same magnitude on the book.
- A gun that shoots a bullet forward exerts a force on the bullet, but the bullet exerts an
equal, but opposite force on the gun. This is what causes the gun to recoil ( jump
backwards ) when it is fired.
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Turning effect of force
The moment of a force is a physical quantity that measures the turning ability of a force around
an axis.
Two factors
The magnitude of the a[[lied force (F). the bigger the force, the larger the moment of
force
The perpendicular distance (r) of the force relative to the pivot. The longer the distance ,
the larger the moment of force.
Magnitude of the moment of force
Principles of moment
If the sum of the clockwise moments acting on an object equals the sum of the anti-clockwise
moment, then the object will be in a dynamic equilibrium.
Sum of all the anti-clockwise moments = Sum of all the clock wise moments
OR
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∑T clockwise= ∑T anti clockwise
OR
anti clockwiseClockwise
400N 300N
=300N* 2m = 600Nm
= 12Nm
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THE SOLAR SYSTEM
ASTRONOMY
Astronomy – is a branch of science that is involved with studying and exploring outer space.
Outer space – include anything that is not found within the earth’s atmosphere.
the moon
planets
the stars
galaxies
universe
Branches of astronomy
Light astronomy – in this field people explore the space using telescopes, binoculars that
magnify visible objects in space.
Radio astronomy – it is involved in exploring space and the universe using wavelength of
energy that are not visible to man.
Cosmology – it is involved in producing and testing theories that explain how the universe came
into existence and the structure of the universe. It is very interesting but can be complicated and
difficult to understand .some ideas my seen very strange to the non – scientist.
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Benefits of space exploration
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Technologies used in space exploration
Astronomy
Engineering
Astronauts
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