WRITING

What Are Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences

Phrases and clauses are the building blocks of sentences. Phrases are groups of words that act as a part
of speech but cannot stand alone as a sentence. The words in a phrase act together so that the phrase
itself functions as a single part of speech. For example, phrases can function as nouns, verbs, adjectives,
or adverbs. If you understand how different types of phrases function, you can avoid misplacing them or
leaving them dangling in sentences.

Clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a predicate. Independent clauses express a complete
thought and can stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate clauses can act as parts of speech but depend on
the rest of the sentence to express a complete thought.

A sentence expresses a complete thought and contains a subject (a noun or pronoun) and a predicate (a
verb or verb phrase). The four basic types of sentences—simple, compound, complex, and compound‐
complex—use phrases and clauses in varying degrees of complexity.

Kinds of Sentences and Their Punctuation

A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon the number and type(s) of clauses it contains.

Review:

An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.

1. A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one independent clause.

Punctuation
note: N O commas
separate two compound elements (subject, verb, direct object, indirect object, subjective complement, etc.)
in a simple sentence.

2. A COMPOUND SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined by

A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so),

B. a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, therefore), or

C. a semicolon alone.

Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, and C above):

A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent clause.

B. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause.

C. Independent clause; independent clause.

3. A COMPLEX SENTENCE has one dependent clause (headed by a subordinating conjunction or a

relative pronoun ) joined to an independent clause.

Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, C and D above):

A. Dependent clause, independent clause

B. Independent clause dependent clause

C. Independent, nonessential dependent clause, clause.

D. Independent essential dependent clause clause.

4. A COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined to one or more dependent
clauses.
 Punctuation patterns:

Follow the rules given above for compound and complex sentences.

A compound-complex sentence is merely a combination of the two.

CONNECTORS--COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

Two independent clauses may be joined by

1. Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) Ic, and ic

2. Conjunctive adverbs Ic; therefore, ic.

A dependent (subordinate) clause may be introduced by

1. Subordinating conjunctions (ADVERB CLAUSE) Dc, ic. or Ic dc.

2. Relative pronouns (ADJECTIVE CLAUSE) I, dc, c. or I dc c.

3. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions, or adverbs (NOUN CLAUSE)

CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are words used as joiners.

Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.

The following are the kinds of conjunctions:

A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:

words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.

Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.

Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma should be
placed before the conjunction.
A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses creates a series
and requires commas between the elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and requires a
comma before the coordinating conjunction

B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

either. . .or both. . . and

neither. . . nor not only. . . but also

These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.

C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

These conjunctions join independent clauses together.

The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:

after all in addition next

 also incidentally nonetheless
as a result indeed on the contrary
besides in fact on the other hand
consequently in other words otherwise
finally instead still
for example likewise then
furthermore meanwhile therefore
hence moreover thus
however nevertheless

Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after
the conjunctive adverb.

D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions

after in order (that) unless

although insofar as until
as in that when
as far as lest whenever
as soon as no matter how where
as if now that wherever
as though once whether
because provided (that) while
before since why
even if so that
even though supposing (that)
how than
if that
inasmuch as though
in case (that) till

Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make one clause
dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.
A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a sentence.

A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a coordinating
conjunctions does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.

Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.

Punctuation Note:

When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses. When the
independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not separate the two clauses with a
comma.
_______________________________________________________________

COMMA

Series | coordinate adjectives | compound elements and sentences | introductory

elements | interrupters | nonessential examples | expressions of contrast | dates and
addresses | confirmatory questions | names and titles | clarification

1. In a Series – Place a comma between three or more items connected by a coordinating conjunction.

Example:

Caution: Do not place commas between two items separated by and or between three items separated
from one another by ands.

Incorrect:

Correct:

Remember to place a comma before the coordinating conjunction joining the last two elements of the
series. Otherwise, the intended meaning of the sentence may not be clear.

Confusing:
Confusing:

2. Between Coordinate Adjectives – Place commas between equal adjectives with no

coordinating conjunction between them. Example:

Incorrect:
3. Before FANBOYS between Independent Clauses in Compound Sentences

The war lasted for two years, but very few people supported it.

Caution: Do not place a comma between two items with FANBOYS when one item is not a complete
sentence.

Incorrect:

Caution: Do not place a comma after the FANBOY.

Incorrect:

Note: The comma may be omitted between independent clauses if a sentence is very short.
 Example:

4. Nonessential Adjective Clauses / Nonessential participial phrases - Separate

unneeded adjective clauses and participial phrases from the rest of the sentence.

Examples:

Caution: Do not separate needed adjective clauses and participial phrases from the rest of the
sentence.

Incorrect:

5. Introductory Elements - Place a comma after certain introductory elements.

A. Long prepositional phrases or a succession of prepositional phrases

Examples:

Note: With short introductory prepositional phrases, the comma is optional.

Examples:
 B. Participial phrases

Examples:

C. Gerunds as objects of prepositions

Example:

Caution: Do not separate gerunds functioning as sentence subjects from the rest of the sentence.

Incorrect:

Correct:

D. Adverbial infinitives

Example:
Note: To test whether the introductory infinitive is adverbial, place "in order" in front of the infinitive. If the
resulting sentence makes sense. the introductory infinitive is adverbial and should be followed by a comma.

Caution: Do not place a comma after an introductory infinitive that is not adverbial.

Incorrect:

Correct:

Caution: Do not place a comma before an adverbial infinitive at the end of the sentence.

Incorrect:

Correct:

E. Adverbial clauses

Example:
 Incorrect:

Correct:

F. Mild interjections (well, yes, no, why, etc.)

Examples:

6. To separate Interrupters

A. Parenthetical expressions and transitions (in my opinion, unfortunately, moreover, of course, as a

matter of fact, indeed, for example, etc.)

Example:

B. Nonessential Appositives (renamers)

Example:
Caution: Do not separate essential appositives with commas.

Incorrect:

In the above example, the appositive is essential since there is more than one daughter.
Therefore, do not place commas around the appositive.

Correct:

C. Direct Address

Examples:

7. Nonessential Examples Introduced by such as, especially, particularly

Examples:

Caution: Do not separate essential examples with commas.

Incorrect:

Correct:
8. Expressions of Contrast

Examples:

9. Dates and Addresses - When a date or address with several parts occurs in a sentence, place a
comma between each element and after the last part.

Examples:

Caution: When the date or address has only one element or has its individual parts separated by words
in the sentence, do not use a comma within or after the date or address.

Incorrect:

Correct:

10. Before Confirmatory Questions - Place a comma between the confirmatory question and the statement
that precedes it.
 Example:

11. Name followed by Jr., Sr., Ph.D., M.D.

Example:

12. To clarify
otherwise Misreadable Word Groups

Examples:

Use a SEMICOLON

1. Between independent clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions

(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

Example

2. Between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb

Example
3. Between items in a series containing internal punctuation

Example

4. Between independent clauses containing internal punctuation -even when the clauses are
joined by coordinating conjunctions.

Example

Use a COLON

1. Before formally introducing a list (*An independent clause must precede the colon.)

Examples

Incorrect
2. Between two independent clauses when the second explains or expands the first

Examples

3. Before a formal appositive (*An independent clause must precede the colon)

Example

Incorrect

4. Between hour and minute / chapter and verse (Bible)

Examples

Use an APOSTROPHE

1. To show ownership (to form the possessive case of nouns)

 Examples

2. To show joint ownership with nouns

Example

3. To show individual ownership with nouns

Example
 4. To show ownership with indefinite pronouns

Examples

NOTE:Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of the personal possessive
pronoun its.

Example

Do use an apostrophe with its to mean it is or it has.

Correct
 5. To form the plural of letters, numbers, and signs, and of words referred to as words.

Examples

Use PARENTHESES

1. To enclose interrupting elements that add information or identification

Examples
2. To enclose figures or letters when used for enumeration within a sentence

Example

Use a DASH

To set off parenthetical matter

Example

NOTE:Â UNLIKE PARENTHESES, WHICH MINIMIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE.

PARENTHETICAL MATERIAL, DASHES EMPHASIZE PARENTHETICAL
MATERIAL.

Notice the different emphasis in each sentence.

Use ITALICS (underlining)

1. For words, letters, and figures referred to as such

Examples

2. For foreign, technical (including mathematical expressions), or unusual words and phrases.

Examples

3. For titles of books, newspapers, magazines, journals, plays, movies, radio programs, TV programs,
long musical works, long poems, works of art, names of ships and airplanes.

Examples
Use QUOTATION MARKS

1. To enclose titles of minor works:Â articles, essays, poems, songs, chapters of

books, short stories, episodes of radio/TV programs.

Examples

2. To enclose words used ironically or where the term so-called could be inserted.

Examples

3. To enclose a direct quotation:Â a person's exact words

Example
NOTE: Do not use quotation marks to enclose indirect quotations.

Incorrect

Correct

NOTES FOR DIRECT QUOTATIONS:

1. Start the quotation with a capital letter.

2. Place commas and periods INSIDE the quotation marks.
3. Place semicolons and colons OUTSIDE the quotation marks.
4. Place question marks and exclamation marks INSIDE the quotation marks if the
quotation itself is a question or an exclamation.
5. Place question marks and exclamation marks OUTSIDE the quotation marks if the
quotation itself is NOT a question or exclamation.

USE SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS to enclose a quotation inside another quotation.

Examples
If the quotation within another quotation is a question or an exclamation, place appropriate
punctuation next to the item concerned.

Examples

Question quotation inside statement

quotation

Statement quotation inside question quotation

Question quotation inside question quotation

Exclamation quotation inside question quotation

or
Question quotation inside exclamation quotation
 Plagiarism – Oxford University
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by
incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material,
whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be
intentional or reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations, intentional or reckless
plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.
Students will benefit from taking an online course which has been developed to provide a useful overview
of the issues surrounding plagiarism and practical ways to avoid it.
The necessity to acknowledge others’ work or ideas applies not only to text, but also to other media, such
as computer code, illustrations, graphs etc. It applies equally to published text and data drawn from books
and journals, and to unpublished text and data, whether from lectures, theses or other students’ essays.
You must also attribute text, data, or other resources downloaded from websites.
The best way of avoiding plagiarism is to learn and employ the principles of good academic practice from
the beginning of your university career. Avoiding plagiarism is not simply a matter of making sure your
references are all correct, or changing enough words so the examiner will not notice your paraphrase; it is
about deploying your academic skills to make your work as good as it can be.

Forms of plagiarism
Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgement
Quotations must always be identified as such by the use of either quotation marks or indentation, and with
full referencing of the sources cited. It must always be apparent to the reader which parts are your own
independent work and where you have drawn on someone else’s ideas and language.
Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear acknowledgement
Information derived from the Internet must be adequately referenced and included in the bibliography. It is
important to evaluate carefully all material found on the Internet, as it is less likely to have been through the
same process of scholarly peer review as published sources.
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing their order, or by closely following
the structure of their argument, is plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement to the author whose
work you are using.

A passing reference to the original author in your own text may not be enough; you must ensure that you
do not create the misleading impression that the paraphrased wording or the sequence of ideas are entirely
your own. It is better to write a brief summary of the author’s overall argument in your own words, indicating
that you are doing so, than to paraphrase particular sections of his or her writing. This will ensure you have
a genuine grasp of the argument and will avoid the difficulty of paraphrasing without plagiarising. You must
also properly attribute all material you derive from lectures.

Collusion
This can involve unauthorised collaboration between students, failure to attribute assistance received, or
failure to follow precisely regulations on group work projects. It is your responsibility to ensure that you are
entirely clear about the extent of collaboration permitted, and which parts of the work must be your own.
Inaccurate citation
It is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions of your discipline. As well as listing your
sources (i.e. in a bibliography), you must indicate, using a footnote or an in-text reference, where a quoted
passage comes from. Additionally, you should not include anything in your references or bibliography that
you have not actually consulted. If you cannot gain access to a primary source you must make it clear in
your citation that your knowledge of the work has been derived from a secondary text (for example,
Bradshaw, D. Title of Book, discussed in Wilson, E., Title of Book (London, 2004), p. 189).
Failure to acknowledge assistance
You must clearly acknowledge all assistance which has contributed to the production of your work, such as
advice from fellow students, laboratory technicians, and other external sources. This need not apply to the
assistance provided by your tutor or supervisor, or to ordinary proofreading, but it is necessary to
acknowledge other guidance which leads to substantive changes of content or approach.
Use of material written by professional agencies or other persons
You should neither make use of professional agencies in the production of your work nor submit material
which has been written for you even with the consent of the person who has written it. It is vital to your
intellectual training and development that you should undertake the research process unaided. Under
Statute XI on University Discipline, all members of the University are prohibited from providing material that
could be submitted in an examination by students at this University or elsewhere.
Auto-plagiarism
You must not submit work for assessment that you have already submitted (partially or in full), either for
your current course or for another qualification of this, or any other, university, unless this is specifically
provided for in the special regulations for your course. Where earlier work by you is citable, ie. it has
already been published, you must reference it clearly. Identical pieces of work submitted concurrently
will also be considered to be auto-plagiarism.

https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plagiarism

Academic writing
Format and present your writing

Reference list/bibliography
Every academic paper must include a reference list or a bibliography (and sometimes both).

A reference list is...

A list of all sources (books, articles, web pages, etc.) that you have mentioned, quoted,
summarised or paraphrased in your paper. If it's in your paper, it must be in your reference
list.

A bibliography is...
A list of all books, articles, web pages, etc. that you have used while you are researching
your paper, whether you have mentioned them or not.

So, which one should you use?

For most academic papers, a reference list is enough. However, for longer papers, such as a
dissertation or thesis, you may be required to provide both. As always, the safest thing is to
check with your tutor or your writing guidelines to be sure you are using the correct one.

And how do you present it?

Start a new page and title it in bold. All the sources in your list must be in alphabetical
order by author's surname - it's important to remember that.