1

ST. JOSEPH’S UNIVERSITY

BANGALORE-27

FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
LAB RECORD – 2022-23
B.A. TP – I SEMESTER

TEJAS MANDAL
221TPY47
FACULTY INCHARGE:
Subikshalakshmi G.
Department of Psychology
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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that TEJAS MANDAL of I semester B. A. PY-T has completed the course of
experiments/assessments in a practical lab prescribed by the Department of Psychology at St.
Joseph’s University in the academic year 2022-23.

Signature of the faculty In-charge Signature of the Head of the Department

Subikshalakshmi G. Ami Joshi

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INDEX

S. No. Name of the Experiment Date of Page No.

administration
1 OBSERVATION AND 01/09/2022 4
SUGGESTION

2 EFFECT OF CHUNKING 06/10/2022 10

ON RECALL

3 HABIT INTERFERENCE 20/10/2022 18

4 BILATERAL TRANSFER 27/10/2022 24

5 STROOP EFFECT 10/11/2022 31

6 MULLERLYER ILLUSION 17/11/2022 34

7 EFFECT OF CUEING ON 17/12/2022 37

RECALL
 4

EXPERIMENT - 1

OBSERVATION AND SUGGESTION

Introduction:

Observation is an art which helps us to have knowledge of the environment. It is a careful

examination of phenomena. Knowledge, in fact, depends on observation. Although the ability to
observe is widespread, scientific observation differs from ordinary observation. Scientific
observation is systematic and goal-directed, whereas an ordinary observation may be casual and
a person may not pay attention to the details.

Suggestion is one of the most important basic concepts in the field of social relations.
Postman believes that our system of social rewards and punishments provides us with strong
motivation to comply with current norms, to accept the standards of the majority and of those in
authority even if we had no part in evolving the standards. Often such conformity becomes
almost automatic, eliminating or severely reducing critical evaluation. When stimulus conditions
are created which lead to uncritical conformity, we speak to suggestions. “ Suggestibility” is the
readiness with which an individual accepts an idea.

English and English (1958) define suggestion as “ The process by which one person
without argument, command, or coercion directly induces another to act in a given way or to
accept a given belief, opinion or plan of action”. According to Boring, “ We may define
suggestion as the acceptance by an individual of a frame of reference without the intervention of
critical thought processes.”

Studies indicate that in experiments like the following one, observation is influenced by
suggestion. The accuracy of the report is greater for simple questions, moderate for detailed and
least for suggestive. This is because simple questions refer to items that are conspicuous, detailed
questions refer to minute items and demand keen observation. Suggestive questions mislead the
subject to accept what is not there in the picture. The other factors which influence suggestibility
are age, intelligence, past experience, mental set etc.
 5

Review of Literature:
Suggestibility, Facebook use and Relationship with Substance Addictive Behavior by B.
Chapoton,E. Sarda,F. Tinquaut,L et al published by Elsevier.
The aim is to test a model in which suggestibility of people can predict SNS use which in
turn can predict substance use. Questionnaire method was used to measure suggestibility, alcohol
consumption, dependence on nicotine and Facebook use. Linear regression and a structural
equation model (SEM) were carried out to assess how suggestibility predicted Facebook use. As
a result, Suggestibility predicts the frequency of Facebook use and of the number of friends on
Facebook. To conclude with this, Individuals’ level of suggestibility affects Facebook use.
People with a higher level of suggestibility are more likely to have many friends on the SNS
resulting in a possible environmental influence on substance use.

Differential contributions of language abilities to children’s eyewitness memory and

Suggestibility by Christina O Perez.
The aim is to identify patterns in how language skills affect children’s event memory and
suggestibility. Across 37 studies examining 3071 children aged 2 to 17 years old, Language
abilities emerged as an important predictor of children’s eyewitness memory and
suggestibility.The results revealed that specific domains of language are differentially related to
children’s memory and suggestibility. Specifically, Expressive and Receptive language abilities
were most consistently related to children’s accuracy during free recall, decreased shifting, and
non leading questions. Overall findings imply a nuanced relationship between language abilities
and children’s testimonial performance.

Immediate and Delayed suggestivity among suspected child victims of sexual abuse by Monia
Vagni, Tiziana Maiorano
Children suspected of being victims of sexual abuse are often interviewed by police, but
little is known about the effects of sexual abuse on their suggestibility. The aim was to
investigate differences in ‘immediate’ and ‘delayed’ suggestibility between children being
investigated as suspected victims of sexual abuse and other children and to compare the
suggestibility scores of children allegedly abused by a family member versus a person from
outside the family. The participants were 180 children aged between 7 and 16 years, who had
 6

been subdivided into ‘victim’ and ‘control’ groups; each group being 90 children and matched
for IQ. All children completed a non-verbal IQ test. The children in the victim group scored
significantly higher on than the control group, after controlling for memory capacity. Children
abused by a family member coped significantly worse than those abused by a non-family
member. Immediate suggestibility showed much stronger effects than delayed suggestibility. The
findings suggest that sexually abused children are very vulnerable and those abused by a family
member are even more vulnerable.
Problems:
To study the effect of suggestion on the accuracy of a report pertaining to simple and
detailed material of observation.
Hypothesis:
“Suggestion reduces accuracy of report”.
Plan:
Expose a picture for sixty seconds. Compare the number of corrected answers for the
two types of questions- Suggestive and Non-Suggestive.
Variables:
❖ Independent Variables:The nature of questions- non suggestive and suggestive.
❖ Dependent variables:The accuracy of the report for items of suggestive and
non-suggestive questions.
Materials:
❖ A Picture with many details mounted on cardboard and covered with a flap.
❖ A list of twenty questions- 10 non suggestive and 10 suggestive. Key to correct answers.
❖ Stop clock.
Procedure:
The subject is seated comfortably before a table on which the picture is placed, covered
with a flap. The subject is instructed to be ready to observe the stopwatch. Expose the picture for
60 seconds. Give the signal ‘stop’ and withdraw the picture. Then present the list of 20 questions
and obtain responses for each. Find out the number of correct answers with the help of the key.
Instructions:
“With the signal “start” I will present a picture, for a brief duration, observe it carefully,
as you will have to answer questions regarding the picture”.
 7

Controls and Precautions:

❖ Non suggestive questions should be direct and suggestive questions should be misleading
so as to make the subject accept what is not in the picture.
❖ Answers to questions must be in one or two words
❖ The subject should not be aware of the aim of the experiment.
Analysis of Data:
❖ Find out the number of correct answers for suggestive and non suggestive questions.
❖ Calculate the mean and SD for the group data.
Points of Discussion:
❖ Discuss whether the subject is influenced by suggestion.
❖ Discuss the mean performance and individual differences if any.

Title No-1 : Contains The Data Of The Subject/Participant L From The Experiment-
Observation & Suggestion

INITIALS SRS NSRS DIFFERENCE

(CORRECT (CORRECT (II-I)
RESPONSE) RESPONSE)

L 5 9 4

Individual Discussion:
The Subject/Participant L is Female who is 18 years old pursuing BA in Psychology,
Theater and Performance studies. She has scored 5 in suggestive responses and 9 in non
suggestive responses which clearly portraits the positive difference of 4. Here the subject’s score
in suggestive responses is lesser compared to score in non suggestive responses and accuracy is
reduced. Hence the Hypothesis stating that “Suggestion reduces accuracy of report” is
supportive in this case.
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Group table: College Students

SL No INITIALS SRS NSRS DIFFERENCE

(CORRECT (CORRECT (II-I)
RESPONSE) RESPONSE)

1 LS 5 6 1

2 AT 7 7 0

3 UK 7 9 2

4 LM 2 9 7

5 MG 3 4 1

6 TM 9 8 -1

7 SH 7 7 0

8 D 5 6 1

9 A 0 5 5

10 L 8 6 -2

TOTAL 53 67 14

MEAN 5.3 6.7 1.4

Group Discussion:
The data from 10 participants from the experiment- OBSERVATION & SUGGESTION.
The total number of suggestive responses is 53 and Non suggestive response is 67. The
difference is 14. The mean of suggestive response is 5.3 and non suggestive response is 6.7 and
the difference in mean is 1.4. Hence the group mean is positive. The group has scored less in
 9

suggestive responses compared to Non-suggestive responses and accuracy is reduced. Hence the
group is supporting the hypothesis stating that “Suggestion reduces accuracy of report” even
though there are individual differences due to certain possible reasons such as age, surrounding
environment, mental set, intelligence level, prior knowledge of experiment etc.
Conclusion:
❖ Hypothesis stating that “Suggestion reduces accuracy of report” is supported by the
subject L
❖ Hypothesis stating that “Suggestion reduces accuracy of report” is supported by the
group, even though there are individual differences due to certain possible reasons such
as Age, Surrounding environment, Mental intelligence, prior knowledge of experiment
etc.
Reference:
❖ Chapoton, B., Sarda, E., Tinquaut, F., Bègue, L., Chirain, A., Brousse, G., Chauvin, F., &
Flaudias, V. (2022, January 13). Suggestibility, Facebook use and relationship with
substance addictive behaviors. L'Encéphale. Retrieved November 17, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001370062100258X
❖ Perez, C. O., London, K., & Otgaar, H. (2021, December 13). A review of the differential
contributions of language abilities to children's eyewitness memory and suggestibility.
Developmental Review. Retrieved November 17, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229721000642
❖ Vagni, M., Maiorano, T., Pajardi, D., & Gudjonsson, G. (2015, February 25). Immediate
and delayed suggestibility among suspected child victims of sexual abuse. Personality and
Individual Differences. Retrieved November 17, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886915000999
❖ Psychology Laboratory Workbook for B.A /B.Sc I Semester- Published by Psychotronics,
#513, Thimmaiah Road, II Phase, Manjunatha Nagar, Bangalore-560010. Phone-
23407713
 10

EXPERIMENT - 2

EFFECTS OF CHUNKING ON RECALL

Introduction:

Chunking is a process by which small bits of information are grouped. This is one of the methods
used in short term memory. It becomes very important when large amounts of information have
to be held in memory because the capacity is limited to seven plus or minus two units. For
example, instead of remembering “b-u-t-t-e-r” as six different letters, we reduce them to one unit
‘butter’ when we chunk them. Miller found that nonsense syllables and digits could be learnt
more efficiently if they could be grouped into chunks. He also found that various levels of
chunking exist, depending on the meaning of material. These are:
1. First order chunks- Here individual letters may be grouped, depending on the meaning,
into a single unit. ‘t-a-b-l-e’ becomes ‘table’.
2. Second order chunks- Words are linked together systematically. For example, ‘the tree’ is
not two units but a single unit.
3. Third order chunks- Here a number of words which come form a part of a phrase are
linked together to form a chunk. E.g- ‘had been eating’.
4. Fourth order chunks- Two or three phases of a large sentence are chunked together to
form one unit. E.g- ‘they took an umbrella because it was raining.’
5. Fifth order chunks- Meaningful sentences become chunks. E.g- ‘he/she is my best
friend.’

There are two types of possible errors in chunkin:

1. Within chunk error (where letters within a chunk are displaced or replaced).
2. Between chunk error (where chunks are replaced or when limits between chunks are not
clear).
The rate at which information can be encoded depends on the size of the chunk formed.
Chunking is not restricted to verbal or numerical material. We can form chunks even when
visual-spatial material is presented.
The storage capacity of STM can be increased by chunking.
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In light of the above information. The following experiment aims to study the effect of chunking
on recall of verbal material - i.e, nonsense syllables are used here. Retention is measured by the
free recall method because this gives us information about the actual storage capacity of STM
with and without chunking.
Review of Literature:

Millers chunking theory investigation and whether that increases the amount of information that
can be stored in STM by Louis Jones.

The aim of this experiment is to see whether chunking does improve the amount of information
that Short term memory can hold. Miller’s chunking theory method was used. Hypothesis is that
participants will recall more information using a chunking method than without a chunking
method. The population is 16-18 years old students who were studying their 11th and 12th
grades.The process was to play mobile numbers and remember them. As a result, Everyone
could remember their mobile number in the chunked process. To conclude with this, the
hypothesis is proved and it supports Miller’s theory. It also supports Attkinson and Shiffrin's idea
that information if not rehearsed then it can be forgotten.

Perceptual chunking and its effect on memory in speech processing by Annie C Gilbert, Victor J
Boucher and Bouthena Jemel.
The aim is to measure the online effects of perceptual chunks on the memory trace of spoken
items. The participants were 16 native speakers of French, aged from 19 to 42 years, who
presented normal hearing levels following a standard audiometric screening. Listeners heard
utterances followed by a word item and were asked to rapidly indicate whether or not the target
word was part of the heard utterances. Targets within the contexts were placed in perceptual
chunks of different size (three or four items) and these chunks appeared in different positions
(first or second) in an utterance. The above results offer a perspective on how heard speech is
chunked and stored online. The findings suggest that listeners perceive speech in perceptual
chunks stored in working memory in a serial order. Overall this indicates that perceptual
chunking can constitute one of those domain-general processes.
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The effects of chunking and distraction on Short term memory recall by Jennifer Sanders
This report aimed to investigate the effects of distraction and chunking on short term memory
performance. A serial recall task was used to investigate this in a sample of 20 male and female
undergraduate students. Each participant completed each condition once. The conditions were
counterbalanced to prevent the possibility of learning effects. Two types of recall stimuli were
used : Chunked ones which have similar themes and non chunked ones which had unrelated
themes The results show that there are significant improvements in recall when the items are
chunked. Hence these findings are discussed in terms of potential means of improving short term
memory.
Problems:
To study the effect of chunking on recall.
Hypothesis:
“Chunking increases the efficiency of recall”
Plan:
Conduct the experiment in two series- without chunking and with chunking. Present each other
stimulus string for two seconds and measure immediate free recall.
Variables:
❖ Independent Variables: The presence or absence of chunks
❖ Dependent variables: The number of letters correctly recalled.
Materials:
❖ Two sets of combinations of letters.
Set ‘a’ : ten strings of nine letters each arranged as ‘cvccvccvc’
(consonant-vowel-consonant and so on) and written on a separate card.
Set ‘b’ : ten strings of nine letters, each arranged as three chunks of ‘cvc’s, with space
separating the chunks, and each string written on a separate card.
❖ Stop Clock.
Procedure:
Series I - Without chunking: Instruct the subject to see the letters exposed on the card at the
ready signal and to recall immediately as many letters from the card as possible. Expose the first
card from set A for two seconds. Allow the subject to recall and write down as many of the
letters as possible. Allow a maximum of fifteen seconds for recall. Now present the second card.
 13

Continue in this way till all the ten cards are exposed. Give a rest period of five minutes before
commencing the second series.
Series II - With chunking: Follow the same procedure above, but use the second set of cards
where the letters are chunked into three ‘cvc’ trigrams.
Instructions:
“I will expose a few cards containing letters, observe carefully and reproduce the letters in the
same order after each card. In case you forget any letter in between, draw a line in that position
and proceed”.
Controls/Precautions:
❖ The time of exposure is limited to two seconds per card.
❖ A five minute rest pause is given between the series.
Analysis Of Data:
❖ Count the number of letters correctly recalled in the right order from each card under
chunked and non chunked conditions.
❖ Find out the average number of letters correctly recalled by the subject with and without
chunking. This gives the average span of STM with or without chunking.
Average span =

Total letters recalled in a series

10 (The Number of strings given)

❖ Calculate the difference using,

D = Score in the chunked series - Score in non chunked series.
❖ Calculate the mean for the group data.
Points Of Discussion:
❖ Discuss whether chunking increased recall and errors in chunking for the subjects results.
❖ Discuss within and between chunk errors for the subject.
❖ Discuss whether the average span of STM increased with chunking for the group
❖ Discuss variations if any.
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Table No-1 The lettres correctly recalled by the subject and the average STM

INITIALS NON-CHUNKED CHUNKED DIFFERENCE

SERIES(I) SERIES(II) (II-I)

AI 6.7 8.3 1.6

Individual Discussion:
The Subject/Participant AI is Female who is 18 years old pursuing BA in Psychology, Theater
and Performance studies. She has scored 6.7 in non chunked series and 8.3 in chunked series
which clearly portraits the positive difference of 1.6. As the subject score is increased in chunked
series compared to non-chunked series. Hence the Hypothesis stating that “Chunking increases
the efficiency of recall” is supportive in this case.
Group Table: The average span of STM for College students in non chunked and chunked
conditions.

SL NO INITIALS NON-CHUNKED CHUNKED DIFFERENCE

SERIES(I) SERIES(II) (II-I)

1 AI 6.7 8.3 1.6

2 AG 8.1 8.7 0.6

3 AA 7.5 8.7 1.2

4 SG 8.1 9.0 0.9

5 PS 5.3 7.5 2.2

6 GM 8.0 8.8 0.8

7 KJ 8.9 9 0.1

8 AP 3.6 5.4 1.8

9 RR 6.4 8.1 1.7

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10 AR 6.1 7.7 1.6

TOTAL 68.7 81.2 12.5

MEAN 6.87 8.12 1.25

Group Discussion:
The data from 10 participants of the experiment- EFFECT OF CHUNKING ON RECALL. The
total score in non chunked series is 68.7 and chunked series is 81.2. The difference is 12.5. The
mean of non chunked series is 6.87 and chunked series is 8.12 and the difference in mean is 1.25.
Hence the group mean is positive. It shows that the group has been observed to score well in
chunked series compared to non chunked series. Group is supporting the hypothesis stating that
“Chunking increases the efficiency of recall” even though there are individual differences due
to certain possible reasons such as Age, Surrounding environment, Mental set, intelligence level,
prior knowledge of experiment etc..
Conclusion:
❖ Hypothesis stating that “Chunking increases the efficiency of recall” is supported by
the subject AI
❖ Hypothesis stating that “Chunking increases the efficiency of recall” is supported by
the group, even though there are individual differences due to certain possible reasons
such as Age, Surrounding environment, prior knowledge of experiment etc..
Reference:
❖ The effect of chunking on memory recall in STM. - a-level psychology - marked by
teachers.com. Marked by Teachers. (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2022, from
https://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/psychology/the-effect-of-chunking-on
-memory-recall-in-stm.html
❖ (PDF) perceptual chunking and its effect on memory in speech processing ... (n.d.).
Retrieved November 21, 2022, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261189375_Perceptual_chunking_and_its_effec
t_on_memory_in_speech_processing_ERP_and_behavioral_evidence
 16

❖ The effects of chunking and distraction on short term memory recall - A-level psychology
- marked by teachers.com. Marked by Teachers. (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2022,
from
https://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/psychology/the-effects-of-chunking-a
nd-distraction-on-short-term-memory-recall.html
❖ Psychology Laboratory Workbook for B.A /B.Sc I Semester- Published by Psychotronics,
#513, Thimmaiah Road, II Phase, Manjunatha Nagar, Bangalore-560010. Phone-
23407713
17
 18

EXPERIMENT - 3

HABIT INTERFERENCE

Introduction:
Habit interference or Negative Transfer refers to the inhibition of performance produced by prior
learning- that is, when previous learning disrupts the performance of a subsequent task. In a new
situation, performance would be poorer than it would have been without previous training. Habit
interference can be studied by making use of a pack of cards and two sets of pigeon holes, the
cards are sorted differently into the two sets. Maximum negative transfer effect can be expected
because the two tasks present the same stimuli and call for the same response but with all
partners changed from one task to the other. The results of such experiments show marked
negative transfer.
Review Of Literature:
Effectiveness of counseling methods in reducing smoking habits for patients with cardiovascular
disease by Toar Calvin Christo Paat, Syahrul
The aim of this experiment is to evaluate the effectiveness of smoking cessation programs in the
form of face-to-face counseling combined with telephone counseling for Cardiovascular patients.
The participants were more 18+ years old, active smokers of at least one cigarette per day who
have heart and blood vessel problems. This study identified five articles that fit the criteria. The
five studies show that face-to-face counseling combined with telephone counseling is effective in
reducing smoking behavior. Moreover, it decreased urinary nicotine levels, increased
self-efficacy, improved dietary habits, and increased physical activity scores, and stress
management.This study revealed that smoking cessation programs in the form of face-to-face
counseling combined with telephone counseling could reduce smoking habits in cardiovascular
patients.

Effects of orthodontic treatment on body mass index, food habits and self-esteem of patients by
Vimalagnanasambadanam, Sangeetha M Gnaneshwar.
The research aimed to determine whether long-term changes in BMI(Body mass index),
self-esteem, and food habits occur in patients during the first year of orthodontic treatment.BMI
was calculated for 120 patients undergoing orthodontic treatment.Rosenberg's self-esteem scale
 19

was used for scoring self-esteem. The Food Habit Assessment Scale was used to study changes
in eating habits.At the end of 12 months, 43.4% of patients had a decrease in BMI, 45.8% had a
mild to moderate increase in BMI, and 10.8% of patients maintained their BMI levels.
Self-esteem changes were statistically significant for both genders. Changes in food habits were
also significant.

The influence of physical exercise on behavioral habits, kinesiophobia, and disability in people
with low back pain by Bianca Andrade Monteiro Da Silva, Grazeille Martins Gelain
This report aimed to compare the intensity of low back pain (LBP), behavioral habits, and the
level of disability and kinesiophobia among exercising and non-exercising subjects.Consecutive
sample of 102 individuals was divided into exercising group (EG) and non-exercising group
(NEG).The data was extracted from the answers to the questionnaires Back Pain and Body
Posture Evaluation Instrument (BackPEI-A), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI). There was
significant difference between the groups for the risk of occurrence of LBP and for levels of
incapacity and kinesiophobia related to work.Hence Exercising individuals appear to present
with a lower risk for occurrence of LBP, lower level of disability, and absence of work-related
kinesiophobia.
Problems:
To study Negative transfer of training with the help of Card sorting.
Hypothesis:
“Habit formation negatively influences new learning.”
Plan:
Conduct the experiment in two series, and compare the time scores.
Variables:
❖ Independent Variables: Change in the order of card sorting.
❖ Dependent variables: Time score.
Material:
❖ Card sorting tray with two sections 'A' and 'B'. Each divided into four compartments.
The order in which designs are placed is different in the two sections.
❖ A set of 20 cards. (The cards consist of four subsets of ten cards each. Each subset has a
different design.)
 20

❖ Stop Clock.

Procedure:
Series I : The card sorting tray is placed on a table. The Subject sorts the cards standing in front
of the tray. The cards are shuffled thoroughly, and the Subject is asked to hold the cards face-up.
The Subject is instructed that the pack of cards have different designs. Section 'A' of the tray, has
four compartments, each marked with a design. The Subject has to take each card, and place it in
the compartment with the corresponding design. When an error is made, the Subject has to pick
up the card immediately, and place it in the correct compartment. The Subject has to work as fast
as possible, and try to reduce the time taken to sort from trial to trial. But, he/she must not
sacrifice accuracy for speed. Instruct the Subject to begin, and start the stop clock
simultaneously. Give five such trials and note down the time taken in each trial.
Series II: On the sixth trial, Section 'B' of the tray is placed before the subject. The Subject is
asked to sort the cards again. The time taken is noted.
Instructions:
"With the signal 'start' start sorting the cards into their respective compartments of the tray.
Whenever you place a card in the wrong compartment, place it back correctly. Work fast".
Controls/Precautions:
❖ The Subject should not change his/her position during any part of the experiment.
❖ The cards must be shuffled thoroughly.
❖ Whenever the Subject places a card in the wrong compartment, he/ she has to rectify the
mistake.
Analysis Of Data:
❖ The time score of the sixth trial is compared with that of the fifth trial for evidence of
negative transfer of learning for the subject.
❖ The average time score of the 6th trial is compared with the mean of the 5th trial for the
group.
❖ The time scores for all the six trials are plotted on a graph, both for the individual and
group.
Points Of Discussion:
 21

❖ Discuss whether Negative Transfer of Learning has taken place, in the subject as well as
the group.
❖ Discuss individual differences if any.
Table No-1 : Individual table

SERIES 1 (A)
INITIAL SERIES 2 DIFFERENC
(B) E (2-1)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

A 30.6 27 27.5 23.1 25.1 25.2 0.1

Individual Discussion:
The Subject/Participant A is Female who is 18 years old pursuing BA in Psychology, Theater
and Performance studies. The subject has taken five trials and average scores(time taken in
seconds) 25.1 in Series 1(A) and taken one trial, scoring(time taken in seconds) 25.2 in Series
2(B) which clearly portrays the difference of 0.1. It clearly portrays that the subject is taking
longer time to place cards in second series due to habit formation in first series.Hence the
Hypothesis stating that “Habit formation negatively influences new learning.” is supported in
this case.
Group Table : The average span of STM for College students in non chunked and chunked
conditions.

SL No INITIALS Series-1 (A) Series-2 (B) Difference (2-1)

1 A 25.1 25.2 0.1

2 SZ 27 21 -6

3 KJ 23 23.4 0.4

4 LJ 38 29 -9

5 TM 22 25 3

6 DC 21 27 6
 22

7 PS 31 30 -1

8 HP 27 29 2

9 AP 23 25 2

10 NH 20 23 3

TOTAL 257.1 257.6 0.5

MEAN 25.71 25.76 0.05

Group Discussion:
The data from 10 participants of the experiment- HABIT INTERFERENCE. The total score(time
taken in seconds) in Series 1(A) is 257.1 and Series 2(B) is 257.6. The Difference is 0.5. The
mean of Series 1(A) is 25.71 and Series 2(B) is 25.76 and the Difference in mean is 0.05. Hence
the group mean is positive. It clearly portrays that the group is taking longer to place cards in the
second series due to habit formation in the first series. Group is supporting the hypothesis stating
that “Habit formation negatively influences new learning.” Even though there are individual
differences due to certain possible reasons such as Age, Fatigue, Tired of repeating the process,
Lack of interest, Exhaustion,Misplacement of cards, prior knowledge of experiment etc..
Conclusion:
❖ Hypothesis stating that “Habit formation negatively influences new learning.” is
supported by Subject A.
❖ Hypothesis stating that “Habit formation negatively influences new learning.” is
supported by the group, even though there are individual differences due to certain
possible reasons such as Age, Age, Fatigue, Tired of repeating the process, Lack of
interest, Exhaustion,Misplacement of cards, prior knowledge of experiment etc..
References:
❖ Paat, T. C. C., & Syahrul, S. (2021, December 22). Effectiveness of counseling methods
in reducing smoking habits for patients with cardiovascular disease: A literature review.
Enfermería Clínica. Retrieved November 21, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1130862121001959
 23

❖ Gnanasambandam, V., & Gnaneswar, S. M. (2022, February 19). Effects of orthodontic

treatment on body mass index, food habits and self-esteem of patients: A prospective
single-arm cohort study. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences. Retrieved
November 21, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1658361222000439
❖ Silva, B. A. M. da, Gelain, G. M., & Candotti, C. T. (2021, July 13). The influence of
physical exercise on behavioral habits, kinesiophobia, and disability in people with low
back pain: A retrospective cross-sectional study. Journal of Bodywork and Movement
Therapies. Retrieved November 21, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1360859221001480
❖ Psychology Laboratory Workbook for B.A /B.Sc I Semester- Published by Psychotronics,
#513, Thimmaiah Road, II Phase, Manjunatha Nagar, Bangalore-560010. Phone-
23407713
 24

EXPERIMENT - 4

BILATERAL TRANSFER

Introduction:
The effect of past learning on new learning is designated as ‘transfer of training', According to
Hilgard "The influence that learning one task may have on subsequent learning or performance
of another task is called "Transfer of training". Transfer of training is one of the most pervasive
characteristics of behavior, for it is this which guarantees the continuity and lawful development
of habits of ever-growing complexity.
The effects of past learning on new learning may be classified in one of the three categories.
1. Positive Transfer - Occurs when past experience facilitates the acquisition of a new skill or the
solution of a new problem.
2. Negative Transfer - Occurs when past experience renders more difficult or slows down the
acquisition of a new skill or the solution of a new problem.
3. Cross Education - Refers to the facilitation of performance with one part of the body, when
practice is given to another part of the body. When cross education is from one body organ to its
symmetrical counterpart it is called Bilateral transfer. It is usually demonstrated by a mirror
tracing board. Starch (1910) was the first to apply the mirror drawing method in the study of
bilateral transfer. Studies indicate that Bilateral transfer is a form of positive transfer where
subjects do better after training.
Here we study the effect of training the preferred hand on the
performance of the non-preferred hand.
Review of Literature:
Effects of Physical practice and Imagery practice on Bilateral transfer in Learning a Sequential
Tapping Task by William M Land, Binya Luo, Alberto Cordova
This experiment examined the relative effects of physical practice and imagery practice over an
extended practice duration on the learning of a sequential tapping task using both a trained
non-dominant limb and untrained dominant limb.Forty-five right handed (self-reported) college
students participated in this study.The participants were instructed to learn a sequential tapping
task on a computer’s numerical keypad with their non-dominant hand. With respect to
performance during the test phase using the trained non-dominant limb, the results of this
 25

experiment supported the assumption that increasing the duration of the practice session would
reduce or eliminate the advantage of imagery over physical practice.

The study of Bilateral transfer of Badminton Short Service skill of Dominant hand to Non
dominant hand and vice versa by Shahzad Tahmasebi Boroujenia, Mehdi Shahbazi
The aim of this research was to consider the bilateral transfer in badminton short service
skill.The population in this research consisted of 200 female students in University of Tehran,
who 36 of them were chosen randomly.Validity and reliability coefficients reported. Serve must
pass between rope and net and land in the target area The objective of the test was to measure the
ability to serve accurately with a low and short placement. The results showed that the transfer of
learning skills has been happening from dominant hand limb to nondominant hand limb
significantly.
The direction of bilateral transfer depends on the performance parameter by Zhujun Pan, Arend
W.A van Gemmert.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanisms behind bilateral transfer by
examining the directional distribution of several performance parameters in a multidirectional
point-to-point drawing task under altered visual feedback. Thirty-two students of Louisiana State
University with a mean age of 21 yrs participated in the experiment. They were right-hand
dominant, six participants scored 0.6, while all others scored 0.8 or higher. The results from
“L-R-L” (right hand training, left hand performance measured before and after training) and
“R-L-R” (left hand training, right hand performance measured before and after training) showed
that bilateral transfer is symmetric for movement.
Problems:
To study Bilateral Transfer through mirror drawing.
Hypothesis:
“Training given to one hand has a positive effect on performance of the other hand.”
Plan:
Give one trial to trace the star pattern with the non-preferred hand, then five trials with the
preferred hand and then again, one trial with the non-preferred hand. Compare the performance
of the non-preferred hand before and after training to the preferred hand.
Variables:
 26

❖ Independent Variables:Training given to the preferred hand.

❖ Dependent variables:Time taken and errors committed in the trials of the non- preferred
hand.
Material:
❖ Mirror tracing board.
❖ Battery.
❖ Error counter.
❖ Stop-clock.
Procedure:
Connect the Mirror tracing board and error counter.
Series I - Non-preferted hand before training.
The Subject is asked to trace the pattern with the stylus with His/ Her non-preferred hand, not
looking at the star directly but seeing its reflection in the mirror. The Subject should trace the star
without touching the sides Whenever this happens, the counter makes a clicking sound indicating
an error. Give the signal to start and start the Stopwatch simultaneously. Note the time taken and
the errors committed to trace the pattern using the non-preferred hand.
Training - Give five trials to the subject to trace the stapatten with the preferred hand. Note the
time taken and the errors committed In each trial.
Series II - Non-preferred hand after training.
Following the same procedure, ask the Subject to trace the pattern with the non-preferred hand
again. Note the time and error scores.
Note : While tracing the star pattern, follow clockwise direction
for the right hand and anticlockwise direction for the left hand.
Instructions:
“At the signal 'start', start tracing the pattern with the stylus without touching the edges, as fast as
possible until you reach the starting point. When you touch the edges, you will hear a sound
which is counted as an error. While tracing, do not look at the star pattern directly, look only at
its reflection in the mirror.”
Controls/Precautions:
❖ The Subject should not see the star pattern directly while tracing.
❖ The Subject must avoid touching the edge of the groove as much as possible.
 27

Analysis Of Data:
❖ Compare time and error scores of the non preferred hand before and after training
❖ Plot time and error scores on the graph for preferred and non-preferred hands.
❖ Compute Mean for the group.
Points Of Discussion:
❖ Discuss whether Training given to the preferred hand has improved learning in the
non-preferred hand with the help of the graph, for the subject and for the group.
❖ Compare the learning curve of the Subject and the Group for the preferred hand.
Table No-1 : Non-preferred hand of Subject HP

SERIES 1 SERIES 2
INITIAL
TIME TAKEN ERRORS TIME TAKEN ERRORS

HP 47.60 20 33.30 36

Table No-2: Preferred hand of Subject HP

T-1 T-2 T-3 T-4 T-5

INITIAL
TT E TT E TT E TT E TT E

HP 50.72 40 35.15 40 29.53 32 22.58 15 25.09 19

Individual Discussion:

The subject/Participant HP is Female who is 18 years old pursuing BA in Psychology, Theatre

and Performance Studies. The subject has taken two trials in non-preferred hand, one in the start
where the subject completed tracing in 47.60 seconds with 20 errors and one in the end where the
subject completed tracing in 33.30 seconds with 36 errors. In the preferred hand, the subject took
five trials showing good performance of decreasing the time of tracing and errors. But the subject
disproves the hypothesis stating that “Training given to one hand has a positive effect on
performance of the other hand.” as her performance doesn't improve in her non preferred hand
due to Exhaustion, focus only on time, Lack of interest etc.
 28

Group table:

SERIES 1 SERIES 2
SL NO INITIAL
TT E TT E

1 HP 47.60 20 33.30 36

2 TM 39 20 18 35

3 MG 48 39 11 24

4 LJ 25 24 33 34

5 LT 11 29 8 24

6 AP 29 12 14 5

7 N 108 24 61 13

8 P 44 10 40 4

9 GM 210 102 30 13

10 A 41 31 26 14

TOTAL 602.6 311 274.3 212

MEAN 60.26 31.1 27.43 21.2

Group Discussion:

The data from 10 participants of the experiment- Bilateral Transfer. In Series 1, The total score
of time taken is 602.6 and errors are 311. The mean for the same is 60.26 for time taken and 31.1
for errors. In Series 2, The total score of time taken is 274.3 and errors are 212. The mean for the
same is 27.43 for time taken and 21.2 for errors.This defines that group has reduced their time
taken of tracing with minimal errors in the second series. It clearly portrays that the group is
supporting the hypothesis stating that “Training given to one hand has a positive effect on
performance of the other hand.” even though there are individual differences due to certain
possible reasons such as age, exhaustion, hurry, focus only on time etc.
 29

Conclusion:

❖ Hypothesis stating that “Training given to one hand has a positive effect on
performance of the other hand.” is rejected by subject HP due to exhaustion, hurry to
finish the tracing soon and focus only on time.
❖ Hypothesis stating that “Training given to one hand has a positive effect on
performance of the other hand.” is supported by the group, even though there are
individual differences due to certain possible reasons such as Age, Age, exhaustion,
hurry, focus only on time etc.
References:

❖ Land WM;Liu B;Cordova A;Fang M;Huang Y;Yao WX; (n.d.). Effects of physical
practice and imagery practice on bilateral transfer in learning a sequential tapping task.
PloS one. Retrieved November 21, 2022, from
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27050168/
❖ TahmasebiBoroujeniPersonEnvelopeMehdiShahbazi,
TahmasebiBoroujeniPersonEnvelope, S., MehdiShahbazi, & AbstractThe aim of this
research was to consider the bilateral transfer in badminton short service skill.
Researchers in recent years found out that the transfer principle has been inevitable in
learning and learning has been facilitated through transfer. (2011, June 10). The study of
bilateral transfer of badminton short service skill of dominant hand to non- dominant
hand and vice versa. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. Retrieved November 21,
2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042811008044
❖ GemmertPersonEnvelope, ZhujunPanEnvelope, GemmertPersonEnvelope, A. W. A.,
AbstractTo acquire a more comprehensive understanding of the learning benefits
associated with bilateral transfer and to gain knowledge of possible mechanisms behind
bilateral transfer, Mier, H. I. van, Gemmert, A. W. A. van, Teixeira, L. A., Taylor, H. G.,
Poston, B., Parlow, S. E., Oldfield, R. C., Chang, J. J., Alberts, J. L.,
Criscimagna-Hemminger, S. E., Gazzaniga, M. S., Hellige, J. B., Hicks, R. E., Imamizu,
H., & Ketcham, C. J. (2013, April 1). The direction of bilateral transfer depends on the
performance parameter. Human Movement Science. Retrieved November 21, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167945712000486
 30

❖ Psychology Laboratory Workbook for B.A /B.Sc I Semester- Published by Psychotronics,

#513, Thimmaiah Road, II Phase, Manjunatha Nagar, Bangalore-560010. Phone-
23407713
 31

EXPERIMENT - 5

STROOP EFFECT

Introduction:
Cognitive styles are an important variable that determine the manner of handling information.
They refer to the consistent modes of responding to, organizing and using information.
The stroop effect is one example of cognitive inhibition and the hypothesis of parallel
processing. (Parallel processing involves interpreting a stimulus input at different levels, for
example, verbal and non-verbal) In studies of the stroop effect words are written in different
color inks and subjects are required to name the color of the ink in which the word is written.
The reaction time to name the color is shortened if the word 'green' for example is written in
green ink, and so on. However, there is interference, that is, a slowing down of reaction time and
increase in the errors if the colors represented by the word and the ink disagree.
Once an activity becomes automatic it will be repeated simply by directing attention to the
appropriate input. Therefore, when we direct attention to printed words, we read them
automatically. The inability to read when the verbal and non verbal information disagree is
revealed by the Stroop effect. This phenomenon has been named after J. Ridly Stroop.
Problems:
To determine the stroop effect (I.e. finding that the subject has difficulty in eliminating irrelevant
information from a task).
Hypothesis:
“ Irrelevant stimulus information hinders the subject's performance.”
Plan:
To conduct the experiment in two series -
1. Without irrelevant stimuli
2. With irrelevant stimuli.
To compare the time taken and the accuracy of responses in the second series with that of the
first series.
Variables:
❖ Independent Variables:Irrelevant information.
❖ Dependent variables:
 32

1. The time taken by the subject to complete each list.

2. Errors made by the subject in each list.
Material:
Two lists of twenty words (color names) each.
❖ The first list consists of names of colors written in the corresponding ink. For example:
'Red' is written in red color, 'blue' is written in blue color and so on.
❖ The second list consists of names of colors, with the names of the colors written in a
different ink. For example: The word 'blue' may be written in red color and the word
green may be written in blue color and so on.
❖ A key giving the correct responses for each list.
❖ Stopwatch and writing materials.
Procedure:
Series-I: The subject is seated comfortably and instructed that he/ she will be given a chart on
which names of the colors are written. He/ she is asked to call out the color in which each word
is written.
The stop-watch is started and the subject starts calling out the colors of the ink in which the
words are written. The experimenter checks with the key at the same time. Any error made by
the subject is noted down.
The time taken to complete reading the list is also noted down.
Series I : The same procedure is repeated using the second list.
Note: In the second series, an error is responding to the word instead of the color in which it is
written.
Instructions:
Series-I & II :"I will give you a list of names of colors.
Call out the colors of the ink, in which each word is written."
Controls/Precautions:
❖ Clear instructions must be given to the subject to call out the color of the ink in which the
word is written.
❖ The subject should not be stopped if he/she makes an error.
❖ The subjects first response has to be noted down.
❖ The experimenter must copy the key and put a tick mark against the correct responses.
 33

❖ The first response by the subject is taken into consideration.

Analysis Of Data:
❖ Find out the time taken to complete reading each list.
❖ Find out the errors made by the subject in each list.
❖ Calculate the mean and range for the group data.
❖ Compare the first series with the 2nd series.
Points Of Discussion:
❖ Discuss the errors made in each series.
❖ Discuss the time taken in each series.
❖ Discuss the mean performance and the individual differences.
 34

EXPERIMENT - 6

MULLERLYER ILLUSION

Introduction:
Geometrical illusions, of which Muller-Lyer is an illustration, is an example of how our
discriminal processes do not faithfully represent the objective world. We do not always see
things as they exist in physically measured reality. In the Muller-Lyer illusion we tend to
underestimate the length of the arrowhead line. The constant error gives the quantitative measure
of the extent of the illusion. The movement error is the bias which the subject may have for
moving the variable outward (ascending series) as compared to moving it inward (descending
series) or vice-versa.
Problems:
To determine the extent of Muller-Lyer Illusion by the method of average error.
Hypothesis:
“ The extent of illusion varies with the direction o f movement (Ascending andDescending).”
Plan:
Ascending and descending series to be done alternately. In each trial, the subject manipulates the
variable stimulus to make it equal to the standard length of 16
cms.
Variables:
❖ Independent Variables:The direction in which the subject varies the length o f the variable
line.
❖ Dependent variables:The error committed by the subject.
Material:
❖ The Muller-Lyer Illusion Board.
❖ Writing Materials.
Procedure:
The subject is made to sit comfortably. The apparatus is placed at a distance of two feet from the
subject and the Mullerlyer Illusion Board is adjusted to the eye level of the subject. The subject
is shown the standard and variable lines.
 35

Ascending series: Keep the variable line definitely shorter than the standard line in the ascending
series. Instruct the subject to slowly increase the length of the variable line, till he/she feels it is
equal to the standard line. When the subject stops moving, the length of the variable line adjusted
as equal to the standard line is noted down with the help of the scale provided behind the
apparatus, by the experimenter. Ten trials are given.
Descending series: The length of the variable line is kept definitely longer than the standard line
in the descending series. The subject is instructed to slowly decrease the length of the variable
line till he/she feels it is equal to the standard line. The length of the variable line adjusted as
equal to the standard line is noted down with the help of the scale behind the apparatus by the
experimenter. Ten trials are given here also.
NOTE : The ascending and descending trials are given alternately to eliminate practice effect.
Instructions:
Ascending Series: "The line between the two arrow heads is the standard line and its length
remains constant. The line between the two feather- beads is the variable line and its length can
be varied by manipulation. In this series the variable line is held shorter than the standard line.
Slowly increase the length of the variable line till you feel it is equal to the standard line".
Controls:
❖ The distance between the subject and the apparatus should be two feet.
Precautions:
❖ Ascending Series: "The line between the two arrow heads is the standard line and its
length remains constant. The line between the two feather-heads is the variable line and
its length can be varied by manipulation. In this series the variable line is held shorter
than the standard line. Slowly increase the length of the variable line till you feel it is
equal to the standard line".
❖ Descending Series: "Now the variable line is held longer than the standard. Decrease the
length of the variable line. Stop when you feel that the length of the variable line is equal
to the length of the standard line".
Analysis Of Data:
❖ In each trial, the subject's judgment of the length of the variable line is noted by the
experimenter. This is the point of subjective equality (PSE).
❖ The mean PSE is calculated for each series.
 36

❖ The constant error (CE) is calculated in each series.

CE (Asc.) = Mean PSE (Asc.) - Standard Line (16 cms).
CE (Des.) = Mean PSE (Des.) - Standard Line (16 cms).
❖ Calculate the Mean CE
Mean = CE (Asc.) + CE (Des.) / 2
❖ The movement Error is calculated by using the formula
|Mean PSE@a) - Mean PSE(Asc)| / 2
Points Of Discussion:
❖ Discuss whether the method of presentation has affected the subject's extent of illusion.
 37

EXPERIMENT - 7

EFFECT OF CUEING ON RECALL

Introduction:
A cue is defined as a signal, which elicits behavior based on previous in recall experiments,
many errors are caused by retrieval problems. It has been demonstrated by experiments that the
problem of recall is related not only to storage but also the way in which information is stored.
This will facilitate recall when proper cues are given.
The Cued-recall procedure is a form of memory testing that incorporates particular cues for
recall of specific information. In a typical cued recall experiment, the To-Be-Recalled (TBR)
information consists of words in a study list. The cues are reminders that have been carefully
selected based on their relationship to the TBR words. Usually cues are other words related to
the TBR words, though figures, colors etc. can also be used. In most cases one cue is given for
each target word, though in some cases, more than one cue may be given for the same target
word.
Experiments have shown that recall depends on the following factors:-
❖ The type of material- The material used is usually verbal because it is easy to work with
and easy to organize into categories.
❖ The number of items per cue- The effect of list length is less prominent in cued recall than
in free recall.
❖ The rate of presentation - If the items are presented slowly and there is more time
available between successive items, the number of items recalled is greater. The rate of
presentation in many experiments is 2 to 3 seconds per item.
❖ The mode of study - If, for example, the subjects think of the meaning of the words rather
than the letters, recall will be better.
❖ The nature of the cue - That is, whether a cue is another word, geometric pattern, a
different color etc.
With the above background, the following experiment aims to study the relative efficiency of
Cued recall and free recall. It is based on an experiment conducted by G.Wood, to measure Cued
recall and Free Recall.
 38

Problems:
To study the effect of Cueing on recall.
Hypothesis:
“Cueing has a positive effect on recall.”
Plan:
Compare recall under the two conditions of free and cued recall - each given in a separate series.
Variables:
❖ Independent Variables:The Presence of cues in the second series.
❖ Dependent variables:The number of words correctly recalled in each list.
Material:
❖ Two lists of words of thirty words each, where -
1. The words in list A are selected randomly.
2. The words in list B are selected in such a way that they fall into five categories
with six words in each category.
❖ Plain response sheet for recall of list 'A'.
❖ Response sheet with the names of the five categories printed on them for recall of list B.
❖ Stop Clock.
Procedure:
Series 1- Free Recall: Instruct the Subject that the Experimenter will present a list of words
verbally. The Subject has to listen carefully so as to recall them later. Present list Ani an even
tone at the rate of two seconds per word. Then give the Subject the plain response sheet and ask
him/her to recall the list. Allow three minutes for recall.
Allow a five-minute rest pause before beginning the second series.
Series 2 - Cued Recall: Present list B in the same manner as list A. Then give the Subject the
response sheet with the names of the five categories and ask the Subject to write down as many
words from the list as he/she can recall. Allow three minutes for recall.
Instructions:
Listen to the words attentively as I read them out, as you have to recall them later.
Controls:
❖ The time of exposure is limited to two seconds per word.
❖ A five-minute rest pause is given between series to avoid fatigue.
 39

Analysis Of Data:
❖ Find the number of words correctly recalled from each by separately.
❖ Calculate the difference: Difference= Score in series 2 - Score in series 1
❖ Calculate Mean and SD for the group.
Points Of Discussion:
❖ Discuss whether Cueing has had a positive effect on recall.
❖ Discuss variations in the group if any.