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10
Ed iti o n
Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences
© Deborah Batt
Frederick J Gravetter
The College at Brockport, State University of New York
Larry B. WaLLnau
The College at Brockport, State University of New York
Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the eBook version.
Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, © 2017, 2013 Cengage Learning
Tenth Edition
WCn: 02-200-203
Frederick J Gravetter and Larry B. Wallnau
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B RiEF Co n tEn t S
CHAPtER 4 Variability 99
CHAPtER 17 The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness of Fit and Independence 559
iii
Co n tEn t S
v
vi CONTENTS
CHAPtER 4 Variability 99
PREVIEW 100
4.1 Introduction to Variability 101
4.2 Defining Standard Deviation and Variance 103
4.3 Measuring Variance and Standard Deviation for a Population 108
4.4 Measuring Standard Deviation and Variance for a Sample 111
4.5 Sample Variance as an Unbiased Statistic 117
4.6 More about Variance and Standard Deviation 119
Summary 125
Focus on Problem Solving 127
Demonstration 4.1 128
Problems 128
Summary 219
Focus on Problem Solving 219
Demonstration 7.1 220
Problems 221
12.4 Examples of Hypothesis Testing and Effect Size with ANOVA 383
12.5 Post Hoc Tests 393
12.6 More about ANOVA 397
Summary 403
Focus on Problem Solving 406
Demonstration 12.1 406
Demonstration 12.2 408
Problems 408
Summary 591
Focus on Problem Solving 595
Demonstration 17.1 595
Demonstration 17.2 597
Problems 597
A PPE N D IX E S
A Basic Mathematics Review 625
A.1 Symbols and Notation 627
A.2 Proportions: Fractions, Decimals, and Percentages 629
A.3 Negative Numbers 635
A.4 Basic Algebra: Solving Equations 637
A.5 Exponents and Square Roots 640
B Statistical Tables 647
C Solutions for Odd-Numbered Problems in the Text 663
D General Instructions for Using SPSS 683
E Hypothesis Tests for Ordinal Data: Mann-Whitney,
Wilcoxon, Kruskal-Wallis, and Friedman Tests 687
Statistics Organizer: Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 701
References 717
Name Index 723
Subject Index 725
PREFACE
M any students in the behavioral sciences view the required statistics course as an
intimidating obstacle that has been placed in the middle of an otherwise interest-
ing curriculum. They want to learn about human behavior—not about math and science.
As a result, the statistics course is seen as irrelevant to their education and career goals.
However, as long as the behavioral sciences are founded in science, knowledge of statistics
will be necessary. Statistical procedures provide researchers with objective and systematic
methods for describing and interpreting their research results. Scientific research is the
system that we use to gather information, and statistics are the tools that we use to distill
the information into sensible and justified conclusions. The goal of this book is not only
to teach the methods of statistics, but also to convey the basic principles of objectivity and
logic that are essential for science and valuable for decision making in everyday life.
Those of you who are familiar with previous editions of Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences will notice that some changes have been made. These changes are summarized
in the section entitled “To the Instructor.” In revising this text, our students have been
foremost in our minds. Over the years, they have provided honest and useful feedback.
Their hard work and perseverance has made our writing and teaching most rewarding. We
sincerely thank them. Students who are using this edition should please read the section of
the preface entitled “To the Student.”
The book chapters are organized in the sequence that we use for our own statistics
courses. We begin with descriptive statistics, and then examine a variety of statistical pro-
cedures focused on sample means and variance before moving on to correlational methods
and nonparametric statistics. Information about modifying this sequence is presented in the
To The Instructor section for individuals who prefer a different organization. Each chapter
contains numerous examples, many based on actual research studies, learning checks, a
summary and list of key terms, and a set of 20–30 problems.
Ancillaries
Ancillaries for this edition include the following.
■■ MindTap® Psychology: MindTap® Psychology for Gravetter/Wallnau’s Statistics
for The Behavioral Sciences, 10th Edition is the digital learning solution that helps
instructors engage and transform today’s students into critical thinkers. Through paths
of dynamic assignments and applications that you can personalize, real-time course
analytics, and an accessible reader, MindTap helps you turn cookie cutter into cutting
edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.
As an instructor using MindTap you have at your fingertips the right content and
unique set of tools curated specifically for your course, such as video tutorials that
walk students through various concepts and interactive problem tutorials that provide
students opportunities to practice what they have learned, all in an interface designed
to improve workflow and save time when planning lessons and course structure. The
control to build and personalize your course is all yours, focusing on the most relevant
xiii
xiv PREFACE
material while also lowering costs for your students. Stay connected and informed in
your course through real time student tracking that provides the opportunity to adjust
the course as needed based on analytics of interactivity in the course.
■■ Online Instructor’s Manual: The manual includes learning objectives, key terms,
a detailed chapter outline, a chapter summary, lesson plans, discussion topics, student
activities, “What If” scenarios, media tools, a sample syllabus and an expanded test
bank. The learning objectives are correlated with the discussion topics, student
activities, and media tools.
■■ Online PowerPoints: Helping you make your lectures more engaging while effec-
tively reaching your visually oriented students, these handy Microsoft PowerPoint®
slides outline the chapters of the main text in a classroom-ready presentation. The
PowerPoint® slides are updated to reflect the content and organization of the new
edition of the text.
■■ Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero®: Cengage Learning Testing,
Powered by Cognero®, is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit,
and manage test bank content. You can create multiple test versions in an instant and
deliver tests from your LMS in your classroom.
Acknowledgments
It takes a lot of good, hard-working people to produce a book. Our friends at Cengage
have made enormous contributions to this textbook. We thank: Jon-David Hague, Product
Director; Timothy Matray, Product Team Director; Jasmin Tokatlian, Content Develop-
ment Manager; Kimiya Hojjat, Product Assistant; and Vernon Boes, Art Director. Special
thanks go to Stefanie Chase, our Content Developer and to Lynn Lustberg who led us
through production at MPS.
Reviewers play a very important role in the development of a manuscript. Accordingly,
we offer our appreciation to the following colleagues for their assistance: Patricia Case,
University of Toledo; Kevin David, Northeastern State University; Adia Garrett, Univer-
sity of Maryland, Baltimore County; Carrie E. Hall, Miami University; Deletha Hardin,
University of Tampa; Angela Heads, Prairie View A&M University; Roberto Heredia,
Texas A&M International University; Alisha Janowski, University of Central Florida;
Matthew Mulvaney, The College at Brockport (SUNY); Nicholas Von Glahn, California
State Polytechnic University, Pomona; and Ronald Yockey, Fresno State University.
To the Instructor
Those of you familiar with the previous edition of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences will
notice a number of changes in the 10th edition. Throughout this book, research examples
have been updated, real world examples have been added, and the end-of-chapter problems
have been extensively revised. Major revisions for this edition include the following:
1. Each section of every chapter begins with a list of Learning Objectives for that
specific section.
2. Each section ends with a Learning Check consisting of multiple-choice questions
with at least one question for each Learning Objective.
PREFACE xv
3. The former Chapter 19, Choosing the Right Statistics, has been eliminated and
an abridged version is now an Appendix replacing the Statistics Organizer, which
appeared in earlier editions.
Other examples of specific and noteworthy revisions include the following.
Chapter 1 The section on data structures and research methods parallels the new
Appendix, Choosing the Right Statistics.
Chapter 2 The chapter opens with a new Preview to introduce the concept and purpose
of frequency distributions.
Chapter 3 Minor editing clarifies and simplifies the discussion the median.
Chapter 4 The chapter opens with a new Preview to introduce the topic of Central
Tendency. The sections on standard deviation and variance have been edited to increase
emphasis on concepts rather than calculations.
Chapter 6 The chapter opens with a new Preview to introduce the topic of Probability.
The section, Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics, has been substantially shortened and
simplified.
Chapter 7 The former Box explaining difference between standard deviation and
standard error was deleted and the content incorporated into Section 7.4 with editing to
emphasize that the standard error is the primary new element introduced in the chapter.
The final section, Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics, was simplified and shortened to
be consistent with the changes in Chapter 6.
Chapter 8 A redundant example was deleted which shortened and streamlined the
remaining material so that most of the chapter is focused on the same research example.
Chapter 9 The chapter opens with a new Preview to introduce the t statistic and explain
why a new test statistic is needed. The section introducing Confidence Intervals was edited
to clarify the origin of the confidence interval equation and to emphasize that the interval
is constructed at the sample mean.
Chapter 10 The chapter opens with a new Preview introducing the independent-mea-
sures t statistic. The section presenting the estimated standard error of (M1 – M2) has been
simplified and shortened.
Chapter 11 The chapter opens with a new Preview introducing the repeated-measures t
statistic. The section discussing hypothesis testing has been separated from the section on
effect size and confidence intervals to be consistent with the other two chapters on t tests.
The section comparing independent- and repeated-measures designs has been expanded.
Chapter 12 The chapter opens with a new Preview introducing ANOVA and explaining
why a new hypothesis testing procedure is necessary. Sections in the chapter have been
reorganized to allow flow directly from hypothesis tests and effect size to post tests.
xvi PREFACE
Chapter 13 Substantially expanded the section discussing factors that influence the
outcome of a repeated-measures hypothesis test and associated measures of effect size.
Chapter 14 The chapter opens with a new Preview presenting a two-factor research
example and introducing the associated ANOVA. Sections have been reorganized so that
simple main effects and the idea of using a second factor to reduce variance from indi-
vidual differences are now presented as extra material related to the two-factor ANOVA.
Chapter 15 The chapter opens with a new Preview presenting a correlational research
study and the concept of a correlation. A new section introduces the t statistic for evaluat-
ing the significance of a correlation and the section on partial correlations has been simpli-
fied and shortened.
Chapter 16 The chapter opens with a new Preview introducing the concept of regression and
its purpose. A new section demonstrates the equivalence of testing the significance of a correla-
tion and testing the significance of a regression equation with one predictor variable. The sec-
tion on residuals for the multiple-regression equation has been edited to simplify and shorten.
Chapter 17 A new chapter Preview presents an experimental study with data consisting
of frequencies, which are not compatible with computing means and variances. Chi-square
tests are introduced as a solution to this problem. A new section introduces Cohen’s w as
a means of measuring effect size for both chi-square tests.
Chapter 18 Substantial editing clarifies the section explaining how the real limits for
each score can influence the conclusion from a binomial test.
The former Chapter 19 covering the task of matching statistical methods to specific
types of data has been substantially shortened and converted into an Appendix.
To the Student
A primary goal of this book is to make the task of learning statistics as easy and painless
as possible. Among other things, you will notice that the book provides you with a number
of opportunities to practice the techniques you will be learning in the form of Learning
Checks, Examples, Demonstrations, and end-of-chapter problems. We encourage you to
take advantage of these opportunities. Read the text rather than just memorizing the for-
mulas. We have taken care to present each statistical procedure in a conceptual context that
explains why the procedure was developed and when it should be used. If you read this
material and gain an understanding of the basic concepts underlying a statistical formula,
you will find that learning the formula and how to use it will be much easier. In the “Study
Hints,” that follow, we provide advice that we give our own students. Ask your instructor
for advice as well; we are sure that other instructors will have ideas of their own.
Over the years, the students in our classes and other students using our book have given
us valuable feedback. If you have any suggestions or comments about this book, you can
write to either Professor Emeritus Frederick Gravetter or Professor Emeritus Larry Wallnau
at the Department of Psychology, SUNY College at Brockport, 350 New Campus Drive,
Brockport, New York 14420. You can also contact Professor Emeritus Gravetter directly at
[email protected].
■■Study Hints
You may find some of these tips helpful, as our own students have reported.
■■ The key to success in a statistics course is to keep up with the material. Each new
topic builds on previous topics. If you have learned the previous material, then the
new topic is just one small step forward. Without the proper background, however,
the new topic can be a complete mystery. If you find that you are falling behind, get
help immediately.
■■ You will learn (and remember) much more if you study for short periods several
times per week rather than try to condense all of your studying into one long session.
For example, it is far more effective to study half an hour every night than to have
a single 3½-hour study session once a week. We cannot even work on writing this
book without frequent rest breaks.
■■ Do some work before class. Keep a little ahead of the instructor by reading the appro-
priate sections before they are presented in class. Although you may not fully under-
stand what you read, you will have a general idea of the topic, which will make the
lecture easier to follow. Also, you can identify material that is particularly confusing
and then be sure the topic is clarified in class.
■■ Pay attention and think during class. Although this advice seems obvious, often it is
not practiced. Many students spend so much time trying to write down every example
presented or every word spoken by the instructor that they do not actually understand
and process what is being said. Check with your instructor—there may not be a need
to copy every example presented in class, especially if there are many examples like
it in the text. Sometimes, we tell our students to put their pens and pencils down for a
moment and just listen.
■■ Test yourself regularly. Do not wait until the end of the chapter or the end of the
week to check your knowledge. After each lecture, work some of the end-of-chapter
problems and do the Learning Checks. Review the Demonstration Problems, and
be sure you can define the Key Terms. If you are having trouble, get your questions
answered immediately—reread the section, go to your instructor, or ask questions in
class. By doing so, you will be able to move ahead to new material.
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his trial for burglary and murder. Mr. George was quite a notable
cracksman in his day, which was one pretty remote from ours in
everything but the conservatism of the law. He was ‘housebreaker’ in
the indictment; he was arrested by the Tombland patrol; and he was
carried to court in a ‘chair,’ attended by a party of the City Guard.
“George, says the story, was an elegant figure of a man, and not
at all regardless of the modes. Dark blue coat with brass buttons,
fancy vest, black satin breeches, white silk stockings, hair full
dressed and a brooch in his bosom—that was how he appeared
before his judges.
“The facts were simple enough. On a night of November, a shot
and a screech had been heard in Mr. Browbody’s house in Unthank,
a ward of the city; an entrance had been made through a window,
opportunely open, by the Watch as opportunely handy, and the
housebreaker had been discovered, a warm pistol in his hand,
standing over the body of old Nicholas, who lay dead on the floor
with his head blown in.
“The burglar was found standing, I say, like as in a stupor; the
room was old Browbody’s study; the door from it into the passage
was open, and outside was discovered the body of a girl, Miss Ellen,
lying, as it were, in a dead faint. There you have the situation dashed
in broad; and pretty complete, you’ll agree, for circumstantial
evidence.”
“Wait, my friend,” began Brindley, putting up a fat pompous hand.
“Circumstantial, I think you said?”
“Yes, I said it,” answered the Deputy Clerk coolly; “and if you’ll
listen, you’ll understand—perhaps. I said the girl was in a faint, as it
were, for, as a matter of fact, she never came out of it for seven
months.”
He leant back, thumbing the ashes into his pipe, and took no heed
while the murmurs of incredulity buzzed and died down.
“Not for seven months,” he repeated, then. “They called it a
cataleptic trance, induced by fright and shock upon witnessing the
deed; and they postponed the trial, waiting for this material witness
to recover. But when at last the doctors certified that they could put
no period to a condition which might, after all, end fatally without real
consciousness ever returning, they decided to try Mr. Hussey; and
he was tried and condemned to be hanged.”
“What! he made no defence?” said a junior contemptuously.
“Well, sir, can you suggest one?” asked the other civilly.
“Suicide, of course.”
“With the pistol there in the burglar’s own hand?”
“Well, he made none, you say.”
“No, I don’t say it. He declared it was ridiculous attempting a
defence, while he lacked his one essential witness to confirm it. He
protested only that the lady would vindicate him if she could speak.”
“O, of course!”
“Yes, of course; and of course you say it. But he spoke the truth,
sir, for all that, as you’ll see.
“He was lodged in Norwich Jail, biding the finish. But, before the
hangman could get him—that time, at least—he managed to break
out, damaging a warder by the way. The dogs of the law were let
loose, naturally; but, while they were in full cry, Mr. Hussey, if you’ll
believe me, walks into a local attorney’s office with Miss Ellen on his
arm.”
Brindley turned in his chair, and gave a little condescending laugh.
“Incredible, ain’t it?” said the Deputy Clerk. “But listen, now, to the
affidavits of the pair, and judge for yourselves. We’ll take Miss Ellen’s
first, plain as I can make it:—
“ ‘I confess,’ says she, ‘to a romantic attachment to this same
picturesque magsman, Mr. Hussey. He came my way—never mind
how—and I fell in love with him. He made an assignation to visit me
in my guardian’s house, and I saw that a window was left open for
him to enter by. My guardian had latterly been in a very odd,
depressed state. I think he was troubled about business matters. On
the night of the assignation, by the irony of fate, his madness came
to a head. He was of such methodical habits by nature, and so
unerringly punctual in his hour for going to bed, that I had not
hesitated to appoint my beau to meet me in his study, which was
both remotest from his bedroom, and very accessible from without.
But, to my confusion and terror, I heard him on this night, instead of
retiring as usual, start pacing to and fro in the parlour underneath. I
listened, helpless and aghast, expecting every moment to hear him
enter his study and discover my lover, who must surely by now be
awaiting me there. And at length I did hear him actually cross the
passage to it with hurried steps. Half demented, dreading anything
and everything, I rushed down the stairs, and reached his room door
just in time to see him put a pistol to his head and fire. With the flash
and report, I fell as if dead, and remember nothing more till the voice
of my beloved seemed to call upon me to rise from the tomb—when I
opened my eyes, and saw Hussey standing above me.’
“Now for Mr. Hussey’s statement:—
“ ‘I had an assignation with a young lady,’ says he, ‘on the night of
so-and-so. A window was to be left open for me in Unthank. I had no
intent whatever to commit a felony. I came to appointment, and had
only one moment entered when I heard rapid footsteps outside, and
a man, with a desperate look on him, hurried into the room, snatched
a pistol from a drawer, put it to his head, and, before I could stop
him, fired. I swear that, so far from killing him, I tried to prevent him
killing himself. I jumped, even as he fell, and tore the pistol from his
hand. Simultaneous with his deed, I heard a scream outside. Still
holding the weapon, I went to the door, and saw the form of her I had
come to visit lying in that trance from which she has but now
recovered. As I stood stupefied, the Watch entered and took me.
From that time I knew that, lacking her evidence, it was hopeless to
attempt to clear myself. After sentence I broke prison, rushed
straight to her house, found her lying there, and called out upon her
to wake and help me. She answered at once, stirring and coming out
of her trance. I know no more than that she did; and there is the
whole truth.’ ”
The Deputy Clerk stopped. No one spoke.
“Now, gentlemen,” said he, “I don’t ask you to pronounce upon
those affidavits. In the upshot the law accepted them, admitting a
miscarriage of justice. What I ask your verdict on is this: Could the
law, after quashing its own conviction, hold the man responsible for
any act committed by him during, and as the direct result of, that
wrongful imprisonment?”
This started the ball, and for minutes it was tossed back and forth.
Presently the tumult subsided, and Brindley spoke authoritatively for
the rest—
“Certainly it could, and for any violence committed in the act.
Provocation may extenuate, but it don’t justify. Prison-breaking, per
se, is an offence against the law; so’s being found without any visible
means of subsistence, though your pocket may just have been
picked of its last penny. Any concessions in these respects would
benefit the rogue without helping the community. I won’t say that if
he hadn’t, by assaulting the warder, put himself out of court——”
“That was where he wanted to put himself,” interrupted the Deputy
Clerk. It was certain that he was deplorably flippant.
Brindley waved the impertinence by.
“The offence was an offence in outlawry,” he said.
“But how could it be,” protested the Clerk, “since, by the law’s own
admission, he was wrongfully convicted? If he hadn’t been, he
couldn’t have hurt the warder. If you strike me first, mayn’t I hit you
back? I tell you, the law acknowledged that it was in the wrong.”
“Not at all. It acknowledged that the man was in the right.”
“Isn’t that the same thing?”
“O, my friend! I see you haven’t got the rudiments. Hussey was a
prisoner; a criminal is a prisoner; ergo, Hussey was a criminal.”
“But he was a prisoner in error!”
“And the law might very properly pardon him that; but not his
violence in asserting it.”
The Deputy Clerk shrugged his shoulders hopelessly.
“Well, it was all the same in the end,” said he; “for it hanged him
for pointing out its error to it, and so spoiled a very pretty romance.
The lady accompanied him to the scaffold, and afterwards died mad.
Sic itur ad astra. I will cap your syllogism, sir. An ass has long ears;
the law has long ears; ergo, the law is an ass.”
“Young man,” said Brindley, with more good humour than I
expected, “you have missed your vocation. Take my advice, and go
to writing for the comic papers.”
“What!” cried the Deputy Clerk. “Haven’t I been a law reporter all
my life!”
THE FIVE INSIDES
I’ll example you with thievery.—“Timon of Athens.”
The dear old lady was ninety, and it was always Christmas in the
sweet winter of her face. With the pink in her cheeks and the white of
her hair, she came straight from the eighteenth century in which she
was born. They were not more at odds with nature than are the hips
and the traveller’s joy in a withered hedge; and if at one time they
paid to art, why it was a charitable gift to a poor dependent—nothing
more, I’ll swear.
People are fond of testing links with the past. This sound old
chatelaine had played trick-track, and dined at four o’clock. She had
eaten battalia pie with “Lear” sauce, and had drunk orgeat in Bond
Street. She had seen Blücher, the tough old “Vorwärts,” brought to
bay in Hyde Park by a flying column of Amazons, and surrendering
himself to an onslaught of kisses. She had seen Mr. Consul
Brummell arrested by bailiffs in the streets of Caen, on a debt of so
many hundreds of francs for so many bottles of vernis de Guiton,
which was nothing less than an adorable boot-polish. She had heard
the demon horns of newspaper boys shrill out the Little Corporal’s
escape from Elba. She had sipped Roman punch, maybe;—I trust
she had never taken snuff. She had—but why multiply instances?
Born in 1790, she had taken just her little share in, and drawn her full
interest of, the history, social and political, of all those years,
fourscore and ten, which filled the interval between then and now.
Once upon a time she had entered a hackney-coach; and, lo!
before her journey was done, it was a railway coach, moving ever
swifter and swifter, and its passengers succeeding one another with
an ever more furious energy of hurry-scurry. Among the rest I got in,
and straight fell into talk, and in love, with this traveller who had
come from so far and from scenes so foreign to my knowledge. She
was as sweet and instructive as an old diary brought from a bureau,
smelling of rose-leaves and cedar-wood. She was merry, too, and
wont to laugh at my wholly illusory attachment to an age which was
already as dead as the moon when I was born. But she humoured
me; though she complained that her feminine reminiscences were
sweetmeats to a man.
“You should talk with William keeper,” she said. “He holds on to the
past by a very practical link indeed.”
It was snowy weather up at the Hall—the very moral of another
winter (so I was told) when His Majesty’s frigate “Caledonia” came
into Portsmouth to be paid off, and Commander Playfair sent
express to his young wife up in the Hampshire hills that she might
expect him early on the following morning. He did not come in the
morning, nor in the afternoon, nor, indeed, until late in the evening,
when—as Fortune was generous—he arrived just at the turn of the
supper, when the snow outside the kitchen windows below was
thawing itself, in delirious emulation of the melting processes going
on within, into a rusty gravy.
“You see,” said Madam, “it was not the etiquette, when a ship was
paid off, for any officer to quit the port until the pennant was struck,
which the cook, as the last officer, had to see done. And the cook
had gone ashore and got tipsy; and there the poor souls must bide
till he could be found. Poor Henry—and poor little me! But it came
right. Tout vient à qui sait attendre. We had woodcocks for supper. It
was just such a winter as this—the snow, the sky, the very day. Will
you take your gun, and get me a woodcock, sir? and we will keep the
anniversary, and you shall toast, in a bottle of the Madeira, the old
French rhyme.”
I had this rhyme in my ears as I went off for my woodcock—