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BADMINTON COACH EDUCATION
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
Published by:
BADMINTON WORLD FEDERATION
Unit 1, Level 29
Naza Tower, Platinum Park
10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188
Fax +603 2303 9688
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.bwf.sport
© Badminton World Federation
ISBN National Centre – National Library of Malaysia

eISBN 978-967-2788-80-5
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed,

or transmitted without the prior written permission of the BWF.
01. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The BWF would like to acknowledge and thank the following individuals and organisations who have
made a significant contribution to the development of this resource and the other components of the
BWF Level 3 Coach Education Course.
MATERIALS WRITERS
• Mike Woodward
• Kenneth Larsen
• Ian Wright
• Sharon Springer
EDITOR
• Sharon Springer
CONTINENTAL CONFEDERATIONS
• Badminton Africa www.badmintonafrica.com

• Badminton Asia www.badmintonasia.org
• Badminton Europe www.badmintoneurope.com
• Badminton Pan Am www.badmintonpanam.org
• Badminton Oceania www.badmintonoceania.org
MORE INFORMATION
The resources for BWF Coach Education Level 3 are available in different languages. The materials
can be downloaded from the BWF website.

Unit No. 1, Level 29
10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
Email [email protected]
www.bwf.sport
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE 1
BWF COACH EDUCATION FRAMEWORK AND PHILOSOPHY
01. BWF Coach Education Framework 1
02. Progression from Level 1 through Level 3 2
03. Linking into National/Regional Systems 3
04. Towards an Effective Player Pathway 3
MODULE 2
TALENT DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION
01. Introduction 4
02. Key Terminology 5
03. Issues for Consideration 10
MODULE 3
TALENT DEVELOPMENT MODELS
01. Introduction 13
02. Bloom 14
03. Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) 14
04. Martindale, R. J., Collins, D., & Daubney, J. 16
05. Côté & Hancock 17
MODULE 4
PLAYER DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
01. Introduction 19
02. Key Terminology in Player Development 20
03. Goals for Different Stages 22
04. Coaching Characteristics at Different Stages 31
05. Competition at Different Stages 32
06. F.I.T.T. at Different Stages 33
07. Parental Support at Different Stages 35
MODULE 5
TOWARDS AN EFFECTIVE TALENT DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM
01. Introduction 37
02. Characteristics of Effective Systems 37
03. Talent & Environment 38
04. Elements of Successful Environments 39
05. Competition in Both Development and Performance 43
06. Stakeholder Buy-In 44
07. Establishing a Talent Development System 44
MODULE 6
THE ELITE END OF THE SPECTRUM
01. Introduction 46
02. The Role of Motivation 46
03. The Training Environment 47
04. Relevant Actors in the Environment 47
05. The Importance of Goal Orientations 49
06. Creating Effective Elite Badminton Environments 50
MODULE 7
HOW LEARNING HAPPENS AT THE ELITE LEVEL
01. Introduction 51
02. The Concept of Complexity 51
03. Learning Theories 53
04. Reflection as a Crucial Tool for Learning 58
MODULE 8
COMMUNICATION AND COACHING
01. Introduction 62
02. Understanding How Communication Takes Place 62
03. Systemic Coaching with Elite Players 65
04. Cultural Aspects in Elite Coaching Contexts 70
MODULE 9
TEAMWORK AND GROUP DYNAMICS
01. Introduction 75
02. Recognition and Teamwork 75
03. Using Peer Feedback 79
04. Handling Conflicts 82
MODULE 10
TECHNICAL & TACTICAL ASPECTS AT THE ELITE LEVEL
01. Introduction 85
02. How Do Elite Players Anticipate? 85
03. Practicing Anticipation Skills with Elite Players 86
04. Exercises for Developing Anticipation Skills 87
05. Connecting Technical and Tactical Practice 87
MODULE 11
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS FOR WHEN
TO COACH
01. Introduction 89
02. Skeletal System 89
03. Muscular System 91
04. Endocrine System 93
MODULE 12
BIOMECHANICS
01. Introduction 97
02. Key Terminology and Units of Measurement 98
03. Principles of Motion 104
04. On-Court Application 107
05. Application to Specific Strokes 109
06. Application to Court Movement 117
07. Application to Fitness Testing 119
MODULE 13
MOTOR LEARNING
01. Introduction 121
02. Ability and Skill 122
03. Nervous System 127
04. Interactions between Nerves and Muscles 130
05. Processing Information 132
06. Limits to Information Processing 140
07. Memory Systems 142
08. Closed Loop Model 144
09. Open Loop Control 145
10. Open and Closed Loop Combined 148
11. Generalised Motor Programmes 149
12. Feedback and Motor Learning 150
13. Motor Learning and Attentional Focus 154
14. Skill Acquisition and Implicit/Explicit Learning 156
SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE BWF COACH EDUCATION
PROGRAMME
SECTION INTRODUCTION
The Level 3 course is situated within the overall BWF Coach Education Framework. This
introductory section explains the aims of this course, while also providing an overview of the
complete framework and how this course fits into the bigger picture.
Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto

COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 1
BWF COACH EDUCATION
FRAMEWORK AND
PHILOSOPHY
MODULE 1
BWF COACH EDUCATION FRAMEWORK AND
PHILOSOPHY
01. BWF Coach Education Framework 1
02. Progression from Level 1 through Level 3 2
03. Linking into National/Regional Systems 3
04. Towards an Effective Player Pathway 3

10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
www.bwf.sport
1
01. BWF COACH EDUCATION FRAMEWORK

This Level 3 Coaches’ Manual is part of the BWF Coach Education Framework, summarised below.
COURSE / AWARD TARGET GROUP FORMAT CONTENT OUTCOMES / ASSESSMENT

SCHOOLS Current or training 8-hour course: Basic badminton skills and Ability to plan and deliver safe,
BADMINTON teachers (physical knowledge - technical, structured and fun badminton activities
TEACHING education or • One-day format, or physical and tactical elements and sessions.
CERTIFICATE classroom) – and how to deliver safe and
• 8 one-hour
(SHUTTLE TIME) fun badminton sessions for Assessed by course tutor
modules, or
children
• blended learning
(online component
plus four-hour face-
to-face session)
COACH Motivated candidates • Four-day course, or Basic coaching principles Demonstration of basic coaching
LEVEL 1 with basic badminton competencies through effective
experience / • 2 x two-day course How to coach - Level 1 – planning, delivery, review and
knowledge; PE with guided basic coaching methodology evaluation of linked coaching sessions
teachers with coaching practice in
badminton teaching between, or What to coach - Level 1 - Safe management of group activities
certificate technical, tactical, physical
• blended learning
and psychological elements Assessed by course tutor
(online prerequisite
plus two-and-a-half-
Planning and delivery of
day face-to-face
progressive coaching
session)
sessions (for badminton and/
Can also be adapted or Para badminton)
to Olympic Solidarity
MODULE 1
Technical Course
format
COACH Level 1 coaches or Minimum six days of Coaching principles Ability to construct and deliver annual
LEVEL 2 equivalent (approved tutored activities, plus training and competition plans
by BWF) tasked and guided How to coach - Level 2
coaching practice, and coaching techniques Design of individual training plans and
Players with national planning programmes underpinned by sports
What to coach - Level 2 -
COACHES’ MANUAL
/ international science principles
technical, tactical, physical,
badminton experience Can also be adapted
and psychological elements Effective management of groups of
(Fast-Track Course) to Olympic Solidarity
with underpinning scientific players up to elite performance level
Technical Course
principles and knowledge
format Assessed by course tutor
Planning and delivery
of annual training and
competition programmes for
individual badminton players
COACH Level 2 coaches or Six days of highly Player development Demonstration of how to work
LEVEL 3 equivalent (approved interactive applied pathways – what they are within and/or implement a player
by BWF) with sessions, involving and why they are important development pathway
BADMINTON COACH EDUCATION LEVEL 3

minimum of 3 years’ discussion, debate,
coaching experience and reflection on Advanced planning and Effective management of player
practice delivery for a specialised development for target group (youth
audience within the pathway, development or elite athletes)
Significant post- including:
course follow-up work Assessed by a panel of relevant
with tutor applied to • youth development coaching experts
coach’s professional
context • elite performance
COACH Highly experienced University-level study Advanced-level long-term Demonstration of long-term

LEVEL 4 coaches with of approved specialist planning, delivery, and developmental programmes and
experience of subject management in chosen area planning in specialist area, including
managing programmes of expertise research and innovative practice
Long study of
an agreed area Application of sports science Long study of an agreed area of
of research to research, innovative and best research to demonstrate competence
demonstrate practice
Assessed by external panel of relevant
competence
coaches / sports scientists with
badminton experience
COACH Coaches with existing Course length Relevant to the level of award Ability to deliver to adult coaches
EDUCATORS experience in coach appropriate to the level – such as: and PE teachers, catering to various
(TUTORS / development, or of award learning styles and incorporating
TRAINERS) very experienced • Shuttle Time Tutor various teaching / learning techniques
coaches with relevant
competences • Shuttle Time Trainer Ability to provide timely and honest
feedback and appropriate follow up
• Level 1 Coach Education
Tutor
High level of communication skills
• Level 2 Coach Education
Tutor Assessed by external assessor
2
02. PROGRESSION FROM LEVEL 1 THROUGH LEVEL 3

The BWF Coach Education resources seek to progressively help coaches, whether aspiring or
experienced, acquire the knowledge and tools to work in increasingly professional and higher-level
training situations. Coaches will find that the same underlying principles are stressed throughout the
resources, but these will take slightly different forms depending on the level of player with which the
coach is working, as well as the system in which training is taking place and the level of experience of
the coach. The foundations of good coaching introduced in Level 1 still apply in Level 2 and Level 3,
but coaches will notice the increasing sophistication of how the principles and techniques are applied
and what that looks like in practice. The aspects of coaching practice and underlying sports science
explored in Level 2 (including different methods of coaching, the use of questions, and the different
body systems involved in training) are still an integral part of the work that is done here in Level 3, and
coaches will see that frequent reference is made to the concepts addressed in previous levels.
In general terms, Level 1 focussed on the planning of linked sessions. Learning objectives at this
level were designed to help coaches understand the needs of a wide range of incoming athletes, plan
a series of relevant sessions in accordance with those needs, and implement their plans in a way that
allowed them to provide meaningful and enjoyable experiences based on fun activities and positive
interaction.
Level 2 looked at a longer-term training cycle, aimed at helping coaches prepare their athletes for
competitions over the course of a yearly plan. This is aimed at a higher level of coaching for athletes
in the context of a competition programme. Along with the emphasis on yearly planning, there is
MODULE 1
a more in-depth look at coaching methods and techniques, as well as a detailed examination of the
different body systems and how they relate to and impact on training.
This Level 3 manual will, on one hand, go broader to consider badminton training within the context
of a player pathway. This goes beyond the work of the coach with groups of players or individual
COACHES’ MANUAL
players and examines the process of talent development, from detection and identification through
presentation at different level events. All of these processes involve other people and organisations,
and in order to work effectively, coaches should have a good understanding of this overall context.
At the same time, however, Level 3 also

goes deeper into specific aspects of player
development. There is an examination of the
characteristics of youth players, along with
considerations on how to foster their physical,
social, and psychological development through

participation in badminton/sport. On the other
end of the spectrum, the unique qualities of
elite players are analysed in the interest of
understanding what makes them different
and how coaches can support their ongoing
development. Some of the challenges inherent
in working with elite players are addressed,
along with ways in which coaches can tap into
players’ particular strengths, experience, and
knowledge.
Finally, building on the Level 2 examination of

the different body systems, Level 3 looks to
illustrate how an understanding of biomechanics
and motor learning can provide coaches with a
richer perspective on the application of these
principles to on-court sessions.

3
03. LINKING INTO NATIONAL/REGIONAL SYSTEMS

As mentioned above, the focus from planning linked sessions in Level 1, through working with annual
planning in Level 2, and on to looking at development as a long-term pathway from youth talent to
elite performance in Level 3, takes on a gradually larger context, involving more people and decisions
at each level. While linked sessions (Level 1) may be thought of within a club or school team, for
example, the annual plan context (Level 2) will start to involve other supporting structures, including
administrative and/or political bodies. In order to implement an effective player pathway, capable of
taking a player from talent detection or identification through to elite-level performance, this pathway
(Level 3), and therefore the coach, must be linked to the appropriate structures and systems for the
particular context.
Coaches cannot do this kind of work in isolation, so they need to be aware of what administrative and
political structures exist in their areas (regional and/or national). If they are not already working within
these systems, they should look to fully understand what structures or bodies are involved, and how
to work with them as needed. Within a player pathway, coaches are obviously a crucial factor in
players’ success, but in order to ensure optimum results and return on investment, they must be able
to take full advantage of all possible collaboration within the system.
For coaches to be able to participate effectively within the policies and decisions regarding the
pathway, or even try to influence or shape these, it is important that they keep in close contact
with their national and/or regional badminton association. They should also be aware of the role
their National Olympic Committee (NOC) plays in the process, and of the relationship between their
MODULE 1
national badminton association and their NOC. Finally, they should have a clear understanding of the
national association’s programme philosophy, expectations, and requirements. This will ensure they
are not spending unnecessary time and energy working towards goals and visions that are not aligned
with those of their national bodies.
COACHES’ MANUAL
04. TOWARDS AN EFFECTIVE PLAYER PATHWAY
As mentioned in the previous section, the most effective efforts on the part of coaches should ideally
form part of an integrated player pathway which involves all the different stakeholders in athlete
success. These may include administrative and political personnel from national sports bodies,

coaches at different levels (school, club, regional and national), parents, and of course, the athletes
themselves. While the pathways may look quite different depending on the particular context, in
general, the most successful pathways include:
• A player-centred approach. This sounds obvious, but without the player, there is no need for a
pathway. The end goal is to help players develop their potential to the fullest.
• Appropriate coaching structures. How do players get into the system and continue to progress
optimally? Do the structures in place meet the needs of the players?
• Adequate competition structures. What kinds of competitions are available to players at
different stages? How does the competition structure support the developmental needs of
players through their journey?
There will be more discussion around the details of player pathways in the next section, but the main
focus here is that coaches can work most effectively when they form part of the relevant player
pathway.
The BWF, together with the World Academy of Sport, also runs a Player Pathway Programme (PPP).
This is an intensive face-to-face course aimed at relevant stakeholders involved in establishing
or improving player pathways in their countries. This may include presidents and administrators
of national federations, high-performance managers, talent development managers, and national
coaches, for example. For more information, please visit https://development.bwfbadminton.com/
members/player-pathways
SECTION TWO
ESTABLISHING AN EFFECTIVE PLAYER PATHWAY
A solid player pathway can take players from grassroots level to podium success. Such
pathways help to ensure a clear shared vision of what the process looks like. They are most
effective and efficient when all those involved understand their roles and how they fit into
the overall process.
In terms of the pathway itself, this means a well-defined programme philosophy, clear
starting and ending points, and specified steps along the way. There should be transparency
around the different stages through which players progress, as well as the requirements to
move from one stage to another, and the options and support available at each stage.
Coaches, in order to be more effective within their specific areas, need to know how their
work fits into the bigger picture and how to effectively work together with the different
people and organisations involved. It is important for coaches to have a global vision of what
that entire pathway looks like, even though they may only accompany players on a certain
segment of that journey. For example, coaches working with players at the beginning
stages of the pathway need to provide appropriate support and challenges to assist in their
continued development. Coaches working with players at the higher end of the spectrum
need to understand the nature of elite training.
This section will look at the various elements that should be considered in establishing or
strengthening a player pathway. Specifically:
• Module 2 will look at how players

start out on the pathway through initial
processes of talent detection and
identification.
• Module 3 will examine different models
of how talent can be optimised during
the different stages of young players’
development.
• Module 4 will explore the characteristics
and best practices of systems designed
to support players along their journey
from grassroots to elite level.
• Module 5 will examine the varying
needs of young players at different
stages in their development, including
goals related to skills, competition,
training, coaching styles, and parental
involvement.
• Finally, Module 6 will consider the elite
end of the spectrum, including some of
the ways that the nature of elite training
is fundamentally different.
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 2
TALENT DETECTION AND
IDENTIFICATION
MODULE 2
01. Introduction 4
02. Key Terminology 5
03. Issues for Consideration 10

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Fax +603 2303 9688
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4
01. INTRODUCTION

Sporting success at the highest levels is a visible show of results achieved. Nations with strong
traditions in badminton place a high value on their achievements, as this helps to:
• create a feeling of national pride

• demonstrate high levels of coaching and athletic competence
• motivate others to become involved in badminton
• motivate others to aspire to the highest levels of badminton by creating visible role models
• attract funding for future elite performer development (e.g., government grants)
• attract funding for the sport, such as sponsorship or television rights
The motivators for achieving badminton success listed above have created a great deal of interest
in the field of identifying and developing talent. Countries are striving for the system that is most
efficient at identifying people with the potential to reach the highest levels of play. This is, in other
words, a way to ensure that the players with the best chance of eventual podium success do in fact
enter the player pathway.
MODULE 2
The subject of talent detection and identification, however, is a complex one. Some of the challenges
faced when designing and implementing an effective talent detection and identification system
include:
• lack of clarity over whether badminton champions are “born” or “made”
COACHES’ MANUAL
• inconsistent definition of terms
• inconsistent application of terms
• use of talent-identification methods that may be more appropriate for closed-skill sports (e.g.,
athletics, rowing, cycling) rather than the open-skill nature of badminton
• limited allowance for cultural differences
• insufficient flexibility to allow for individual differences
• resistance to change
This module aims to explore these issues and help coaches better understand both the aims and the

challenges surrounding talent detection and identification.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this module, coaches will be able to:
• define terminology used within talent detection and identification

• consistently apply terminology used within talent detection and identification
• discuss issues surrounding current methods of talent detection and identification
5
02. KEY TERMINOLOGY

GENETICS
Genetics can be defined as “the science of heredity”. Put more simply, it is the study of how
parents pass on physical and psychological characteristics to their children. A talent system highly
influenced by genetics would probably look for evidence of success in badminton or similar sports in
previous generations of a family. Supporters of a genetics approach to talent detection would point to
successful players whose parents were also successful.
Supporters of this approach might also collate measurements of top players (e.g., height, weight,
etc.) looking for an “ideal size” of player, and then use measurements for families to predict the size
a young child might reach. If the prediction is close to the size of an “ideal” player, then that child
would be selected. This approach assumes that:
• there is an ideal size for a successful badminton player

• it is possible to predict with accuracy the eventual height/weight of an adult from
measurements taken in childhood
MODULE 2
ABILITY
Ability was defined in the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual as:
“a consistent, long-lasting attribute that is largely genetically determined and underpins a player’s
COACHES’ MANUAL
sporting performance”.
Abilities are therefore closely linked to genetics. A useful way to think of abilities is to imagine there
are a number of “work tools” that we are born with. Some people will be born with more tools and/or
higher quality tools.
Despite considerable research in this area, there is no definitive list of abilities that is universally
agreed upon. However, there is some agreement as to how abilities may be categorised. These
ability categories include:
1. Perceptual abilities, which are concerned with an individual’s interpretation of an event.

Perceptual abilities often involve vision. Examples would be judging the speed, height, etc. of a
shuttlecock flying through the air.
Photo credit: James Varghese

6
2. Motor abilities, which involve the production of specific movement patterns, such as overarm
throwing.

MODULE 2
3. Physical abilities, which involve the demonstration of specific physical capabilities, including
COACHES’ MANUAL
flexibility, balance, strength, endurance, and speed.
4. Cognitive abilities, including how we learn, retain information, solve problems, and concentrate.
The Youth Sports Trust (England) has also suggested a different categorisation of abilities, including:
• Social - exhibited through behaviours such as leadership and team cohesion

• Personal – including control, confidence, commitment
• Creative – showing originality and independence of thought
It is important to keep in mind that, in reality, these abilities often work in combination.
7
GIFTEDNESS
Applied in a sporting context, the term “giftedness” can be defined as:
“the capacity to display high levels of competence in generic sporting abilities”.
The link between the concepts of giftedness, ability and genetics is strong. Young children displaying
early signs of competence in broad underpinning abilities (e.g., running, catching, balancing, etc.)
are classified as gifted, with a large amount of credit for their early displays of excellence being
attributed to the genetic “gifts” being passed down from their parents. However, the existence of a
set of genetically endowed abilities, gifted by parents and pre-disposing a child to future excellence
in a sport can be challenged. A multitude of factors can influence the development of a young child
who appears to demonstrate excellent physical abilities, including most notably psychological and
sociological factors.
POTENTIAL
MODULE 2
Potential can be defined as “being capable of becoming”. This is a very frequently used word in
sport and implies that observers (coaches, teachers, parents, etc.) can identify characteristics early in
development that underpin elite adult badminton performance. However, in order for measurements
of potential to be valid (i.e., measuring potential and not simply performance), the characteristics
being measured would need to be stable over an extended period of time.
COACHES’ MANUAL
Coaches may observe effective technique, tactics, physical prowess, learning, etc. in young children
and interpret this as a sign of “potential” for excellence in adulthood. Such observations are then
often used to select those children for talent development programmes. The problems with this
approach, however, are two-fold:
• The observation of the young child’s early success is really a measure of performance at a
moment in time, rather than a predictor of future adult excellence. Thus, a significant proportion
of those selected may not actually have “potential”, but just performed well at the time of
selection.
• Some children will not perform well at the time of selection for a talent programme, although
they do, in fact, have potential. However, their non-selection for a talent development
programme can have long-lasting effects on their motivation to compete within that sport.
PERFORMANCE
Performance can be defined as “the manner or quality of functioning”. A coach evaluating a player’s
performance would, for example, look at how and to what standard a player completes certain tasks.
In sport, these tasks are often categorised into:
• Technical • Physical • Lifestyle

• Tactical • Psychological
Performance can be evaluated over a period of time (giving an indication of learning during that
period), or at a particular moment in time.
SKILL
A basic definition of skill was offered in Level 2, along with a discussion around some of the
characteristics of skilled performers. Within the context of talent detection and identification, skill can
be more precisely defined as:
“the capability of producing a performance result with maximum certainty, minimum energy, or
minimum time, developed as a result of practice”.
Schmidt and Wrisberg, 2000, p. 29
8

Skills are therefore developed through practice and are, on the whole, sport-specific in nature.
Coaches, commentators, spectators, etc. tend to use the terms “ability” and “skill” to mean the
same thing – for example, describing a player as “demonstrating great ability” when performing a
jump smash. As explained above, however, the correct term would be “demonstrating great skill”.
Photo credit: BWF/ BadmintonPhoto
MODULE 2
COACHES’ MANUAL
TALENT
Talent can be defined as:
“the capacity to excel in a specific domain (e.g., sport, art, business, politics, medicine, etc.)”.
When discussing talent within a player pathway, it is also important to clarify the different processes
by which players may enter, progress through, and exit the pathway. These are summarised below.
9
Talent Detection
• discovering potential high-level badminton players among people who are not currently
participating in badminton
MODULE 2
COACHES’ MANUAL
A VOLLEYBALL SPIKE A BADMINTON SMASH

Photo credit: Getty images Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
Talent Transfer
• detecting talent from outside badminton and transferring it into badminton

Talent Identification
• recognising current badminton players with the potential to become elite badminton players
Typically, this involves evaluating a young player across a variety of areas (e.g., technical, tactical,
physical, psychological, and sociological).
Talent Development
• implementing a process to develop players’ talent optimally
Talented individuals are either detected (from outside badminton) or identified (from within
badminton) and placed in the talent-development environment.
Talent Selection
• measuring the progress of players within the talent-development environment to make such
decisions as:
» moving players up the talent-development pathway, perhaps into a higher-level training
squad
» moving under-performing players out of the talent-development environment
Talent Discard
• determining that talented players, as the result of an assessment, are:

» not introduced to a talent-development programme
» removed from a talent-development programme
10
03. ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION

ELITE PERFORMERS: BORN OR MADE?
The fairly simple answer to the “born or made” question is “both”! It would appear logical to
point out examples of players who appear to have genetic advantages (percentage of fast-twitch
fibres, ability to learn quickly, etc.), but equally valid is the point that no-one reaches the top without
considerable commitment to deliberate practice. That practice has to be of substantial duration,
intensity, and quality in order to make an elite champion.
ARE WE MEASURING THE RIGHT THINGS?
Traditional methods of talent identification in badminton often involve the following:
• Observation of young players (typically 10-13 years old) at tournaments, typically followed by
selecting the players reaching the latter stages for inclusion on elite training programmes.
• Observation and measurement of players (typically 10-13 years old) on “Talent Detection” days.
MODULE 2
Such days typically involve measurements of the body (e.g., height/weight/skinfold), physical
tests (e.g., jump height) and evaluation of technical and tactical skills.
Criticisms of this approach include the arguments below:
• Coaches and selectors observing players at tournaments or during talent detection days assume
COACHES’ MANUAL
they that are measuring potential to achieve at the highest levels. However, they are more likely
to actually be measuring performance at that moment in time, rather than potential to reach
the top of the game. For example, psychological/behavioural factors have more relevance to
eventual top-class performance, yet the emphasis in the early stages of development typically
tends to be on anthropometric, physical, technical, and tactical issues.
• Many tests included in “Talent Detection” days, especially those concerned with
anthropometric and physical measurement, have their origins in testing aimed at discovering
talent in relatively closed-skill sports, such as cycling, swimming, rowing, sprinting, etc. It

is questionable whether these measures are as significant in an open-skill sport such as
badminton, where decision-making skills are also crucial for success.
• Since there is a great deal of variation in height and build of top-level badminton players, the
merits of including anthropometric measurements in talent detection days are questionable.
• Tests often involve measurement of physical characteristics (e.g., flexibility, power, etc.). This
approach assumes that this trait will remain stable as the player grows – i.e., that a young player
with a jump height in the top 5% will maintain this position as an adult, with the result coming
purely down to genetics, rather than training.
• Measurement of technical and tactical competence only a snapshot of one moment in time.
Some young players may have had much more badminton training, which does not necessarily
mean they are more talented. Rather, they have been lucky enough to have a favourable
environment in which to train. There is also no indication that those technical and tactical skills
will continue to progress in the future.
• Selection for talent development programmes on the basis of results from junior age group
events can result in a bias towards children born earlier in a calendar year. This is because they
may have up to one year’s additional development time compared to other children born within
the same calendar year.
• Parents can have a huge impact on the development of talent, yet they are rarely explicitly
considered in the talent-detection process.
The main issue with this approach is that rather than indicators of potential to reach elite adult levels
of play, what is actually being measured is performance at that specific moment in time.
11
TRAINED TALENT SPOTTERS: WHAT SKILLS DO THEY NEED?

Since it is such a crucial role, the need to recruit and train effective talent spotters is vital. Those
recruited would be required to demonstrate:
• success in coaching, most notably in developing talent

• knowledge of the performance factors (technical, tactical, physical, psychological, and lifestyle)
required for success in badminton
• accurate observational skills
• ability to objectively compare observed skills to agreed criteria
WHAT KIND OF PREPARATION SHOULD OCCUR PRIOR TO TALENT DETECTION?
There is general acceptance that children are unlikely to achieve the highest standards in any sport
without mastering fundamental movement skills early in their development. An overview of these
skills is included below:
MODULE 2
Travelling Movements, Object-Control Movements, Balance and Coordination,

where the body, usually which involve small objects which underpin and
upright, moves from one point being sent, travelled with, permeate the travelling and
COACHES’ MANUAL
on the ground to another (e.g., and received (e.g., throwing, object-control categories
running, jumping, and skipping) catching, dribbling)
A short training period (of around three months) where these fundamental skills could be developed
would allow coaches to observe the progression of children during this time. Using many of the ideas
incorporated in the Shuttle Time Programme, it would be possible to put together such a programme,
retaining the generic nature of the skills being developed whilst still “selling” the concept of
badminton. For example:
• throwing games could involve throwing large/weighted shuttlecocks

• the court lines could be used for a variety of footwork drills
AT WHAT STAGE SHOULD TALENT DETECTION/IDENTIFICATION STOP?
Talent identification should continue for as long as possible, allowing late developers within
badminton the chance to benefit from the advantages of a talent development system. It is
questionable whether talent detection (with talent coming from outside badminton) should be
sustained for as long, as it is unlikely that athletes from outside badminton would be able to learn the
necessary skills to perform at a high level if they are only introduced to the sport in their late teenage
years.
DIFFERENT CRITERIA AT DIFFERENT STAGES
The degree of emphasis of each of the performance factors in the talent detection process may vary
depending on the maturity of the individual. For example, physical testing may be more applicable
when detecting talent in 16-18-year-olds than in 10-13-year-olds, as the older players’ physical
characteristics will have stabilised. On the other hand, for 10-13-year-olds, their ability to develop
sport-specific technique may be more relevant.
12
REFERENCES

Bloom, B. S. (ed). (1985). Developing Talent in Young People. New York: Ballantine Books.
Ford, Paul; De Ste Croix, Mark; Lloyd, Rhodri; Meyers, Rob; Moosavi, Marjan; Oliver, Jon; Till,
Kevin and Williams, Craig (2011) ‘The Long-Term Athlete Development model: Physiological evidence
and application’, Journal of Sports Sciences, 29: 4, 389 — 402, First published on: 04 January 2011
(iFirst)
Martindale, R. J., Collins, D., & Daubney, J. (2005). Talent development: A guide for practice and
research within sport. Quest, 57, 353–375.
Schmidt, R.A. & Wrisberg, C.A. (2000) Motor Learning and Performance (2nd edition p28) Champaign
.IL: Human Kinetics p28/29
MODULE 2
COACHES’ MANUAL
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 3
TALENT DEVELOPMENT
MODELS
MODULE 3
01. Introduction 13
02. Bloom 14
03. Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) 14
04. Martindale, R. J., Collins, D., & Daubney, J. 16
05. Côté & Hancock 17

10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
www.bwf.sport
13
01. INTRODUCTION

Talent detection and identification can help get players with potential into a sports system. However,
further development of that talent will need to occur if players are to continue progressing along the
player pathway. There are many ways of looking at what it means to develop talent, as well as how
this should be structured or organised. Different models of talent development may look at various
stages in terms of the behaviours that should be exhibited, or the skills that can be trained. Others
may look at the characteristics that the overall system should have, or what kind of goals should be
set at different points along the pathway. Of course, coaches’ perspectives on what it means to
develop talent will undoubtedly influence their outlook on training and interaction with the players. As
such, it is important that they be consciously aware of how they view talent development and how
this affects their approach to coaching.
This module will provide an overview of four different theoretical models of talent development,
MODULE 3
which will help coaches understand some of the issues to be considered in this area, and how these
have been addressed by different authors.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
COACHES’ MANUAL
• describe the basic structure and content of four talent development models
• evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the talent development models discussed

14
02. BLOOM
Bloom (1985) proposed a model of talent development based on research of high achievers in both
sporting (swimming and tennis) and non-sporting (music, art, science, and math) areas. The table
below includes the main components of this model.
STAGE
STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3
NUMBER
STAGE NAME INITIATION DEVELOPMENT PERFECTION
Performer • Joyful • Hooked/committed • Obsessed/dominates life
behaviour
• Playful • Potential identified • Personally responsible
• Excited • More serious • Independent
• “Special” • Task/achievement oriented • Willing to dedicate time/ effort

required for highest standards
MODULE 3
• Fun/social oriented
Mentor • Process centred • Superior technical knowledge • Master coach
characteristics
• Kind/cheerful/caring • Strong personal interest • Feared/respected
• Notices child’s “giftedness” • Respected • Love/hate relationship
• Strong guidance/discipline • Successful/demanding

COACHES’ MANUAL
• Expects quality results

Parental role • Positive • More moral and financial support (to • Lesser role
maintain mentor relationship)
• Shared sense of excitement
• Restrict other activities
• Supportive
• Concern for holistic development
• Notice child’s “giftedness”
• Identify appropriate mentors

General • Little or no emphasis on competition • Competition used as a yardstick for • Fine tuning
progress
Transition (from • Development of athletic • Prioritisation of sport

one phase to identity in life
another)
• Accelerated development • Psychological rebellion
• Introduction of a more • Transition characterised

technical coach by turning points
stimulated by successful
• Performance becomes performance/key event
more achievement
orientated • Introduction of a master
coach
• Talent identification
• Competition becomes
yardstick of success
• Increased commitment
03. LONG-TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT (LTAD)

The LTAD model identifies various stages of development from birth to retirement and attempts to
describe the types of activity that should occur during those phases in order to achieve optimum
sporting development. LTAD was introduced in the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual, with a brief mention
of the challenges surrounding the model. Here it will be considered in greater detail in the interest of
better understanding different development models. It is important to point out that although it was
not specifically designed as a talent development model, LTAD has often been used in this context.
15
A six-stage LTAD framework is shown below.

LATE SPECIALISATION
STAGE GOAL APPROXIMATE AGE * NOTES

FUNdamental Learn all fundamental movement Male: 6-9
skills (build overall motor skills)
Female: 6-8
Learning to Train Learn all fundamental sports skills Male: 9-12

(build overall sports skills)
Train to Train Build aerobic base, build strength Male: 12-16 Period where Peak Height
towards the end of the phase + Velocity (PHV) most likely to
further develop sport-specific skills Female: 11-15 occur
(build “engine” + consolidate sport
specific skills)
Train to Compete Optimise fitness preparation + Male: 16-18
MODULE 3
individual sport specific skills as
well as performance (optimise Female: 15-17
“engine”, skills + performance)
Train to Win Maximise fitness preparation and Male: 18+
sport, individual specific skills as
well as performance (maximise Female: 17+
“engine”, skills, and performance)
COACHES’ MANUAL
Retirement/retention Retain athletes - coaching, Age at which this occurs is
administration, officials, etc. individual choice
*Note that although ages are quoted for each stage, these are very broad guidelines that should be
applied with care, due to the vastly differing rates at which individuals can mature.
Two key concepts within Bayli and Hamilton’s LTAD model are:
• peak height velocity (PHV), which involves identifying when the rate of growth of a child is at its

greatest by measuring growth rates
• “windows of trainability”, which involves identifying times in a person’s long-term development
when different types of training can be applied most optimally (i.e., when the training effects of
that type of training are thought to be optimal).
The diagram below illustrates the relationship between “windows of trainability” and PHV, with
different windows occurring at different times. Note also the differences in training emphasis for
males and females.
PHV
Females
Skills
Speed 2
Speed
Stamina
Suppleness
Strength 1 & 2
Rate of Growth
Chronological Developmental Age
Age
under 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20+
PHV
Males
Suppleness
Stamina
Strength
Skills
Speed 2
Speed 1
Rate of Growth
Physical, Mental - Cognitive, Emotional Development

16
04. MARTINDALE, R. J., COLLINS, D., & DAUBNEY, J.

After a review of the literature and an examination of the gap between recommendations and current
practice, Martindale, Collins and Daubney (2005) came up with a model that aimed to offer guidelines
toward effective talent development environments. Rather than trying to delimit or describe stages,
they focus on the characteristics that an effective model should have, particularly regarding the
long-term view of athlete development.
NATURE OF THE
KEY FEATURES KEY METHODS
MODEL
Long-term aims • Develop a long-term vision, purpose, and identity
and methods
• Develop systematic planning and implementation
• Provide coherent reinforcement at a variety of levels

• Provide coherent philosophies, aims and methods at a variety of levels (e.g., parents, coaching
MODULE 3
Wide-ranging
coherent content, practice and reward systems, selection, competition structure, NGBs
messages and
support • Educate parents, schools, peers, coaches and important others (and encourage positive
contributions)
Integrated, Holistic and Systematic

• Utilise role models at a variety of levels
• Set up a variety of support networks over the long term (e.g., peer, coach, sport staff, family)
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Provide forums for open and honest communication patterns at a variety of levels
Emphasis on • De-emphasise “winning = success” at developmental stages
appropriate
development, not • Provide clear expectations, roles and meaning within the big picture at every level
early success
• Provide “stage specific” integrated experiences and teaching:
» fundamental physical and perceptual skills
» fundamental mental skills (learning and development; life; performance related)
» sport-specific skills (technical, tactical, mental, physical, perceptual)

» balance
• Encourage increasing responsibility and autonomy in learning/development
• Develop intrinsic motivation and personal commitment to the process
• Promote personal relevance, athlete understanding and knowledge

Individualised • Provide opportunities and fundamentals to as many youngsters as possible
and ongoing
development • Provide flexible systems to allow for variation in performance and physical development
• Identify, prepare for and support individuals through key transitions
• Provide regular individual goal setting and review processes
• Provide systematic reinforcement contingencies

17
05. CÔTÉ & HANCOCK

Côté and Hancock (2014) have developed a model based on considerable research which is called
“The Developmental Model of Sport Participation”. This model promotes the idea that youth sports
systems normally have three objectives of maximising:
Personal development Participation Performance
Problems arise however where one of these “3Ps” start to dominate, with the result that this
emphasis can harm the other two strands. For example, an over-emphasis on unrestricted “free
play” may enhance participation, but not necessarily lead to the objectives of personal development
(e.g., teamwork) or performance (high skill levels). Another problem is that an erroneous approach
to one individual objective may in fact become self-defeating. For example, for many sports, early
MODULE 3
specialisation in that sport and an early emphasis on competitive achievements is likely to reduce,
rather than improve, adult performance standards.
DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF SPORT PARTICIPATION (DMSP)

BALANCING THE STRANDS OF:
COACHES’ MANUAL
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PARTICIPATION PERFORMANCE
• Prioritise safety • Offer opportunities to try a variety of sports Provide a transition from general, playful
activities to sport specialisation and
• Organise activities in a manner suitable • Provide opportunities for activities that are deliberate practice. Three broad phases are
for the child’s stage of development “playful” and have limited adult control (i.e., used to structure this transition, including:
deliberate play)
• Help children build supportive • Sampling Phase (6-12 years old) - same
relationships • Provide an environment where activities are characteristics as the participation strand
fun
• Provide a sense of belonging to a • Specialisation Phase (13-15 years old) -
community • Promote intrinsic motivation transition into emphasising involvement
in one main sport, gradual increase in
• Expose children to positive morals/ values

deliberate practice
• Provide opportunities to do things that
• Investment Phase (16+ years old) - full
make a real difference/ play an active role
commitment to sport of choice and
in the organisation
deliberate practice
• Provide opportunities for social skill
building, including:
» learning how to form positive relations

with peers
» forming strong links between families/

schools/other community groups
ASSERTIONS THAT UNDERPIN THE DMSP
• Early participation in a variety of sports:
» does not reduce the chance of peak performance as an adult
» reduces the chance of dropping out of sport early
» improves overall personal development by exposing children to different experiences
• High amounts of play:
» during the sampling years is fun, reinforcing intrinsic motivation for future sport participation
» in a variety of sports during the sampling years provides a solid foundation that ultimately benefits the sport they commit to in the
investment (16+) phase
• Around the age of 13, children should be offered the opportunity to begin moving towards specialisation or continue at a recreational level,
possibly in a variety of sports.
• Around the age of 16, children have the necessary skills (physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and motor) to invest in specialisation in one
sport.
18
REFERENCES
Balyi, I. & Hamilton A. (2004) Long-Term Athlete Development: Trainability in Childhood and Adoles-
cence. Windows of Opportunity. Optimal Trainability. Victoria: National Coaching Institute British Co-
lumbia & Advanced Training and Performance Ltd.
Bloom, B. S. (ed). (1985). Developing Talent in Young People. New York: Ballantine Books.
Martindale, R. J., Collins, D., & Daubney, J. (2005). Talent development: A guide for practice and
research within sport. Quest, 57, 353–375.
Jean Côté & David J. Hancock (2014): Evidence-based policies for youth sport programmes, Interna-
tional Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, DOI: 10.1080/19406940.2014.919338
NCIMS
MODULE 3
COACHES’ MANUAL
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 4
A PLAYER DEVELOPMENT
FRAMEWORK
MODULE 4
A PLAYER DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
01. Introduction 19
02. Key Terminology in Player Development 20
03. Goals for Different Stages 22
04. Coaching Characteristics at Different Stages 31
05. Competition at Different Stages 32
06. F.I.T.T. at Different Stages 33
07. Parental Support at Different Stages 35
Photo credit: Badminton Oceania

10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
www.bwf.sport
19
01. INTRODUCTION

As discussed in the previous module, there are different ways of understanding what talent development
means, and different theoretical models approach this in widely varying ways. Coupled with a theoretical
understanding of what talent development means, coaches need to address how they achieve this in
their day-to-day work with players. A player development framework could provide a set of guidelines,
identifying the types and level of skill that should be exhibited by players at different stages of their
development if they aspire to achieve a high standard of play.
An agreed player development framework for badminton, for example, could help define:
• the order in which specific technical, tactical, physical, psychological and lifestyle skills are taught
• coach education, with coaches requiring different skill sets at different stages of players’
development
• parent education programmes
• competition structures
MODULE 4
• the introduction of specialists (e.g., strength and conditioning coaches)
• the environment in which the badminton programme is delivered
• the duration and intensity of training
However, there are many challenges surrounding the development of such a framework, including:
COACHES’ MANUAL
• the lack of evidence to support the ideas that coaches believe to be true based on their personal
experiences
• cultural differences across countries
• differences between males and females
• differences between actual age (e.g., 12 years old) and physical/emotional/cognitive age (i.e., early
and late maturers)
• the multi-faceted nature of an open skill sport such as badminton, involving development in a
complex mix of technical, tactical, physical, psychological and lifestyle factors

The aim of this module is therefore:
• to provide a set of flexible guidelines as a starting point to examine the type and level of skill
players should be able to demonstrate if they are to progress optimally in the sport of badminton
• to highlight aspects of the sport that need to be structured in a way that supports players most
effectively
The key to the developing a successful framework would depend, to a large degree, on a number of
factors, including:
• an appreciation of the need for flexibility in adapting to different cultures

• constant evolution of the framework, driven by scientific research and coach dialogue from a
variety of cultures
• coaches’ displaying not only sound knowledge of the framework (the science of coaching), but
also the sensitivity to adapt the framework in order to meet the needs of individuals (the art of
coaching)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• identify the components and stages of a model “Player Development Framework”

• discuss the characteristics of different stages of the framework presented here
• compare the framework presented here to what is done in their countries
20
02. KEY TERMINOLOGY IN PLAYER DEVELOPMENT

CHRONOLOGICAL AGE
Chronological age means “the amount of time that has elapsed since birth”. Typically, chronological
age is given in years (e.g., 12 years old).
MODULE 4
10 years old 14 years old 17 years old

COACHES’ MANUAL
DEVELOPMENTAL AGE
Developmental age can be defined as “the stage of maturity of an individual”. Explained in a different
way, we have certain expectations about how a person will look or behave at different chronological
ages. Developmental age is more complex than chronological age and has several dimensions, including:
• physical maturity (different children go through puberty earlier or later)

• cognitive maturity (children will show differing abilities to appreciate a range of perspectives when
dealing with different scenarios)
• emotional maturity (children show differences in their ability to understand and manage different
feelings, such as joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, trust etc.)
When building a profile of players, it can be useful for coaches to consider, at least informally, not only
a player’s chronological age, but also the extent to which that player’s physical, cognitive and emotional
maturity is ahead or behind what would be expected for a person of that age. For example:
PLAYER A
DEVELOPMENTAL AGE
CHRONOLOGICAL AGE
Physical Maturity Cognitive Maturity Emotional Maturity
12 years old +2 years +1 year -2 years
Player A is 12-year-old boy. Physically he is a very early maturer, as much as two years ahead of what
would be expected for a person of that age. He demonstrates above-average problem-solving skills
and enjoys being given tactical challenges to solve (one year ahead of what would be expected), but
he is emotionally insecure, taking constructive criticism personally and lacking the capacity to take
responsibility for his own actions, even when they are incorrect.
Whilst care should be taken with this approach due to its subjective nature, it does help to heighten
coaches’ awareness that children of the same chronological age may show quite different levels of
maturity. In turn, this means that both what and how they coach may be different for children of the
same chronological age.
21
TRAINING AGE

This refers to the number of years that have elapsed since a person began formal, structured training
in badminton.
PUBERTY
Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child‘s body matures into an adult body capable
of sexual reproduction. Puberty can occur between the ages of 10 and 17, with the large majority of
children experiencing puberty during the middle of this age range. Girls typically experience puberty
before boys.
The physical changes experienced during puberty are caused by increases in hormone release and are
different for boys and girls. Apart from body changes related to the sex glands, the most noticeable
visual effect of puberty is accelerated growth (both height and weight).
There are cultural differences in the onset of puberty and many of these differences are thought to be
related to nutrition.
MODULE 4
PEAK VELOCITY HEIGHT
Peak velocity height (PVH) is the name given to the point in time when a person’s rate of growth is at
its greatest. This point occurs during puberty and, like puberty itself, usually occurs earlier in girls than
COACHES’ MANUAL
in boys.
Peak Velocity Height (PVH)

14
12 PVH
Boys
10
Centimeters per year
8 Girls

6
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Age in years
The next five sections will explore the changing dynamics of working with young players in development,
with regards to:
• Goals for the different performance factors (technical, tactical, lifestyle, psychological, physical)
• Coaching profile
• Competition advice
• Training considerations (F.I.T.T.)
• Parental support
Each section will examine the different phases in player development (Sampling, Specialising,
Investment) to highlight what may be needed/expected at the different stages. While approximate
ages are given for each phase, it is important to remember that this will also depend on the context.
Some countries will have little formal player development for players under 10, while others will start
quite early on. Rather than a strict timeline, the phases offer a general guide for players’ progression.
BADMINTON COACH EDUCATION LEVEL 3 COACHES’ MANUAL MODULE 4 A PLAYER DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
22
03. GOALS FOR DIFFERENT STAGES

SAMPLING PHASE (APPROXIMATELY 6-12 YEARS OLD)
By the end of this period, players will be able to:
Technical Hitting (skills sustained under simple, adjust their grip:
predictable rallying conditions)
• depending on the shuttle’s position in relation to the body (backhand, forehand, in front of/level with or behind the body)
carry the racket:
• out in front of the body when approaching the net and defending in the midcourt
• in an elevated position in preparation for forehand overheads
• with elbow down and racket head up in preparation for backhand overheads
execute serves including:
• backhand low and flick serves (striking from the hand)

• forehand low/flick/high serves (from a dropped shuttle) – note: fh high serve is a skill required to train other skills in the group
(forehand overhead)
perform forecourt strokes including:
• backhand and forehand net shots (close to and off the net, spinning and not spinning the shuttle)
• backhand and forehand lifts using a flicking technique
perform midcourt strokes including:
• backhand and forehand blocks, drives and lifts off the body
• backhand and forehand drives from the midcourt
perform rearcourt strokes including:
• forehand overheads with a throwing action and forearm rotation, including being able to hold the shot
• forehand clears, smashes and dropshots with similar hitting actions
• slices and stik shots
• flowing backhand overhead action
Tactical • describe the base position (recognising it as a flexible concept)
• recognise the advantages of “early” (less time for opponent, opportunity to hit down, greater number of options)
• use and cover height, width, and depth effectively to create/cover space
• devise and use simple game plans that maximise own strengths and minimise own weaknesses
• devise and use simple game plans that exploit opponents’ weaknesses and reduce the effectiveness of their strengths
• devise and use set plays around serving and returning (singles and doubles)
• adjust defensive and attacking formations during “set plays” in doubles
Lifestyle • explain the importance of appropriate hydration and drink accordingly
• describe the different components of diet and their importance to sporting performance
• adopt and maintain appropriate nutritional habits
• maintain participation in other sports (athletics, gymnastics, cricket, handball, etc.)
Psychological Commitment • appreciate that involvement in sport is a good thing (for keeping healthy, being with friends, learning new things, etc.)
• focus on enjoying learning new skills and doing them well (without the necessity of using these to win)
• try hard (trying hard is more important than winning)
• solve problems (e.g., invent a game, design a practice)
• help set/work towards process goals within a training session (e.g., 10 lunges pointing foot towards marker on net, keep shuttle in the air 10 times,
etc.)
Concentration • focus attention on a variety of stimuli (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, etc.) to assist learning
• use imagery (e.g., land the shuttle [“the bird”] in the target [“the nest”])
• focus attention in the right area (e.g., watching the shuttle)
Control • think positively (difference between “I can’t do this”, “I can’t do this yet” and “I can do this if I keep trying”)
• follow rules of behaviour
Confidence • establish self-esteem (“I’m honest, I’m caring, I try hard” – these things count the most)
• celebrate successes (stressing success as learning new skills, trying hard, helping others, etc., rather than outcomes)
• express thoughts and feelings (happy, sad, pleased, tired, up for it, disappointed, etc.)
Cohesion • work with others
• demonstrate an ethical approach to badminton, including respect for the game (playing to the rules) and people within the game – practice partners,
opponents, coaches, officials, etc.
Physical Balance • balance statically using different bases of support (feet, knees, elbows, hands, etc.)
• land from a variety of jumps (one foot, two foot, spin in the air, etc.) on balance, performed in multiple directions (predictable sequences)
• perform multi-direction lunges on balance
Coordination • start – perform split-steps with different feet position and move off in response to shuttle being struck
• travel – using a variety of methods (run, side-step, chassé, cross-behind, pivot) in multiple directions
• skip rhythmically (with a rope)
• jump efficiently, using body segments in sequence and appropriate arm counter-movements
• perform an overhead throwing action using a sideways stance and trunk rotation
Quickness • move hands quickly (e.g., clapping games, striking rapidly fed shuttles)
• move feet quickly (fast feet exercise in the tramlines)
Speed • cover the ground rapidly using various methods (running, chassé, cross-behind, grapevine, pivoting)
• move off quickly from a variety of stances
Agility • start/stop/change direction efficiently
• combine a broad range of movements in three planes (forwards/backwards, side to side, up and down)
Strength • perform basic bodyweight exercises with correct technique (squats, lunges, adapted press-ups, back raise, trunk curls)
Stamina • keep active, although no specific target training for stamina is prescribed
Suppleness • use dynamic exercises to increase range of movement as part of warm-up
• perform static stretches in cool-down
23
24

Other considerations
Coaching • Make it fun • Coach skills from generic to sports-specific
• Sell the sport • Apply correct basic technical/tactical knowledge
• Involve parents (but set boundaries) • Encourage participation in other sports as well as badminton
• Establish rules of behaviour • Be a friend to the players
• Make practice varied • Encourage creativity/imagination
• Be aware of the coach’s role in long-term development – be willing to pass player
on
Training • Identify environments where training will take place (e.g., school, club) • Decide on the frequency – how many training sessions per week
• Avoid the use of training cycles (e.g., peaking for tournaments) in this phase • Decide on the intensity – low, moderate, or high intensity, or a balance of each
• Decide on the time spent training – duration of sessions/total training time per
week
• Decide on the type of training – technical, tactical, physical, and psychological
Competition • Place greater emphasis on singles competition • Decide on number of tournaments that will help support effective development
(beware of over-competing)
Other Support • Maintain open communications with other coaches involved in player development
For Players • Learn to swim, at least for personal safety • Maintain a balance of team/individual sports
(regarding other • Maintain involvement in a variety of sports • Select sports that train both sides of the body equally
sports) • Decide on time commitments to other sports • Select sports that help develop fundamental skills (e.g., athletics, gymnastics)
For Parents • Establish and reinforce parental philosophy with child and coach • Help their children to:
• Focus on respect and discipline » manage time
» adopt appropriate nutritional habits
» have sufficient rest
SPECIALISING PHASE (APPROXIMATELY 13-15 YEARS OLD)
Technical Hitting (consistently produce a perform forecourt strokes including:
variety of strokes in matchplay
against peers) • basic straight net shots, spin net shots, crosscourt net shots, held net shots, forecourt kills, net kills, basic net lifts, held lifts, double
movements
• return of low serve with racket head above the hand (doubles emphasis)
• net play with racket head above the head (doubles emphasis)
perform midcourt strokes including:
• blocks, drives, and lifts from the side of the body (often, but not always, singles bias)
• blocks, drives, and lifts off the body (often, but not always, doubles bias)
perform rearcourt strokes including:
• forehand clears/held clears, dropshots/pulled dropshots/stop-drops, sliced/reverse sliced dropshots, smashes/stik smashes
• backhand clears, smashes, pulled dropshots
Movement • perform a variety of movement patterns to different areas of the court at pace in matchplay
• adjust movement patterns according to the tactical situation (especially when recovering after a stroke) in matchplay
Tactical • devise and implement game plans after studying opponents’ strengths and development areas
• adjust strategies within games
• work with coaches to implement agreed game plans
• work with coaches to adjust strategies in the middle of matches (responding to discussions during intervals)
• adjust style of play (safe, hard hitter, deceptive, quick, aggressive, change of pace, etc.)
Lifestyle • with guidance, plan an annual training programme, with gradual appreciation towards peaking in the later part of this phase
• plan and follow an annual competition program
• take responsibility for packing own bag in preparation for training/competition
• monitor food/fluid intake and adjust according to appropriate nutritional guidelines
• take increased responsibility for managing sporting, family, and educational commitments
25
26

Psychological Commitment • set and work towards short-/medium-/long-term goals (with an emphasis on process goals)
• devise and follow a basic training/competition schedule
• sustain 100% effort in training and competition, whether supervised or not
Concentration • use imagery to improve technically and tactically
• adjust focus (broad to narrow, internal to external) depending on the situation
Control • use routines to help maintain optimum arousal levels
• display neutral or positive body language
Confidence • use imagery to enhance confidence (visualising success)
• review and evaluate performance objectively (recognising strengths and development areas)
Cohesion • work within a badminton team (teammates, coaches, parents, school, specialists), specifically establishing and working towards agreed team goals
Physical Balance • balance statically using different bases of support and equipment (e.g., balance boards, Swiss ball, etc.)
• land on balance from jumps (using one- and two-footed landings) in unpredictable sequences
• perform multi-direction lunges on balance in unpredictable sequences
Coordination • appreciate that the growth spurt may temporarily affect movement efficiency
• link movement components to form coherent movement patterns
• adjust movement timing as required (regulated by shuttle being struck by opponent)
Quickness • compete 100% in quickness exercises against their peers
• include quickness exercises as part of a warm-up (especially pre-competition warm-up)
Speed • compete 100% in speed exercises against their peers
• demonstrate progressive improvement in speed (although there may be some interruption in the progression due to the growth spurt)
Agility • link recognised movement patterns to all areas of the court
• perform flowing shadowed court movements to all areas of the court on balance, in response to unpredictable directions from a training partner
Strength • differentiate between training for absolute strength, strength endurance and elastic strength (power)
• perform a range of strength exercises, with safe technique, using a variety of equipment (elastic bands, Swiss balls, dumbbells, barbells, medicine
balls)
• integrate strength training into a weekly training schedule (with different emphasis in different phases of the year)
Stamina • integrate stamina training into a weekly training programme (different emphasis in different phases of the year)
• record high level of stamina testing scores (requires comparable testing norms to be available)
• record improvement in stamina testing scores (measured against self)
Suppleness • integrate static stretching sessions into a weekly training programme
• record high level of testing scores (requires comparable testing norms to be available)
• record improvement in flexibility scores (measured against self) – however, these may be compromised by effects of puberty
Coaching • Make it fun • Demonstrate strong technical/tactical knowledge – a clear picture of elite play
• Sell the sport requirements
• Develop parents’ skills via player-support workshops (around self-reliance, • Help child to make choices in transition from multi- to single-sport participation
communication, tournament planning, etc.) • Encourage creativity/imagination
• Maintain rules of behaviour (players, parents, etc.) • Make practice varied
• Instil discipline • Expect quality
• Be aware of the coach’s role in long-term development – be willing to pass player on
Training • Identify environments where training will take place (e.g., school, club) • Decide on the frequency of training – how many times per week
• Begin to introduce/use concepts of training cycles within context of an annual plan • Decide on the intensity of training – low, moderate, or high intensity
week
Competition • Decide on the number and level of tournaments that will help support effective development
• Select tournaments where peak performance is the goal
• Begin to build working relationships with specialists
For Players • Gradually reduce commitment to other sports (decided by the player)
(regarding other
sports)
For Parents • Establish and reinforce parental philosophy with child and coach • Help their children to:
• Focus on respect and discipline » manage time
• Attend player-support workshops » adopt appropriate nutritional habits
• Promote increased self-reliance for the child » have sufficient rest
27
28
INVESTMENT PHASE (APPROXIMATELY 16-21 YEARS OLD)

Technical Hitting focus on training/improving specific hitting skills:
• for certain events (singles and/or doubles)

• identified as necessary for personal improvement
• in preparation for particular opponents
Movement focus on training/improving specific movement skills:
• identified as necessary for personal improvement

• in preparation for particular opponents
Tactical • analyse opponents using live observation and/or video replay
• formulate their own game plans
• formulate game plans together with a coach and/or partner
• implement game plans
• adjust game plan as required during a match
• respond to coaching advice during a match
• play to own strengths and cover weaknesses
• review matches objectively (describing what happened)
• evaluate matches objectively (identifying strengths and development areas)
Lifestyle • take full ownership of managing commitments (training, competition, education, work, rest, socialising, holidays, etc.)
• sustain nutritional habits consistent with those of a professional sports person
• describe and follow the WADA guidelines regarding drug compliance
• establish/maintain/develop interests outside the sport of badminton
• manage periods of injury (train around injury, study opponents, assist in coaching, etc.)
• establish/maintain strategies for dealing with long phases of travel
Psychological Commitment • set and work towards short-/medium-/long-term process, performance, and outcome goals
• devise and follow periodised annual training/competition programmes
Concentration • maintain concentration in a variety of practice, match, and tournament situations
Control • maintain emotionally appropriate states in a range of competition environments
Confidence • use imagery to enhance confidence (visualising success)
• use self-talk
Cohesion • work effectively within an extended support team (e.g., manager, sports psychologist, strength and conditioning coach, physiotherapist,
sponsors, administrators, etc.)
Physical Balance, Coordination • perform co-ordinated badminton-specific movement patterns, on balance and at speed
Quickness, Speed,
Agility
Strength • perform a range of strength exercises, covering all areas of the body, with appropriate technique
• follow an individualised strength-training programme, adjusted according to the stage within an annual cycle
• achieve established norms for strength based on data from top players
Stamina • follow an individualised stamina-training programme, adjusted according to the stage within an annual cycle
• achieve established norms for stamina based on data from top players
Suppleness (Flexibility) • follow an individualised flexibility-training programme, covering all areas of the body, with appropriate technique
• achieve established norms for flexibility based on data from top players
• use dynamic exercises to increase range of movement as part of warm-up
• incorporate a routine of static stretches in cool-down
Rehabilitation • follow prescribed rehabilitation routines in recovery from injury
• integrate prescribed preventative exercise advice into existing physical training programmes
29
30

Coaching • Make it fun • Demonstrate strong technical/tactical knowledge - experience in elite sport
• Maintain rules of behaviour • Encourage creativity/imagination
• Maintain discipline • Make practice varied
• Create a love/hate relationship • Be demanding – insist on quality
• Manage psychological rebellion
Training • Consolidate use of training cycles within the context of an annual plan • Decide on the frequency of training – how many times per week
• Decide on the intensity of training – low, moderate, or high intensity
week
• Decide on the type of training – event specialisation
Competition • Decide on the number/level of tournaments that will support effective development
• Select tournaments where peak performance is the goal and plan around this
• Build working relationships with specialists (sports psychologists, strength and conditioning coaches, etc.)
For Players (regarding • Keep other sports occasional and recreational (e.g., during active rest in annual cycle)
other sports)
For Parents • Play a gradually diminishing role
• Promote increased self-reliance for the young adult
• Manage psychological rebellion
31
04. COACHING CHARACTERISTICS AT DIFFERENT STAGES

Guiding a person’s development from beginner to internationally successful player is not easy. As
individuals pass though childhood and into adulthood, their developmental needs will vary. In order to
meet these needs successfully:
• coaches may need to adapt, expanding their knowledge and changing their delivery styles
• there may need to be different coaches with different knowledge and styles at different stages
PLAYER DEVELOPMENT MODEL: COACHING KNOWLEDGE/STYLE
Sampling Phase (Pre-puberty) Specialising Phase (Puberty) Investment Phase (Post-puberty)
Coaching knowledge Coaching knowledge Coaching knowledge

• Understanding of children’s • Understanding of young people’s • Strong/in-depth technical and
characteristics (physical, emotional, characteristics (physical, emotional, tactical knowledge
cognitive) in the pre-puberty phase cognitive) in the puberty phase • Solid understanding of
• Good grasp of the generic sports • Good depth and breadth of physical/psychological/lifestyle
MODULE 4
skills transferable to badminton badminton-specific knowledge development
(sending and receiving, movement (technical and tactical) • Experience with international
skills, spatial awareness, etc.) • Solid command of other performance badminton at adult level (playing
• Solid command of basic badminton factors (physical, psychological and and/or coaching)
skills (technical and tactical) lifestyle) • Awareness of other stages in the
• Ability to deliver basic badminton • Awareness of other stages in the pathway (pre-puberty, puberty)
skills in many varied ways pathway (pre-puberty, post-puberty)
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Awareness of the other stages in • Experience with annual planning
the pathway (puberty, post-puberty) • Expertise with competition structures
relevant to these age groups
• Awareness of requirements for
success in badminton at this
developmental stage (puberty) and
beyond
Coaching style Coaching style Coaching style

• Acts as a friend to the children • Adapts style from friend to • Takes on the role of disciplinarian
disciplinarian • Encourages creativity/ imagination
• Sells the sport of badminton
• Makes it fun • Makes it fun
• Makes it fun
• Maintains rules of behaviour • Keeps practice varied
• Establishes and maintains discipline
• Encourages player self-reliance • Maintains rules of behaviour
• Delivers basic badminton skills
using a wide variety of methods • Encourages parents to develop self- • Encourages player self-reliance
reliant children
• Involves parents, as appropriate • Works effectively within a
• Varies practice routines coaching team
• Encourages creativity/imagination
• Encourages creativity/imagination
• Encourages involvement in a wide
variety of sports • Nurtures a growing commitment to
badminton
Other aspects Other aspects

Other aspects
• Planning skills (linked, progressive • Planning skills (annual planning)
• Planning skills (annual planning)
sessions) • Self-awareness – ability to critically
• Self-awareness – ability to
• Self-awareness – ability to critically analyse own coaching performance
critically analyse own coaching
analyse own coaching performance (review and evaluate)
performance (review and evaluate)
(review and evaluate) • Ability to work effectively with others
• Ability to work effectively with
• Capacity to mentor other coaches (e.g., sports psychologists, strength
others (e.g., sports psychologists,
working at this level and conditioning coaches, etc.)
strength and conditioning
• Capacity to mentor other coaches coaches, etc.)
working at this level
• Capacity to mentor other coaches
working at this level
32
05. COMPETITION AT DIFFERENT STAGES

Competition is an essential element of player development. However, for competition to be effective

throughout the player’s development, it needs to be well planned and take into account how the
following aspects may vary:
• Singles, doubles and mixed,

versus a focus on specific
events
• Matches of best of three
games to 21, or a variety of
formats
• Group, knockout, league ladder
formats
• Individual and/or team events
• Total number of competitions
MODULE 4
in a year
• Spacing of competitions
• Standard of competition (e.g.,
some you could win, some
where you may win some
COACHES’ MANUAL
matches, some tough ones

that are just for experience)
The table overleaf gives some broad advice on competition planning.
PLAYER DEVELOPMENT MODEL: COMPETITION ADVICE
Sampling Specialising Investment

Across all stages, make the focus of competition:
• having fun
• being with friends
• trying as hard as possible and being proud of the effort
• seeing competition as a chance to learn and improve
• De-emphasise winning by having • Provide a mix of individual and team • Include competition in a mix of
equal rewards for “best effort”, “top formats. individual and team formats.
team member”, “best supporter”, • Include competition in singles, • Begin to target specific events (e.g.,
etc. doubles, and mixed events. singles and/or doubles and/or mixed).
• Provide a mix of individual and team • Plan for single-sex singles and • Contemplate regional, national, and
formats. doubles events (e.g., boys’ singles, international travel for competition.
• Consider events where boys and boys’ doubles, girls’ singles, girls’ • Focus mainly on knockout events.
girls compete against each other doubles).
(e.g., singles events where boys and • Manage the transition from junior to
• Make a gradual transition to best of senior events.
girls play each other). 3 x 21.
• Make use of group formats to ensure • Base competition planning around
• Plan a mix of locally based peaking for specific competitions
more games for all. competition and competition across (two to three per season).
• Use shorter games so players can wider geographical areas (more
“restart” more often (e.g., three travelling). • Take the achievement of ranking
games to 7 rather than one to 21). points into consideration in choosing
• Use a mix of group and knockout competitions.
• Focus on locally based competition formats.
to reduce travelling. • Play a mix of junior events and lower-
• Consider how much competition in level senior events.
a season is appropriate (e.g., one to • Gradually introduce annual planning
two competitions per month over a based around peaking for specific
seven-month season). competitions.
33
06. F.I.T.T. AT DIFFERENT STAGES

In order to be effective, the composition of training and competition during the long-term development
of a player requires careful consideration. Offering overly prescriptive advice for training and competition
can be counter-productive, as this will not allow for the varying needs of individuals or the differences
between cultures. The aim of this section, therefore, is to provide a flexible template where coaches
can formulate their own player development advice sheet.
The F.I.T.T. (Frequency, Intensity, Time, and Type) model explored in previous levels of BWF Coach
Education will be used as a basis to help coaches explore the needs of their players at different stages
in their development. There are two key parts to this process:
• Table 1 provides some general guidance in this exploration, but mainly serves to ask the
questions that need to be answered in order for coaches/administrators to develop their own
advice sheet.
• Table 2 provides a blank template where the coach’s decisions can be added.
MODULE 4
TABLE 1 - PLAYER DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK: TRAINING AND COMPETITION (F.I.T.T.)
Frequency Frequency Frequency

Questions to consider include: Questions to consider include: Questions to consider include:
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Should the number of sessions • Should the number of sessions • Should the number of sessions
increase as the pre-puberty phase increase as the puberty phase increase as the post-puberty phase
progresses. If so, by how much? progresses. If so, by how much? progresses. If so, by how much?
• How many sessions per week would • How many sessions per week • How many sessions per week would
be required to support the progressive would be required to support the be required to support the progressive
learning of badminton skills, whilst progressive learning of badminton learning of badminton skills, whilst
allowing for other demands (e.g., skills, whilst allowing for other allowing for other demands (e.g.,
education, other sports, social time) demands (e.g., education, other education, other sports, social time) to
to be met? sports, social time) to be met? be met?

• Will the frequency of sessions vary • Will the frequency of sessions vary • Will the frequency of sessions vary
during a year? If so, by how much? during a year? If so, by how much? during a year? If so, by how much?
Intensity Intensity Intensity

Children’s aerobic and anaerobic capacity • Will the intensity of sessions vary • Will the intensity of sessions vary
can be improved by varying the intensity of during a year? If so, by how much? during a year? If so, by how much?
exercise within and across sessions.
As the puberty period progresses, Consideration should be given to
Consideration should be given to: increased variation of intensity may occur the position within the annual cycle
• Scheduling high-intensity/quality as the need for periodisation of the annual (periodisation).
speed work (anaerobic) early in a cycle becomes necessary.
session (before fatigue becomes a
factor)
• Providing aerobic conditioning through
low-intensity technical work
• Variation in the intensity of sessions
during a year (and by how much)
• Recovery time
Time Time Time

• How long should sessions last? • How long should sessions last? • How long should sessions last?
Type Type Type

• What is the balance between on-court • What is the balance between • What is the balance between on-court
training (including both practice and on-court training (including both training (including both practice and
competition) and off-court training? practice and competition) and off- competition) and off-court training?
court training? • Does the nature of the training depend
• Does the nature of the training upon the timing within an annual
depend upon the timing within an cycle? If so, how?
annual cycle? If so, how? • What is the best ratio between on-
• What is the best ratio between on- court training and competition?
court training and competition?
34
TABLE 2 - PLAYER DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK: TRAINING AND COMPETITION (F.I.T.T.)

**TEMPLATE TO BE USED BY COACH**

MODULE 4
COACHES’ MANUAL
35
07. PARENTAL SUPPORT AT DIFFERENT STAGES

Parents undoubtedly play a role in the development of young players. The significance of that role
can, however, vary depending upon cultural influences and the stage of development of the child.
This section aims to give suggestions as to the knowledge, skills, and philosophies that parents may
need in order to help their children progress successfully in badminton, as well as how these can be
developed.
MODULE 4
COACHES’ MANUAL
PARENT SUPPORT DURING DIFFERENT STAGES

• Clearly define the roles of the child, • Refine the roles of the young person, • Play a gradually diminishing role.
the parents, and the coach. the parents, and the coach as • Promote increased self-reliance for
• Establish a consistent philosophy appropriate. the young adult.
that is adhered to by the child, coach, • Maintain a consistent philosophy that • Manage psychological rebellion.
and parent (e.g., having fun, giving is adhered to by the young person,
full effort, respecting others, playing coach, and parents (e.g., having fun,
fairly, etc.). giving full effort, respecting others,
• Establish appropriate nutritional playing fairly, etc.).
habits. • Maintain appropriate nutritional
• Encourage child to be well prepared habits.
(shoes, rackets, water bottle, etc.). • Help the young person develop
appropriate time-management skills
(planning/balancing training, rest,
social time, and education).
• Progressively develop self-reliance in
the young person.
• Be aware of the goals set by the
young person and coach.
• Work with the coach and player to
establish an annual plan.
36
Parents spend more time with their children than any coach, and they are generally the most
significant influence in shaping their behaviour. This means they are a key element in helping children
enjoy and progress within a sport. Of course, the most successful efforts will occur when parents’
and coaches’ messages to young players reinforce each other. If, on the other hand, players receive
conflicting messages, it will be frustrating for all involved, as the young person will have to choose
who to “please”, and parents and coaches may waste energy competing with each other or repairing
breakdowns in communication.
Depending on how involved parents expect to be, and how necessary the national association deems
it to encourage parental involvement, it may be beneficial to provide parents with relevant tools to
support their children. The following list of suggestions may prove useful:
• Offer a range of ways in which support can be provided to parents. Online resources (e.g.,
nutritional advice, managing stress in competition, developing self-reliance, etc.) can be
particularly useful, especially with videos.
• Include case studies of successful national players talking about their development within the
sport and how their parents handled this.
MODULE 4
• Consider workshops led by a facilitator, which can allow parents to exchange experiences within
a given cultural context.
• Topics that may be helpful to parents include:
» Nutrition
» Building self-reliance
COACHES’ MANUAL
» Goal setting
» Managing stress
» Communication skills
» Time management
» Competition planning
» The Laws of the Game
» Building a working relationship with the coach
Finally, parents will generally be instrumental in guiding young athletes to prepare for their futures,
which involves helping them balance the demands of sport and education. Many young athletes
are able to successfully combine badminton training with ongoing study (secondary and potentially
beyond). There are various programmes and resources available to support athletes in this process,
and it is important for both parents and coaches to be aware of these. For example:
• BWF Player Career and Entourage Policy – outlines the BWF’s commitment to the holistic
development of players
• Scholarship opportunities in conjunction with the World Academy of Sport:
» Athlete Certificate – online programme equipping athletes from 15 to 18 years of age with the
tools to manage their sporting careers
» Bachelor of International Sport Management Degree – online degree programme through
Federation University (Australia)
» Postgraduate Certificate in International Sport Management – online programme in
conjunction with the University of London
• IOC courses:
» IOC Athlete365 Career+ – workshop aimed at helping athletes identify their interests and skills,
while charting a course for their ongoing development
» IOC Athlete365 Learning – short courses on sport-related topics (nutrition, psychology, etc.)
that athletes can complete online
For more information on these resources, please consult the “Players” section of the BWF
Development webpage.
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 5
TOWARDS AN EFFECTIVE
TALENT DEVELOPMENT
SYSTEM
MODULE 5
01. Introduction 37
02. Characteristics of Effective Systems 37
03. Talent & Environment 38
04. Elements of Successful Environments 39
05. Competition in Both Development and Performance 43
06. Stakeholder Buy-In 44
07. Establishing a Talent Development System 44

10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
www.bwf.sport
37
01. INTRODUCTION

Even the most effective talent detection and identification system will have limited impact if that
talent is not placed into an effective player development environment. This module will explore some
of the challenges inherent in establishing such player development environments as part of a talent
development system. It will also help readers examine their own talent systems in relation to some
of the aspects discussed.
Many of the concepts discussed here are explored in much greater depth and over a much wider
scope in “Player development systems in the performance pathway in four world-leading badminton
nations: A literature review and interviews with experts from Indonesia, Korea, Denmark and Spain”,
a study commissioned by the BWF and carried out in partnership with Leeds Becket University in the
United Kingdom. The report is freely available on the BWF Development website and offers ample
supporting evidence for the theory and principles presented in this module.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• identify key aspects of an effective talent development system

• evaluate their own countries’ talent development systems with regard to these aspects
• describe how to establish a talent development system
MODULE 5
02. CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE SYSTEMS
COACHES’ MANUAL
An effective talent development system should have a clearly stated programme philosophy to set
the tone for the programme and make sure everyone is on the same page. A successful system will
generally have a clearly defined organisational culture, with a shared idea about the final endpoint
on the journey of development (performance model), as well as how this development should occur
(development model).
In addition, talent development systems should:

• be structured enough to provide guidance, but flexible enough to adapt to the context (for
example, to allow for individual/cultural differences).
• be realistic and take into account local limitations regarding logistics and resources.
• take into account the elements discussed in the previous two modules (understanding of key
principles and concepts around talent, knowledge of talent development models).
• include ongoing monitoring of the system itself.
• be linked to a shared vision among stakeholders (funders, government, NOC, parents, etc.).
Above all, it should be recognised that different cultures/contexts may approach the idea of a talent
development system differently, or they may prioritise different aspects – but they all need a clear,
integrated, transparent pathway that works for their own situation and is constructed specifically
around their own culture and logistics.
Talent development systems can be broken down into three basic stages:
• Talent Detection and Identification (identification and recruitment)

• Environment (training and learning)
• Performance (presentation of talent to competition, which happens outside that “known” or
comfortable environment)
38
Sporting Excellence
Performance
Environment
Talent
The following sections will look at each of these stages, highlighting relevant findings from the Leeds
Becket study, and discussing what this means for coaches who are:
• establishing a talent development system in their countries, or

• carrying out a review and/or assessment of their current system.
Finally, the importance of stakeholder buy-in and different ways to achieve this will be explored.
MODULE 5
03. TALENT & ENVIRONMENT

COACHES’ MANUAL
According to the three-stage model mentioned above, the first stage involves getting talent into the
system. Of course, this is by no means a simple task. Module 2 examined some of the challenges
and issues surrounding the identification and detection of talent. The literature review for the Leeds
Becket study further underscores just how complex the notion of player development is, citing factors
including genetics, psychology, support systems, time spent training, and even luck!
Because the above-mentioned factors do not occur in isolation, the interaction and interplay of these
factors adds yet another unknown element. The Leeds Becket study drew the following conclusions
about what this complexity means for those involved in player development:
1. “Human development is highly heterogeneous and individualised.” As noted above, there are
many variables that can contribute to development, and these will present themselves and
interact differently in each individual.
2. Because of this unpredictable nature of human development, it can be questioned whether the
practice of early talent identification and selection is related to exceptional performance later in
life. This is especially true where talent identification processes are more based on policies and
resources than on theories of human development.
3. The multiple factors that contribute to development and the unpredictable results from their
interaction mean that these processes are not subject to control, and even well-planned
interventions will not automatically lead to success. The study suggests that coaches can
influence and guide, but not control. This has implications for the expectations on the part of all
those involved (coaches, players, parents, other stakeholders).
39
The three points mentioned above highlight some of the inherent challenges in both the selection
and development of talent. As also mentioned in the Leeds Becket study, on one hand, national

systems must employ a selection process at some point in order to make the best possible use of
the limited resources available for player development. On the other hand, the uncertainty around
early identification and selection, combined with the long-term nature of player development, makes it
extremely difficult to predict future success.
Different parameters have been used to try to effectively select players for talent development. The
Leeds Becket study points out that at different points in time these have included:
• technical and tactical factors

• discrete performance variables
• psychological and social characteristics
However, they conclude that considering any of these different aspects in isolation will not yield a
complete perspective. In other words, the interaction of the different aspects must be taken into
account within a holistic view of player development. This notion of complexity, especially with
regard to the unpredictable result of the interaction of multiple factors, will be discussed further in
Module 7 within the context of elite training.
The study stresses that two of the key issues around player selection are:
• the need for improved player selection strategies
MODULE 5
• the importance of delaying the selection process for as long as possible
Regarding the former, they point to a move towards a multi-disciplinary approach based on a
variety of factors, citing work with Premier League football coaches who try to apply a “balance of
probabilities” and/or “gut instinct” in their decision-making processes. With regards to the latter, this
of course makes sense in light of the uncertainty already discussed.
COACHES’ MANUAL
Both of these issues highlight the importance of a clear understanding of local logistics and resources,
which will help inform the development structure and ensure that the system is realistic and relevant
within the context in question. One of the main aims of the BWF Level 3 Coach Education course is
for coaches to be able to critically analyse other systems in the interest of applying and adapting them
to their own national context as appropriate.

04. ELEMENTS OF SUCCESSFUL ENVIRONMENTS
The different countries examined in the Leeds Becket study had different approaches to their talent
identification philosophies, as well as about how restrictive or inclusive they aimed to be. Whether
the entrance to the pathway is extremely open and flexible or more prescriptive and limited, once
athletes are in the system, this leads us to the second stage in the model – the environment in which
they continue to develop.
“Environment” includes the training and learning opportunities that the system offers. The Leeds
Becket study makes an interesting distinction regarding this “environment”, considering it from two
different perspectives:
• the high-level strategic aspects that shape and define programme philosophies
• the practical aspects that consider how the system interacts with (affects) the players
Each of these perspectives will be examined in further detail below.

40
ENVIRONMENT: STRATEGIC ASPECTS

The multiple high-level strategic aspects that contribute to effective learning environments can be
represented in the following diagram. This perfectly illustrates the complexity and the comprehensive
nature of the overall system. While some of these aspects are explored in this resource, there is a
great deal of further information in the study that can prove extremely useful to anyone involved in
talent development systems.
As mentioned in the section introduction, each of the national systems examined has its own idea
as to how restrictive entry to the talent development environment should be. However, they all
Link to socio-cultural Link to participation

context and resources system
System
implementation Vision, culture,
coherence and priorities & planning
resource
MODULE 5
Effective learning
environments
COACHES’ MANUAL
Effective
Performance model
workforce
Training
Development model
infrastructure
Source: BWF/Leeds Becket study
recognise the need for different training strategies (physical, psychological, competition, etc.) at
different moments in the young athletes’ development. A theoretical framework to guide such
strategies was presented in Module 4 (along with some overarching principles in Module 3). Of
course, these strategies will always need to be adapted for the context in question, but it is worth
stressing the importance of elements such as:
• implementing an age-stage approach (with guidance as to appropriate engagement for

developing players)
• handling transition points (through careful and thoughtful management of sensitive transitions
in players’ development)
• monitoring the system (including initial assessment, setting of KPIs, review of progress, and
resulting feedback)
41
Each of these elements will be discussed in further detail below.

IMPLEMENTING AN AGE-STAGE APPROACH
The Leeds Becket study describes age-stage differentiation as being “based on the idea that
individuals at different ages and stages of development acquire particular characteristics or can
be exposed to environments that provide the foundation – or enable them to be ready – for
engagement in particular types of training activities”. As discussed in Module 4, it is important
to keep in mind that chronological age and stage may not always be aligned and there can be
considerable individual differences.
The four countries examined in the study demonstrated roughly the following stages:
• Early engagement in the sport (but not necessarily specialisation) from 5/6 years to 11/12 years
• Technique development from 10/11/12 years to 14/15/16 years
• Tactical development from 14/15/16 years to 17/18 years
• Focus on higher-level competition and competition behaviours from 18/19 years
The different countries introduced centralised programmes started around 10/11/12 years of
age (generally regional, and then progressing to national). More serious exposure to national
competition also started in the 10/11/12 age range, with a focus on experience and development
rather than on winning. Some of the differences among the countries centred on how they
approached physical preparation and development.
MODULE 5
HANDLING TRANSITION POINTS
Whenever players move from one stage to another, this represents a significant change in their
lives. As such, a crucial aspect of an age-stage approach is the successful management of these
transition points. By definition, transition points are when something novel and significant happens,
COACHES’ MANUAL
and may include:
• physical changes (such as puberty)

• logistical changes (for example, in education, training venue, etc.)
• progression (which may imply a change of coach, training centre, etc.)
Such transitions often take players out of their comfort zones, as they may involve changes in
their routines, peer group, self-esteem, etc. This leaves them especially vulnerable to frustration,

variations in performance, and even drop-out. Coaches must be prepared to support players during
these transition periods in order to minimise any negative effects on the players and on the team.
The Leeds Becket study suggests identifying the potential transition points and putting strategies
in place to ensure that these are handled properly. They also mention the importance of clear
communication among stakeholders, including athletes, coaches, managers, and parents.
MONITORING THE SYSTEM
Monitoring of player and coach performance within the system has also been identified as a key
element of a successful development system. An interesting example of one way to achieve this
is discussed in the Leeds Becket study. “Performance profiling” is described as an athlete-driven
procedure that helps focus on what is important to the athlete. This can involve asking players
to identify the qualities or characteristics of an ideal player (which might include physical, tactical,
mental, and technical skills, along with other areas such as lifestyle and nutritional habits, for
example). Players then rate the importance of each of these to an ideal performer, and finally rate
their own skills in these areas. The gap between the ideal and the self-assessment will assist in
the construction of individual goals and KPIs for the players, as well as informing the programme
plans and content. Performance profiling can be used in groups as well as with individuals, and both
coaches and players can be involved in the process.
42
The continual monitoring of the talent development programme should also include the
documentation of all sessions and related activities. This data collection should be done on both a
group and individual basis. Review of this information when compared to competition performance
should again inform the planning and content of the programme. On an individual level, data
collection is critical in allowing analysis of performance, and can be particularly used to assess levels
when players return to training from injury or enforced breaks.
ENVIRONMENT: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
It is important to remember that all the high-level strategic aspects examined above are aimed
at creating and supporting the key element in the middle of the diagram: effective learning
environments.
Of course, the goal of effective learning environments, as described in the Leeds Becket study, is to
“encourage and facilitate skill acquisition and performance to elite level”. In contrast to the strategic/
policy side of things, this is where the talent development system directly interacts with young
players, helping them improve their game. This practical “on-the-ground” level of effective learning
environments can be represented in the following diagram.
MODULE 5
COACHES’ MANUAL
Effective learning
environments
Learning
environments Developmentally
are goal focused, appropriate

individualised and competition
challenging
Constructively aligned
practice structure
Source: BWF/Leeds Becket study

43
The following elements, as can be seen above, contribute to shaping the players’ experience and
development in a practical sense:

• learning environments that are goal focused, individualised, and challenging
• practice structures that are constructively aligned
• competition that is developmentally appropriate
The Leeds Becket study explores these elements from both theoretical and practical perspectives,
and it may be useful for coaches to examine any or all of these in further detail. Many of the
elements will also be touched on in the elite training section this Level 3 resource. For example:
• Goal setting and different goal orientations are examined in the context of elite training
environments (Module 6).
• The focus on the individual is discussed with regard to:
» the importance of self-determination for sustained motivation (Module 6).
» the personal nature of learning processes and reflection (Module 7).
» the role of the individual in successful teamwork (Module 9).
• The coach’s role in helping the player work through challenging situations is explored within the
use of systemic coaching (Module 8).
• The demands around developing crucial qualities in elite players mean that practice structures
should include:
» the necessary spaces for the reflection that will promote learning and growth (Module 7).
» the opportunity for elite players to take charge in their areas of particular expertise (Module 9).
MODULE 5
» experiences that will help players develop anticipation, especially the inclusion of game-like
practice (Module 10).
COACHES’ MANUAL
05. COMPETITION IN BOTH DEVELOPMENT
AND PERFORMANCE
Competition is a very broad topic, as it occurs as a regular facet of any sports programme and serves
a variety of purposes. On one hand, competition is an important part of players’ development, as
it provides an opportunity to measure their progress and to gain valuable experience. Some of the
points mentioned in the Leeds Becket study around the importance of this kind of learning experience

from the players’ perspective include:
• motivation to train harder

• gaining competitive game experience
• gaining competitive experience against better players
• experiencing wins and losses
All four countries in the study recognised that competition plays in important role as a development
experience for all age groups. Of course, it must be managed appropriately and planned in a way that
takes development needs (both individual and group) into account.
The study further pointed out that from a development perspective, competition can also be helpful
for coaches, in that:
• it gives them a chance to observe players in competitive situations and to make assessments
• it provides evidence for selection to squads
On the other hand, competition is also the end goal of the development process, and in this context,
it is about performance. The aim of the player pathway from grassroots to podium is a winning
performance.
44
06. STAKEHOLDER BUY-IN

As mentioned among the characteristics of effective talent development systems, a shared vision
among stakeholders is crucial. If all those involved have a common goal and an understanding of how
to reach it, resources can be better destined, and decisions will be more widely supported. However,
this does not happen easily or automatically.
Appropriate and timely communication with a variety of stakeholders is not only a sign of good
governance, but also a way to get stakeholders’ support and keep them updated and involved. The
Leeds Becket study underscored this, reporting that the four countries engaged in deliberate and
targeted communication with all their stakeholders. This communication was extensive, tailored, and
responded to stakeholders’ preferences, as a way of keeping them informed.
Of course, there will always be mismatches with stakeholders, and some of the common ones
mentioned in the study had to do with:
• tensions between different parts of organisational structure (for example, between clubs and the
national federation)
• different expectations (parents pressuring children to win rather than to do their best)
• different approaches (coaches at some levels not wanting to change the way they have always
worked)
MODULE 5
Surely there are as many potential mismatches as there are stakeholder relationships. However, this
is one of the many areas where a clear understanding of the local context and culture can help identify
or even predict problems and implement appropriate strategies. While coaches may not be directly
involved in these processes, it is important that they understand the importance of stakeholder buy-in
for the overall health of the programme and that they contribute to this as appropriate. For example,
they may be able to support effective communication and buy-in strategies by sharing relevant
COACHES’ MANUAL
information about player progress or success stories with the national federation. Or if they are in
more regular contact with the parents of young players, they may be instrumental in helping them
internalise the expectations for players at different stages in terms of responsibility, attitude, nutrition,
effort versus performance, etc.
07. ESTABLISHING A TALENT DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM

The following questions, grouped into different points along the player pathway, should be considered
when establishing a Talent Development System. Alternatively, they can be used to examine an
existing system in light of the aspects discussed in this module.
1. Entry into a Talent Development System
• Is it formal (a signed agreement) or informal?

• Is it conditioned? (On participation/attendance? Or on performance/results?)
• What is the term of the agreement?
• How is progress measured and how often? (What is the principle/philosophy?)
• How is attitude, consistency and effort measured in sessions?
• What is the role of the coach?
• Who detects talent and how is it measured?
• What is the stated philosophy, vision, and mission of the system?
45
2. Progression within the system

• How does a player move to the next level? (How many levels are there?)
• What kind of evaluation/commitment is involved?
• How is the evaluation done? Who is involved?
• How (and how much) is communicated to the player?
• Is there a plan with objectives? (short-, medium-, and/or long-term?) How are these
measured, followed up on? Is it a group plan or an individualised one? If it is a group plan,
does it change to individual at a higher level?
• Is this consistent with the stated philosophy of the program?
3. Retention within the system
• What transitions are likely to affect program loss? (Primary to secondary school, secondary to
university, puberty, etc.)
• What plans are in place to avoid program loss during these transitions? At other points/in
general?
4. Exit from the system (vs. retention in the broader system)
• How do players leave the system? (Are they removed? Are there other options? Probation?
Suspension? Demotion?)
• What is the exit decision based on? (Results, effort, attitude, etc.? Does this vary according
MODULE 5
to the level?)
• Is there a plan/platform to keep them involved in badminton (as club players, sparring
partners, coaches, TOs, board members, volunteers, etc.)?
Other elements to consider
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Proper documentation at all stages of the program
• Testing / protocols to be used
• Support services to be provided (physical prep, medical, psychological, lifestyle)
• Roles of stakeholders (stakeholder mapping exercise)
• Links with schools, universities
• Relation to clubs

REFERENCES
North, J.; Lara-Bercial, S.; Rankin-Wright, A.J.; Ashford, M. and Whitaker, L. (2016). Player devel-
opment systems in the performance pathway in four world-leading badminton nations: A literature
review and interviews with experts from Indonesia, Korea, Denmark and Spain. Leeds, UK: Leeds
Beckett University
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 6
THE ELITE END OF THE
SPECTRUM
MODULE 6
01. Introduction 46
02. The Role of Motivation 46
03. The Training Environment 47
04. Relevant Actors in the Environment 47
05. The Importance of Goal Orientations 49
06. Creating Effective Elite Badminton Environments 50

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46
01. INTRODUCTION

The previous modules have examined how players get into the player pathway, and how they
progress along the various levels during their development. Of course, the ultimate goal of the
pathway is for players to reach the elite level of performance. Not all players have the talent,
dedication, and desire to reach this pinnacle, and so it is of particular interest to examine how players
actually become elite players and are able to continue to develop throughout their careers. This
module will take a closer look at what it means to be an elite player, and what is required of the
athlete, the coach(es) and the system in order for elite performance to be sustained.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
MODULE 6
• describe the importance of intrinsic motivation for elite players
• explain how the different aspects of the elite training environment can affect players’
motivation and performance
• identify the advantages and disadvantages of different goal orientations in an elite
environment
COACHES’ MANUAL
• discuss different ways to foster positive conditions in an elite training environment
02. THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION

Elite players, who have a high level of skill and have played for a long time, have probably reached
their level because when they started playing badminton, they found that it was fun. They probably
got satisfaction from the game of badminton itself, as well as from the different challenges inherent
in the game. Thus, it is certainly important that elite players, in order to keep on developing their skills
and level of performance, maintain a high level of motivation throughout their entire elite career.
From a psychological perspective it can be argued that human beings are by nature curious, active,
and fundamentally motivated for learning and developing. In other words, people first and foremost
tend to do activities for the fun and the experience of it, which is the basis for intrinsic motivation.
This can be contrasted with extrinsic motivation, at the other end of the spectrum, which has to do
with external rewards like prize money or trophies.
The different kinds of motivation were discussed in more depth in the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual, but
the key point here is that when people are driven by intrinsic motivation, they tend to enjoy activities
more than if they are motivated by fear or rewards (or, in other words, driven by extrinsic motivation).
Individuals who are intrinsically motivated tend to be more persistent than others, which in our case
means that there is a greater chance they will play badminton for a longer period, and hopefully
remain involved in badminton throughout their entire lives. It is important to note that, while players
may initially get involved in badminton for different reasons, those who succeed at elite level are
generally guided by intrinsic motivation.
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03. THE TRAINING ENVIRONMENT

The environment around the player has a big part in fostering the kind of motivation needed to bring
about and sustain elite-level performance. In the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual, the work of psychologists
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan was introduced within discussions around motivation. These authors
explain that in order for people to be intrinsically motivated, they must have fundamental feelings of
competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2008). As such, it is worth considering
how these conditions can be created and fostered within elite training environments.
In order to feel competent, players must experience that they are good at things, and that they make
a difference in their badminton environments. The recognition of players’ skills and contributions to
their training environments is therefore essential to their feeling competent, thus maintaining and
developing intrinsic motivation. Recognition of unique skills and contributions to a group will, apart
from intrinsic motivation, also develop the players’ self-esteem (Honneth, 1996). Conversely, elite
MODULE 6
environments that do not recognise elite players’ skills and contributions will undermine the intrinsic
motivation and the self-esteem of the players. Such environments will, according to Deci and Ryan’s
theory, probably also have a negative influence on the players’ performance. All of these concepts
will be explorer further in the coming modules.
On a related note, in order to experience autonomy, players must feel that they are fundamentally
COACHES’ MANUAL
responsible for their own lives, badminton careers and decisions. From this perspective, it is
interesting that external rewards, such as cash prizes or trophies, can actually undermine the feeling
of autonomy. Ryan & Deci (2000) claim that this is because the external rewards will move the
feeling of control from the player to the external environment, thereby making the player feel less in
control. As such, players may feel less autonomous, as a result of which, intrinsic motivation may
actually decrease. In fact, any actions that give the player less control over the outcome will run the
risk of weakening feelings of autonomy, as will be discussed later in this module. In contrast, elite
environments that respect and facilitate players’ abilities to make their own decisions will result in
greater development and higher performance levels.
Finally, in order to experience relatedness, players must feel that they are in a safe and secure
environment, and that the people around them are genuinely interested in their personal wellbeing
and development. Positive, nurturing environments will, in this sense, help facilitate the players’
feelings of relatedness, and therefore aid in the development of intrinsic motivation.
Of course, it is not easy to consistently provide these kinds of conditions, and more than likely
this will require a concerted effort on the part of all those involved. The next section will address
ways in which the different parties involved can help to create an ideal climate for fostering intrinsic
motivation.
04. RELEVANT ACTORS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
COACHES
Coaches, of course, have a significant role when it comes to developing and maintaining elite players’
intrinsic motivation. They have extensive knowledge about the badminton-specific elements, but they
must also be able to apply elements of communication, learning theory and psychology in order to
foster the social and psychological conditions necessary for players to progress.
As will be discussed in the elite coaching section, successful elite coaches have to be able to
communicate with players in a way that helps them use their prior experience and learn to solve
problems. The skilled use of questions, as discussed in depth in Level 2, can be an effective way to
help elite players draw on the knowledge they already possess, to encourage them to work together,
and to promote the reflection that is crucial at this level. This will also aid players in recognising their
specific competences, which in turn will support the development of autonomy.
48
Elite coaches need to have high-level knowledge around the technical and physical aspects of
badminton, but if they are to foster intrinsic motivation among their players, they also have to know

how to design training exercises which facilitate choice-making and reflection. As players get more
and more comfortable making choices and evaluating the results of those choices, their feelings of
competence and autonomy will be enhanced. Coaches are a central part of creating this kind of elite
environment aimed at developing autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and thereby, the intrinsic
motivation that will help players progress.
OTHER PLAYERS
Other players in the environment also have an important role in developing and maintaining
intrinsic motivation. If players in a group recognise each other’s skills and contributions to the
training environment in a visible way, such an environment will create feelings of competence
and relatedness within the group. If there is a common understanding about the key criteria for
success, it is likely that the environment will become a context for developing intrinsic motivation.
MODULE 6
For example, an emphasis on development through enjoyable and positive experiences is something
that can be incorporated from youth through elite levels. Agreeing on common general goals in an
elite environment is therefore essential for the development of intrinsic motivation. It may be worth
pointing out that, depending on the culture of the players/coach/club, this may not always come
naturally. However, it is something that coaches can make an effort to develop as part of their
practice.
COACHES’ MANUAL
THE SYSTEM AND ITS VALUES
It is of great importance that the system to which players belong support the development of intrinsic
motivation. This means that if players are to experience situations that promote intrinsic motivation,
these situations must be in line with the system’s fundamental values.
A value can fundamentally be understood as a premise for making choices and therefore a guideline

for acting. From this perspective, values are what determine how people act in a specific context. If
you want to develop intrinsic motivation within a system, values that promote autonomy, competence
and relatedness must be an important part of the organisation and its fundamental assumptions
about itself (Schein, 1994). For example, “self-development”, “responsibility”, “joy”, “respect” and
“differentiation” are values that could support development of intrinsic motivation, as these values
facilitate the active participation of the players, making them feel competent and successful and that
they are valued members of the group.
In contrast, it makes no sense for an organisation to endorse the development of intrinsic motivation,
yet demonstrate values like “obedience”, “belief in authorities” and “one-way communication”, as
these values view the individual as a passive participant in the learning process.

49
05. THE IMPORTANCE OF GOAL ORIENTATIONS

Obviously elite athletes must be very goal oriented. However, the way goals are set can have a
significant influence on how players view their progress and their success. The Level 2 Coaches’
Manual offered a brief introduction to different types of goals, depending on the purpose and the
focus of each. Here we will look more closely at the nature of process goals and outcome goals, as
well as how each relates to motivation.
When working with outcome goals, the focus is to

demonstrate ability relative to others, in order to outperform
them and publicly demonstrate one’s skills and performance.
The advantage of these kinds of goals is that they are easy
to measure, so it is easy to determine if the goal has been
achieved. However, the big problem with outcome goals is
MODULE 6
that they are not easily controlled. Athletes are comparing

themselves to other people, but they have no control over
those people’s actions. Because players cannot control the
achievement of these goals, their feelings of autonomy, and
thus their motivation, may suffer.
COACHES’ MANUAL
On the other hand, when working with process goals, the

focus is on developing skills and competences to be able
to handle or solve a specific task in the best possible way.
Working with process goals means that the outcome can
actually be controlled, as the process or result is not being
compared against others. As such, an emphasis on process
goals would help players focus on and appreciate what they
have learned, whether or not they win. This would naturally
encourage them to continue their learning process, focusing on

future improvement, rather than looking at winning or losing as
the only measure of their success.
An approach to goal setting that focuses on process goals

and personal development could be important in elite training Photo credit: Badminton Singapore
environments where intrinsic motivation and thereby joy and fun
are key issues. As mentioned, these kinds of goals are within
the players’ control, which will encourage the development of feelings of autonomy and competence.
At the same time, working with process goals should also yield better results, as people who are
motivated intrinsically will generally perform better (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
An interesting example of using process goals with elite players is the preparation of Danish women’s
singles player Camilla Martin for the world championships in 1999. As it was very difficult for Camilla
to beat the Chinese players, the focus in the preparation for the tournament was changed from the
outcome goal “how can we win”, to the process goal “what elements are necessary to develop
in my game, in order to prevent the Chinese from making spin shots at the net”. At that time,
the Chinese were practically the only women’s singles players who used this shot. To achieve the
process goal, for six months before the tournament Camilla practiced her pulled backhand shot, for
use in situations where she was forced to take the shuttle behind her. It is important to bear in mind
that at that time, this shot was rarely used in women’s singles. She was actually able to implement
the stroke in the game, which was probably one of the reasons that she won the tournament.
However, it is important to point out that the eventual outcome (her victory) happened to be a positive
side effect of the process goal she had worked towards (developing the new stroke).
50
06. CREATING EFFECTIVE ELITE BADMINTON

ENVIRONMENTS
Those players who make it to the elite level have gone through various stages of development along
the way. Training environments that foster intrinsic motivation will help them continue to develop at
this top end of the player pathway. The following chart summarises some of the ways that coaches,
and the system as a whole, can create such conditions.
IN ORDER TO FACILITATE… IT IS IMPORTANT TO ENSURE…

GENERAL WELLBEING • a system based on values that facilitate intrinsic motivation
• a focus on fun elements of the game (deceptive shots, spin shots,
developing anticipation, etc.)
• common general goals agreed among all the actors in the environment
FEELINGS OF COMPETENCE • differentiation (working on relevant levels with relevant topics for the
MODULE 6
individual player)
• positive performance feedback
• freedom from demeaning evaluations
• recognition of players’ unique skills, knowledge, and contributions
FEELINGS OF AUTONOMY • opportunities for players to make their own choices, especially
COACHES’ MANUAL
regarding badminton-specific issues
• respect for players’ feelings and opinions
• communication based on dialogue and questions
• opportunities for self-direction
• an avoidance of pure instruction to players
• a focus on tactical and mental elements in daily training, because
tactics is about making choices
• a focus on creative thinking in communication and specific training
exercises
• a focus on mastery goals

FEELINGS OF RELATEDNESS • activities and exercises done in cooperation with others
• a positive environment, where players are “seen” and not ignored (for
example, asking how people are doing, or saying hello and goodbye are
simple actions to facilitate feelings of relatedness)
• relevant information from the organisation, coaches, etc. given to all
players in the group
REFERENCES
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, de-
velopment, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182.
Honneth, A. (1996). The struggle for recognition: The moral grammar of social conflicts The MIT
Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new direc-
tions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67.
Schein, E. H. (1994). Organisationskultur og ledelse Valmuen.
Zimmerman, Barry J., and Anastasia Kitsantas. “Developmental phases in self-regulation: Shifting
from process goals to outcome goals.” Journal of Educational Psychology 89.1 (1997): 29.
SECTION THREE
KEY ASPECTS OF ELITE COACHING
The work of an elite coach is significantly different in many ways from coaching at other
points in the pathway. Some of the particular characteristics that distinguish elite players
were discussed in Module 6, as part of the examination of the top end of the player
pathway. This section will look more closely at the nature of coaching elite players and the
particular skills and knowledge that elite coaches need to further the development of their
players.
For the most part, elite players will have a polished set of technical, tactical, and physical
skills. After all, if players did not have exceptional skills in these areas, they would have not
made it to the elite level! Although their training will still include work in these areas, the
elite coach will not necessarily be teaching them new skills along these lines. In fact, in
many cases, the skill level of the players will be higher than that of the coach, which may be
difficult for some coaches to reconcile. However, this certainly does not mean that coaches
have nothing to teach their players, as it is the way the players and coaches work together
to use these skills to create winning situations that is of utmost importance. This is where
the knowledge and experience of the coach can make all the difference.
Because of this fundamental difference, the approach to coaching here in this Level 3
Coaches’ Manual differs significantly from the structure used in the Level 1 and Level 2
manuals. Level 1 and Level 2 organised coaching practice around five key performance
factors: Technical, Tactical, Physical, Psychological, and Lifestyle. However, since elite
players have already built a fairly standard, high-level toolbox in these areas, we will focus on
how coaches work with players to apply these skills to a winning game.
Elite coaches need to have a solid grasp, not only of all the performance factors previously
mentioned, but also of techniques to challenge players’ ideas and practices, to facilitate their
continued learning and growth, to help them work effectively with those around them, and
to use their skills to achieve the best possible results. As such, this section will address the
following areas:
• Module 7 will explore how players learn and how coaches can help create the necessary
conditions for significant learning to take place.
• Module 8 will examine the role of communication in successful training, as well as how
to improve/ensure optimum communication processes in different contexts.
• Module 9 will look at some of the advantages as well as the potential complications of
working with elite players in team environments, and how to maximise the benefits of
teamwork.
• Finally, Module 10 will examine how coaches can help players improve and apply
anticipation, which may be one of the key areas allowing them to exploit their other skills
to the greatest degree possible.
Because there will not be an explicit focus on the performance factors as addressed in
Level 1 and Level 2, coaches are encouraged, as a pre-course task, to identify any of these
aspects that they feel they may need to review.
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 7
HOW LEARNING HAPPENS AT
THE ELITE LEVEL
MODULE 7
01. Introduction 51
02. The Concept of Complexity 51
03. Learning Theories 53
04. Reflection as a Crucial Tool for Learning 58

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51
01. INTRODUCTION

As discussed in the section introduction, elite players generally have a fairly standard “toolkit”
of technical skills, but it is how they use these to outwit the opponent is what makes elite-level
badminton different. As such, the kind of learning that players need to stay on the forefront
necessarily involves challenging their previous ideas and constantly coming up with new solutions.
This module will look at the nature of the choices that badminton players must make on court in an
increasingly complex game, as well as the kind of learning processes that can help them continue
to improve their level of play. Several learning theories will be explored, to give coaches a better
understanding of how learning comes about and what conditions can help optimise the learning
process.
Finally, the role of reflection in the learning process will be examined, from both a theoretical
perspective and an on-court application aimed at developing players’ reflective skills. While the
BWF Level 2 Coaches’ Manual introduced some initial considerations around reflection as part of the
learning cycle, the approach here will examine how coaches can successfully use reflection to help
elite players take advantage of their own knowledge and experience.
MODULE 7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• explain the concept of complexity and how it applies to elite badminton
COACHES’ MANUAL
• apply concepts from relevant learning theories when designing coaching sessions with elite
players
• explain the difference between active reflection and premise reflection
• describe ways to help elite players develop both active reflection and premise reflection

02. THE CONCEPT OF COMPLEXITY
COMPLEXITY AND MODERN SOCIETY
Today we are living in what can be called a polycentric society, which means that there is no single
overall explanation to why things are the way they are. Furthermore, technological development
means that we have constant access to a great deal of information and inputs. As a result, we have to
make choices regarding what information and which inputs are relevant for us, in order to be able to
produce a suitable outcome upon dealing with the information in a cognitive process.
A society and situations like these are, in another words, characterised by “complexity”. Because
complexity involves constant change, uncertainty, and unpredictability, it requires being open to new
possibilities by making new choices. At the same time, it requires taking risks, because our choices
could be wrong. However, the only choice we don’t have is not to make one, as we must make
choices in order to cope with the situations we are experiencing.
This complexity also means that, in a sense, even “society” is individualised, because the choices
that are relevant for one person may be different from those that are relevant for another person. It
can be argued that different people see and understand the world in different ways, which means
that even in similar situations they will make different choices and act in different ways. However,
if we can make the “right” choices as often as possible, thereby lowering the risks inherent to
complexity, we will be able to function optimally in a given context.
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COMPLEXITY AND BADMINTON

The game of badminton is fundamentally a complex activity, particularly at the elite level. Players
have to make shots from all around the court, taking many different variables into account. As was
introduced in the tactical section of the Level 1 Coaches’ Manual and further developed in Level
2, choosing relevant strokes for the specific situation means being aware of their own placement,
body position and movements, as well as those of their opponents. Players have to choose where
to move on court after making a stroke, and they have to be able to remember what has happened
earlier in the game. Similarly, when their opponents are making a stroke, players have to be able to
register both placement on court and body position (their opponents’ and their own). Once again, it is
important to be able to remember what has happened before in similar situations, in order to be able
to anticipate what will happen next.
As such, there is a lot going on

over the course of a match, which
means that players have to make
numerous choices, and in those
specific moments on court, only
the players themselves can make
those choices. Furthermore,
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the complexity of the game at

elite level is even higher than at
lower levels, as elite players use
deception in order to limit their
opponents’ ability to anticipate.
COACHES’ MANUAL
This will increase the uncertainty

of situations at the elite level,
which again will add to the
complexity.
Similar to society in general,

the game of badminton has Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
increased in complexity over
time. The development of new
racket technologies has made rackets lighter and more flexible, which means that players have more
choices in each match situation. For example, lighter rackets make it possible to use different types of
backhand strokes, which were almost impossible with the old, heavier rackets. Also, the application
of new knowledge around physical training has made players stronger and faster over time, which
again means that the number of possible choices will increase. For example, players today can
choose between making jump shots and staying on the ground for heavy smashes, as improved
strength makes jump shots more of an option. On another note, changes to the scoring system
also have a significant effect on the dynamics of the game, which affects elite players’ training on
physical and tactical levels. For example, badminton has gone from being dominantly aerobic to more
explosively anaerobic, which changes the physical demands on the players.
In conclusion, the game of badminton is an increasingly complex activity, especially at the highest
levels. In order to handle this complexity, elite players need to practice in ways that help them
develop the ability to make effective choices. Because dealing with complexity is a cognitive process,
which among other things requires reflective skills, it is important for coaches and players to work
together to develop these skills. At the same time, it is important to point out that good decision-
making skills, whether related to on-court decisions or broader lifestyle and training choices, are
developed over time. As such, ideally players should be supported and trained as good decision-
makers from an early age. The section below can help coaches better understand the learning
process and what this means in terms of effectively supporting players’ development.
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03. LEARNING THEORIES

In the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual, there was an exploration of different learning styles, along with
models of experiential learning that showed how these different learning styles may fit into the
learning cycle. While learning styles have to do with how learners prefer to take on information (for
example, by visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic means), this section will go deeper to explore different
theories of how learning actually takes place. This understanding of the learning process will help
coaches to structure meaningful practice with elite players.
We will look at three well-known learning theories that can each make relevant contributions to our
understanding of players’ learning processes within elite environments:
• Constructivism • Observational learning • Communities of practice
These theories can help shape our view of learning and may influence the approach a coach takes,
depending on the specific goal, topic and learning situation. Each learning theory will be examined in
terms of:
a. The principles behind the theory
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b. How the theory relates to badminton training
c. The role of the coach within the theory
d. Expected learning outcomes
This will be followed by a discussion of how a solid understanding of the different theories can
COACHES’ MANUAL
help coaches make sound decisions about how to work with their players to bring about significant
learning.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Principles of constructivism
Constructivism, whose early proponents include Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, views knowledge
as being constructed by the individual in a cognitive process where inputs (or “disturbances”) from

the outside are related to existing experiences, with the result being new knowledge and new
experiences. In other words, from a constructivist perspective, knowledge is created in an interaction
between “disturbances” and existing experiences (Dolin 2007). American psychologist David Ausubel
(1968) has argued that, “the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner
already knows” (p. vi). Along the same lines, Chilean scientist Humberto Maturana (1987) claims
in his development theory that human individuals are “autopoietic systems”, which means that
individuals always refer to their own experiences, and therefore no one else can know what the result
of a given input will be. Thus, from a constructivist perspective, pure instruction and direct transfer of
knowledge from one person to another are impossible.
Constructivism and badminton
Applied to badminton training, as elite players usually have a long career behind them, the importance
of the players’ experience cannot be underestimated. From a constructivist point of view, the players
have to be active and think for themselves in order to release the full learning potential contained
in this experience. This means that one-way communication and a “do-as-you-are-told” approach
will not bring about the kind of learning and development that we have been discussing in an elite
environment. However, if we expect players to take an active role in their own development, they
must be encouraged to think for themselves from early on. This is addressed in the Level 1 Coaches’
Manual, where the advantages of a democratic coaching style include improved problem-solving and
decision-making. The idea is further developed in Level 2, where solid questioning skills can invite
players to be active participants in their own learning experience. If these foundations are laid early in
the players’ development, the constructivist approach to learning described here can be quite useful
in handling the complexity and the resulting tactical demands that probably represent the greatest
challenge at the elite level.
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Role of the coach

When taking a constructivist approach to working with elite players, the role of the coach should
be carefully considered. From a constructivist point of view, the coach is first of all a co-player, who
facilitates learning by creating relevant disturbances or inputs, in order for the players themselves to
then reflect on these. The reflection process will, as a result, lead to new knowledge, developed by
the players themselves. This means that the specific content of the practice is of great importance.
When working with elite players from a constructivist point of view, the content of the practice should
continuously challenge the players’ existing experiences, in order to “disturb”, and thereby facilitate
the reflection process.
In order to challenge these existing experiences, the practice must focus on creating situations where
unexpected things happen. In other words, the players must experience “disappointment” regarding
what they think will happen next on court, in order to initiate the reflection process, and thereby
the development of new and more advanced experiences and knowledge. In practical terms, this
“disappointment” can be achieved through on-court exercises, but coaches can also be creative and
incorporate the use video of video to set up a situation and discuss expected versus actual outcomes.
It is important to clarify that “disturbances” and “disappointments” simply refer to situations that are
contrary to what was expected, rather than implying negative experiences or emotions. This will be
addressed in greater detail in the next section, where the process of reflection is described further.
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The relevance of a constructivist approach when working with elite players cannot be underestimated.
Elite players have a lot of varied and valuable experiences, built up through many years of training
and competition, which also means that in many areas they probably know more than the coach. The
only way that we, as coaches, can get access to the knowledge and experiences of the players, and
COACHES’ MANUAL
thereby create appropriate “disturbances”, is to interact with the players in an inquisitive manner,
based on respect for the relevance of the players’ own perspectives. Coaches may want to refer
back to the in-depth discussion of questioning skills in the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual for ideas on how
to best take advantage of these interactions.
Expected outcomes
As discussed earlier, the game itself is more complex

with elite players, as compared to lower-level players,
which means that players have to choose from many

inputs every second on court, and hopefully make
the right choices in order to win the rally as often as
possible. A constructivist approach to learning/coaching
will facilitate the reflection process, which can help
players to reduce and navigate the complexity, and to
make the best possible choices on court. In addition,
when we apply constructivist principles, giving the
players an active role and responsibility for their own
choices, we will be able to optimise the learning process
and improve decision-making, as well as fostering
intrinsic motivation through the development of
autonomy and competence.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
While constructivism focuses on the learners’ internal cognitive processes in building knowledge,
there are other learning theories that take the social context into account as part of the learning
process. In other words, social learning theories look beyond the individual to focus on social
relations, and view groups of people as a context for learning. Learners can look to their peers
as valuable resources with unique sets of knowledge and experience. At the same time, the
communication and negotiation that take place in groups working on the same topics create an
internal learning environment, where the individuals in the group learn from each other. In the
following section, we will explore how two different social learning approaches can benefit the
development of elite players.
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OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Principles of observational learning
Canadian-American psychologist Albert Bandura proposed the idea of observational learning, which
developed out of behaviourism into what Bandura himself labelled “social learning theory”. Many
people probably associate behaviourism with its early view of learning as a result of stimulus-and-
response processes. Scientists such as Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike and John B Watson were the
first exponents of the theory of behaviourism, and in their perspective, only observable behaviour was
of interest. They rejected the exploration of cognitive processes such as reflection, as they felt that
only visible behaviour could show what individuals have actually learned.
However, Bandura’s approach, which is credited for bridging the gap between behaviourism and
cognitivism, recognises the role of mental activity in the learning process. He describes observational
learning as a process where individuals can learn from watching other people perform. In other
words, learning can be influenced not only by their own experiences, but also by what they observe
others doing. If the observed behaviour leads to positive consequences for the person doing the
behaviour, observers can store this in their minds and perform the behaviour later in similar situations
(Deguchi, 1984). This view on the importance of cognitive processes distinguishes Bandura’s theory
from classic behaviourism and makes it relevant to the overall understanding of learning and elite
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training that is addressed in this resource.
Observational learning and badminton
If we apply Bandura’s view on learning to the context of working with elite players, we can recognise
COACHES’ MANUAL
that elite players’ high levels of technical, tactical, physical, and mental skills make them the perfect
“models” to observe. This would allow other players to store ideal images of skills in their memory.
As such, observational learning can play a significant role in the elite training environment if training
sessions include demonstrations where players can observe each other performing different skills.
For example, a player with a particularly strong backhand smash could demonstrate the stroke in
a rally context, so that team members can observe the different elements involved in carrying out
the stroke, as well as how the opponent responds depending on the speed or the placement of the
smash. Those observing can analyse how the stroke is performed and well as what outcomes are
achieved, and store these in memory for possible future use.

Role of the coach
In order to successfully implement observational learning processes, coaches should ensure that
training sessions include spaces for demonstrations. The coach could arrange for different players
to demonstrate skills they are especially good at and may also involve the players in the process of
choosing the demonstrations. Depending on the context, the players’ needs, and the availability
of suitable models, coaches may also choose to incorporate video demonstrations. The benefits
of using video demonstrations were addressed in Level 2, and this may also help coaches expand
players’ experience beyond the talents present within their own team. This is particularly important in
contexts where players may have less natural exposure to a wide variety of other elite players.
Expected outcomes
In observing not only the actions performed, but also the positive or negative consequences of
these, players will have the opportunity to analyse and store what they have learned as part of
their repertoires for future use. In addition, as discussed previously, the opportunity for players to
demonstrate their particular skills for their teammates can also contribute to other positive aspects
like feelings of competence, motivation, and recognition.
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COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE
Principles of communities of practice
American anthropologist Jean Lave and Swiss scientist Etienne Wenger first used the term
“communities of practice” in describing shared learning experiences within groups of established
practitioners (Lave & Wenger, 1991). This was typically applied to apprenticeship-type learning
experiences, rather than formal educational programmes. In fact, Lave and Wenger do not propose
these ideas as educational strategies, but rather as a way of understanding how learning happens
within such groups. In looking at the learning process, they also address the structure of the
“community”, in that there are central members and more peripheral members. The peripheral
members start out learning from the central members, and in doing so become more established
members of the community. The main tool for learning in communities of practice is “negotiation of
meaning” (Wenger 1998), which means that in order to learn anything, the members of the group
have to be active and participate in the communication.
Communities of practice and badminton
Wenger later described communities of practice as “groups of people who share a concern or a
passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly”. In practical
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terms as applied to badminton, groups of players will learn relevant badminton skills when practicing
and participating in tournaments together. In a group of elite players, the central members could be
the players with the highest performance levels, or players with significant experience in other areas.
So for example, if the group is involved in a discussion around what tactical strategies to implement
when playing against a particular opponent, the central members may initially share their thought
COACHES’ MANUAL
processes while the peripheral members listen and ask questions. As the peripheral members
become more experienced and confident, they may start to offer opinions or even alternate strategies
for consideration.
Role of the coach
As each elite player has a great deal of unique knowledge and experience, it could be beneficial to
organise training sessions in a way that encourages players to explore different topics and share
their knowledge. From a coaching perspective, then, the coach’s role would centre around creating
situations where the players work together to discuss and solve technical, tactical, physical and
mental challenges, in order to facilitate the sharing of knowledge among the players. As in the other
approaches that have been examined, this involves a shift from the coach being in complete control
to the coach creating the conditions for the players to help each other develop.
Expected outcomes
Learning is understood as meaningful

participation in an established community,
and thus there is a strong focus on
communication as the tool necessary
for development and learning. There is
no predetermined content to be learned,
but rather a process of collaboratively
formulating solutions for typical
situations faced by players. The focus
on social interaction and interpersonal
communication as key elements of the
learning process also fosters a sense
of relatedness, which as previously
mentioned, is an important component in
building intrinsic motivation.
Photo credit: Badminton Belgium

57
DISCUSSION OF LEARNING THEORIES AS APPLIED TO ELITE BADMINTON

The three learning theories that have been discussed in this section address different aspects of
how learning actually takes place, and each offers certain perspectives on understanding the learning
process. While they may focus on different elements, they are not necessarily at odds with each
other. For example, constructivism focuses on the internal reflection that learners go through in
constructing knowledge, based on the external inputs (“disturbances”) and their prior knowledge.
However, those inputs can come from different sources, including the interactions with coaches and
peers discussed in the social learning theories. At the same time, observational learning describes
the process that takes place as the result of watching another person perform an action and observing
and noting the consequences of that action, without rejecting the importance of reflection as an
internal process which will always take place. Finally, constructivism and communities of practice
both aim to create situations which provide the conditions for meaningful inputs, so that the resulting
knowledge will then be incorporated by the learner, with both views recognising that knowledge can’t
be transferred directly from one person to another.
This may seem confusing at first, but the importance of these different theories is that they can
provide coaches with a better understanding of the learning process and what this means in terms of
working with elite players. By understanding both the internal mental processes that are involved
in learning, as well as the key social interactions that can create the ideal conditions for learning
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to take place, coaches will have a better toolbox when it comes to planning and implementing
training sessions, as well as supporting players’ development in general. As such, they will be better
equipped to establish environments that create maximum learning opportunities for elite players.
It is also worth mentioning that different cultural contexts will have different views on what
COACHES’ MANUAL
constitutes an ideal learning/coaching situation, as well as what kind of interactions (coach-player,
player-player) are desirable. This applies to both the coaches and the players! While some coaches
will feel quite comfortable encouraging their players to reflect, others would prefer that they simply
follow instructions. Some players will welcome a coach’s request for opinions and ideas, while
others will question the coach’s motives, or even competence! In certain cultures, particularly those
with strong traditions of apprenticeship, the concept of communities of practice may be quite familiar,
while others may look for a more formal structure. The intent of this resource is not to tell coaches
what they “should” do, but rather to help them explore and understand the learning process, so that
they can make the best decisions possible within their own coaching contexts.

SUMMARY OF LEARNING THEORIES
The chart below offers a quick comparison of the main aspects of each of the learning theories
discussed in this section. Once again, it should be noted that the roles of the coach in the different
approaches are not mutually exclusive, nor are those of the players.
OBSERVATIONAL COMMUNITIES OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
LEARNING PRACTICE
Role of the coach To create on-court To create situations To facilitate conditions for
situations that challenge where players can interaction (discussion,
the players’ pre-conceived demonstrate an area of problem solving,
notions or previous particular strength, skill, strategising) around key
experiences, thereby or competence, thus topics for the group
provoking the players’ allowing other players to
reflection process observe the process and
the results
Role of the players To actively engage in the To act as models that will Central members: to
reflection process in order help peers form an ideal share their knowledge
to build new knowledge mental image and experience
and options for on-court
action To observe other players’ Peripheral members:
strong areas to actively participate in
group activities
58
Basis for learning A mental restructuring The storing of The sharing of practices
of prior knowledge information about others’ and experiences that

based on new inputs and performances and the are central to the main
information consequences of these purpose of the group
performances
What this looks like in Coach and players Coach designates space More experienced or
practice / What happens participate in exercises in practice sessions for skilled players share how
on court designed to “disappoint” players to demonstrate they approach certain
players, followed by their areas of expertise, challenges or deal with
reflection sessions to while other players certain situations, with
examine what happened, observe both the actions newer players having
what the result was, and and the results of the the opportunity to listen
how this may influence actions and eventually engage in
future actions discussion
04. REFLECTION AS A CRUCIAL TOOL FOR LEARNING

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WHAT IS REFLECTION?
When we reflect, we are thinking. We are

“disturbed” by inputs from the outside and relate
COACHES’ MANUAL
these inputs to our existing experiences. In this

process we learn and change, thereby becoming
better able to handle future challenges.
John Dewey is perhaps the most important exponent

for reflective thinking, and he explains that reflection
happens when our actions do not have the expected
outcome. When we are “disappointed”, the cognitive
process of reflection begins, in order to figure out
what to do next. Conversely, when our actions do

have the expected outcome, there will be no need
for reflection. As mentioned earlier in this module,
this means that if we want elite players to practice
their ability to reflect, we have to create situations
where they will be “disappointed”, regarding what
they expect in a specific situation.
The process of reflection, according to Dewey, Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
consists of two components he calls “observation”

and “memory” (Dewey, in Højrup & Pedersen, 2010), or in other words, disturbance and experience.
When players realise that things didn’t go as expected, they will relate what actually happened to their
existing experiences. This reflective process will develop and change their experiences, meaning that
afterwards they will have deeper knowledge and increased potential for efficient action in the future.
However, the process of reflection takes time, which means that for these skills to be developed, the
exercises have to contain small breaks for reflection. In other words, it is important for the coach to
schedule short breaks within the practice where the players have time to think for themselves.
As mentioned before, the level of complexity is higher in elite badminton as compared to lower levels,
and therefore so is the need for reflection. While elite players are better at trying to anticipate the
opponent’s next move, at the same time, their opponents are continuously trying to deceive them.
This means that elite players will be “disappointed” more often regarding the expected outcome of
their choices and actions, as their opponents will try to be as unpredictable as possible. As such,
there is an increased demand for the ability to reflect, both in the actual moment (on court) and
afterwards (in a post-match analysis).
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFLECTION

Fundamentally, we can distinguish between two types of reflection.
REFLECTION-IN-ACTION
The first type of reflection is called “active reflection” or “reflection-in-action”. This last term was
developed by American philosopher Donald Schon, who claims that reflection can take place in
the moment of an action, which means that the time spent in the reflection process is maybe
counted in seconds or fraction of a second. Schon describes reflection-in-action as “on-the-
spot surfacing, criticizing, restructuring, and testing of intuitive understandings of experienced
phenomena” (Schon, 1986, p. 42).
As the definition indicates, reflection-in-action is based on how the person feels and intuitively
experiences a situation. This intuitive understanding of the situation is followed by thinking about
the problem as well as possible solutions, which results in new possibilities for action in order not
to be disappointed in situations to come. The demand for reflection-in-action skills is very high in
badminton, especially for elite players. When practice sessions focus on creating situations where
the players are “disappointed” – meaning that their actions do not have the expected outcome –
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it is primarily reflection-in-action skills we are aiming at developing.
REFLECTION-ON-ACTION
The second type of reflection is called “reflection-on-action”, which includes “premise reflection”.
The term “premise reflection” was defined by Russian scientist Jack Mezirow (1990). This kind of
COACHES’ MANUAL
reflection does not happen while the individual is acting, but is a process which takes place after
the action has happened. Premise reflection aims at developing fundamental views on how we
understand a certain issue, in our case badminton. This means that premise reflection is about
questioning our usual ways of looking at an activity, our pre-suppositions, in order to develop new
and creative ways of acting.
This kind of reflection is set in motion by what Mezirow calls “a trigger event”, which serves to
raise a person’s awareness of his/her current perspective. For example, an elite player finds out
at some point that her opponents have gotten to know her, and therefore can anticipate what she

is doing on court. Her on-court difficulties create a “disorienting dilemma”, in which the player
realises that things are not happening as expected based on previous experience. The tool for
handling this problem could be premise reflection.
The coach has an important role when players use premise reflection to work on changing
fundamental approaches to their game or other areas of their lives. This is because the process
requires feedback from the environment and from equal communication partners. The coach, as
mentioned previously, serves as a co-player, who can help and “disturb” the players, in order for
them to find new ways of understanding themselves and their game.
It can be seen that the issue of reflection is closely connected to the ideas around constructivism
discussed in the previous section, where the learners have to make connections and “construct”
knowledge. Reflection means that the players have to make their own choices, and the coach’s
interaction with the players delivers the “fuel” for the reflection and choice-making processes.
While both reflection and learning can only be achieved by the players themselves, the coach has
a fundamental role in guiding them in the process and setting up ideal conditions for reflection and
learning to take place.
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HOW TO DEVELOP REFLECTIVE SKILLS

Players will generally need practice, under the coach’s guidance, to become familiar and comfortable
with the reflection process. Because the types of reflection discussed above are two distinct
processes, carried out at different times and for different purposes, coaches will have to employ
separate strategies to develop them. A summary of suggestions for developing each type of
reflection is offered below.
WAYS TO WORK WITH ACTIVE REFLECTION WAYS TO WORK WITH PREMISE REFLECTION
(“IN ACTION”) SKILLS (“ON ACTION”) SKILLS
• Make exercises where things change in order to • Arrange time for communication after practice
challenge the players’ existing views and matches
• Include breaks for thinking within the exercises • Respect that the coach is an equal partner in the
• Facilitate the reflection process by being at the communication process
court and asking open questions at the moment • Try to challenge existing presuppositions in order
things are happening to change the players’ fundamental perspective
• Create “controls” in the exercises, so the players on things
can see their reflection leading to more efficient • Use open questions in the dialogue
actions • Talk about “why” more than “what” and
“how”, as the “why” in this case addresses the
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fundamental premises of actions
EXAMPLES OF EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING “IN ACTION” REFLECTIVE SKILLS
• Singles exercise – The player can only play to the feeder’s half court, and the player is not told
COACHES’ MANUAL
where the feeder can play. The feeder can play to the player’s half court and can also use a
specific crosscourt shot at will (it could be a smash, a lob, a clear, etc.). Every five minutes the
feeder gets a different crosscourt shot to use, without the player knowing this. The player has
to continuously discover which shot the feeder can use when playing crosscourt and try to take
advantage of knowing this.
(Changing circumstances will challenge the player’s reflective skills.)
• Singles exercise – Games to 5 points. The court is divided into six areas: two at the net, two in
the middle, and two at the backline. After each game, the loser can close one of six areas on his/
her own side, meaning that the opponent can’t play the shuttle to the closed area. The winner is
the one who wins four games first.
(The player has to adapt to new courts and therefore new choices every time a game has
finished, as well as deciding how to gain an advantage through the area that has been closed.)
• Doubles exercise – Game to 21. The pair gets 3 points instead of 1 point if they can grasp the
shuttle with an overhand catch in front of the service line at the net.
(The normal way of hitting the shuttle with the racket will not be the best choice in this exercise,
which means the players are “disturbed” and have to re-evaluate their understanding of the
situations.)
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REFERENCES

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bjerre Andersen, N, “A behavioristic and behavior modifying pedagogy”, in Rasmussen, J, “Pedagogi-

cal theories”, Billesø & Baltzer, 2012
Dolin, Jens, “A few things about learning”, Education Network, 2007
Højrup & Pedersen, “Reflection and learning in praxis”, in Brøbecher & Mulbjerg, “Clinical supervision
and pedagogical competence”, 2010, Munksgaard, Denmark
Lave, J & Wenger, E, “Situated learning”, in Illeris, K “49 texts about learning”, Samfunds Litteratur,
2012
Maturana H & Varela F, “The tree of knowledge”, 1984
Mezirow, J, “Fostering critical reflection in adulthood”, 1990, Jossey Bass, P 1-20
Qvortrup, Lars, “Information society: the hyper complex society”, 1999
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Schon, D, “Leadership as reflection-in-action”, in Sergiovanni & Corbally, 1986, University of Illinois
Press
Wenger, E, “Communities of practice”, Cambridge University Press, 1998
COACHES’ MANUAL
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 8
MODULE 8
01. Introduction 62
02. Understanding How Communication Takes Place 62
03. Systemic Coaching with Elite Players 65
04. Cultural Aspects in Elite Coaching Contexts 70

10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
www.bwf.sport
62
01. INTRODUCTION

The previous module pointed out the importance of using elite players’ unique experiences to
contribute in a valuable way to their own and other players’ development, and it is only through
effective communication that we can externalise these experiences and bring them into play. As
such, communication is one of the key elements in bringing about the “disturbances” that result in
reflection and learning, and this module will begin by examining how communication takes place.
Effective communication also contributes to the aspects of teamwork and group dynamics that will be
discussed in the next module.
Because the coach also has significant knowledge and expertise and will need to work with the
players to bring about learning, this module will then explore an approach called systemic coaching,
which is characterised by player(s) and coach using dialogue to create learning and knowledge
together.
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Finally, as elite coaches will likely find themselves in international settings at some point, the module
also deals with issues surrounding communication with players from different cultures.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
COACHES’ MANUAL
• describe different models of communication

• explain how our understanding of communication may shape our interaction with players
• explain how systemic coaching may differ from traditional approaches to coaching
• identify ways to apply systemic coaching principles to their own practice
• identify various dimensions which can affect the way people from different cultures

communicate
• identify typical training situations in which these dimensions may come into play
• discuss ways for coaches and players to recognise difficulties in communication and handle
them appropriately
02. UNDERSTANDING HOW COMMUNICATION

TAKES PLACE
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION IN GENERAL?
The word “communication” comes from the Latin words “communicatio” which means connection
and exchange, and “communis” which means common. Communication can be interpersonal, which
involves communicating with others, or intrapersonal, which involves communicating with oneself.
This section will focus mainly on interpersonal communication and how this can be applied to elite
coaching. We will look at different purposes for communication (to transfer information, to find out
something about the other person, to achieve consensus, to challenge the other person’s view on
things, etc.) and how this communication can be understood to take place.
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
To examine the communication process, we will present two of the most-commonly recognised
models of communication (transmission and interaction) and we will also explore the relation model,
which takes into account the complexities of human relationships in the communication process.
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THE TRANSMISSION MODEL

The transmission model sees communication as a matter of transferring information from one
person to another. The person who sends the information has a message or idea to be wrapped
in words and sent to the receiver. The person receiving the message will then unpack the
information, and in this way receive the message in its original form (Frandsen et al., 2002).
Communication understood as transmission sees the receiver as passive in the communication
process, with no reflection needed in order to receive a message. This means that communication
is essentially seen as a “one way” process, where the person sending the message is
responsible for the process to succeed.
This model could be helpful

in explaining certain types of
communication - for example,
in the interval between two
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games when a coach tells the

player to smash more. If the
player actually smashes more
afterwards, the coach will assume
that communication has been
successful. However, the “one
COACHES’ MANUAL
way” nature of this model means

it will best serve to illustrate
communication in situations where
coaches are mostly interested
in players just doing “what they
are told”. Because the focus
is on transmitting a message
(for example, to be on time for
practice), and not in any reflection

or feedback, the model can
adequately represent this.
THE INTERACTION MODEL
In contrast to the transmission model, the interaction model presents communication as

a dynamic process, which involves both sending and receiving. The two parties create the
process together, as the receiver of the message interprets the message and sends back an
understanding of and reply to the received message. Thus, there is a strong focus on feedback
in this approach to communication (Andersen, H & Leth-Jorno, M, 2013). The way the receiver
understands the information that has been sent depends on his or her experiences regarding the
context in which the communication is taking place. In other words, the receiver’s knowledge
(about the topic, the person sending the message, and the situation) will determine how he or she
understands the information sent. It can be seen that this approach to communication recognises
the role of reflection and feedback, as the information received in communication is regarded as
“disturbances”, which can only be understood by relating them to existing experiences.
To contrast with our previous example, if a coach thinks that a player should have smashed more,
instead of saying this directly, the coach might ask the player why she played the way she did.
In this way, the coach can get a better understanding of the situation, while at the same time
respecting the player’s intuitive understanding of the game on court. As indicated previously in
relation to reflection, the process is much more complex, and if you want to take full advantage
of the feedback and interactive nature of communication, you need time for the process to be
effective.
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An interesting perspective on
communication as “interaction”

is offered by German scientist
Nicklas Luhmann, who describes
communication as the “selection
of information, selection of the
utterance of this information,
and a selective understanding or
misunderstanding of this utterance
and its information” (Luhmann,
1992). In other words, in this
view, communication is a process
in three steps. In the first two
steps the person sending the
message has to choose what to
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send and how to send it, and in
the third step the receiver has to
choose how to understand the Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
message.
The key element in this definition is that communication is a process of choices, which means
COACHES’ MANUAL
that it is not certain how the two parties will understand and interpret the contents of the
communication. It can also help us understand that even in what may seem to be “one way”
communication, the receiver is always actually playing an active role, rather than being a passive
“target” for the information. An understanding of communication based on this kind of mutual
responsibility should prove much more helpful for coaches who aim to foster an active process
rather than a “do as you are told” approach.
THE RELATION MODEL

In a more recent view, communication is seen as a relation or a feeling (Greve, 2010). The
“relation model” aims at creating a connection between individuals, and as such, it is important
that the people communicating understand each other and are honest and transparent in the
communication. This means that in order to improve the dialogue, they have to learn something
about each other on an emotional level as well. From this perspective, understanding can only
be created by communicating in a way that the receiver perceives as relevant and constructive.
Therefore, participants in the dialogue have to establish a common understanding of each other
(Andersen, H & Leth-Jorno, M, 2013).
Additionally, the relation paradigm regards it as important that the body language of those involved
in the communication signal interest and openness, in order for the communication to flow in a
dynamic way. The idea is that you only want to give something if you get something back – in this
case recognition that you are an interesting person to talk to.
The approach to communication presented in the relation paradigm can help us to understand
some of the specific problems that come about in working with elite players, as they have
a lot of different experiences, both positive and negative, that can affect their motivation for
communicating about different topics. Knowledge about the communication partners’ good and
bad experiences can make the communication more relevant and efficient.
The three models above serve to provide different perspectives on how the communication process
works, and thus to help coaches achieve a better understanding of their interactions with players (as
well as other stakeholders in the overall player pathway).
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03. SYSTEMIC COACHING WITH ELITE PLAYERS

The previous section on communication highlighted the role of interaction within the communication
process. This section will go a step further to look at how the interactions among the many elements
that make up a system produce a certain level of complexity and uncertainty. In order to work
effectively within any system, including an elite badminton environment, this must be taken into
account. The nature of these interactions, and how they can result in a greater understanding of
different perspectives, will be examined within the context of coaching and how to structure coaching
sessions.
WHAT IS SYSTEMIC THINKING?
Introduction
Systemic thinking involves a holistic perspective on life because it deals with systems and the
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interactions between the elements that make up those systems. It is important to bear in mind that
a system is characterised not by the individual elements, but rather by their interactions within the
system. This kind of thinking can be especially helpful in understanding that in systems consisting
of people, causality is not always clear and visible, as different individuals will react in different ways
based on the interactions that occur within the system.
COACHES’ MANUAL
Working with People
One of the fundamental ideas of the systemic approach is that the only way to begin to understand
an individual is by knowing as much as possible about the system of relations to which that person
belongs. This is true in any context, including sport, and as such it is quite relevant for coaching at any
level. However, the badminton-related relations of elite players are often particularly complex, which
means that communication aimed at allowing coaches to understand their contexts and relations will
be especially important when working with elite players.
Another key concept in the systemic approach is that people’s social reality is based on the
interpretation of experiences resulting from their social relations. Because we all are part of such
complex social systems, this means that we can never fully understand another human being. In
a coaching context, talking with players about the role their social relations play can help achieve a
better understanding of their social reality. This can also help players understand that each person
has a unique social reality, which can sometimes be a source of disagreements, but can also provide
a rich diversity of perspectives.
A final concept of the systemic approach is that it makes no sense to break a system down into its
parts and examine every part (or person) separately, as every part is a product of interactions with
other parts. An interesting implication of the systemic approach is that, because our actions are
determined by our relations and our interactions, we all have good reasons for acting the way we do
at any given moment. Therefore, the issue of “blame” makes no sense from this perspective. This
could make it much easier for players to learn from their experiences (whether positive or negative),
as it may help them see that making mistakes or bad choices on court does not mean that they
are less intelligent or less capable. They may simply need to look at what led them to make these
choices in order to identify better alternatives.
Coaches and Players
The systemic approach recognises that systems (or players, in our case) are affected by the world
around them. As previously discussed in the section on learning theories, any instructions or inputs
from the outside are filtered through a person’s own experiences; however, interaction with the
coach will always influence the players in some way. The coach will make the players reflect, and
thereby create new knowledge and new understanding. Thus, a systemic approach means that the
coach, by understanding the players as part of complex systems, will be able to identify and create
relevant “disturbances” and work together with the players to create new knowledge.
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WHAT IS SYSTEMIC COACHING?

In the Level 1 Coaches’ Manual, there is an exploration of the coaching process, looking at the
responsibilities implicit in the role of the coach, as well as different coaching styles and the
importance of recognising one’s own coaching philosophy. The Level 2 manual goes deeper into
aspects like planning and goal setting over an annual cycle, as well as discussing different coaching
methods. Here in Level 3, the nature of an expert coach’s interaction with the players is examined,
along with how this supports player development, especially within elite contexts. Along those lines,
John Whitmore, who is one of the pioneers in coaching, and who was the first to describe coaching
as a general learning tool, defines coaching as:
“…unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance. It is helping them to learn,
rather than teaching them” (Whitmore, 1996).
This definition clearly indicates that coaching is not about transferring knowledge, but rather a matter
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of making other people think on their own. Whitmore’s definition also shows that coaching is an
asymmetric relationship centred around the person being coached, who can also be called the “focus
person”.
A definition of coaching which reflects the systemic approach is:
COACHES’ MANUAL
“Systemic coaching can be defined as a dialogue, where a coach helps the focus person to see
different perspectives on the relation between challenge/problem and focus person” (Moltke, 2009).
This definition has a focus on the issue of relations, which is a central aspect in systemic coaching. As
such, part of the coaching dialogue deals with social relations and how these can influence the focus
person’s situation. In this approach, there is no point in describing a person in isolation, because only
by looking into the relations between people can we try to understand and help the individual.

The coach’s role in systemic coaching is closely linked to a constructivist learning approach, in that the
coach serves as a co-producer of new knowledge. As such, the coach will often “provoke” the focus
person (player) in order to initiate the reflection process, which can sometimes be achieved by the
use of hypotheses. By using hypotheses within the dialogue, the coach can introduce his or her own
assumptions, which may be contrary to the perspective of the focus person and can therefore serve
as a trigger for reflection. For example, a hypothesis like, “You may need to change your lifestyle in
order to become a better player”, followed by the question “What would you do?” should trigger a
reflection process in the focus person. In systemic coaching, this use of hypotheses and reflective
questions is important, but also a little risky. It is important that within the coaching dialogue, coaches
do not “fall in love” with their own views and hypotheses, but rather stay open-minded and curious,
in order to keep things centred on the world of the focus person.
When looking at coaching as a dialogue where one person wants to help another person solve some
kind of problem, questions can play an important role in this process. Used properly, questions
can help keep the dialogue centred around the player rather than the coach, which, as mentioned
before, is essential for effective coaching. The different kinds of questions that coaches might use,
depending on the situation, are dealt with extensively in the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual. There will also
be a closer look at the specific use of questions within coaching sessions later on in this section.
As mentioned above, this view of coaching is quite similar to a constructivist approach to learning,
with questions serving as the tool for creating reflection. When appropriate open-ended questions
are used, players are stimulated to think on their own, regarding their situations and challenges. Such
questions can “provoke” players and begin the reflection process, which can help develop general
reflective skills. In addition, players develop ownership and responsibility for their own actions, by
reflecting on and answering the questions, and thereby coming up with their own solutions to any
relevant challenges. In other words, answering questions creates a sense of autonomy (Tomm, 1988).
This is because the answers can be seen as personal choices, which as discussed earlier, is essential
in order to establish intrinsic motivation.
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DIFFERENT CONTEXTS FOR COACHING ELITE PLAYERS

This section will examine different ways that coaching may take place at an elite level, from two
distinct perspectives. The first perspective is the formalised coaching session, between a coach and a
player/focus person, which is agreed in advance and deals with a specific problem or issue, normally
brought up by the player. The second perspective is how to incorporate the use of coaching and
questions into general communication in elite environments.
A) FORMALISED COACHING SESSIONS
When coaching players in formalised coaching sessions, the coach may assume the role of
“game master”. This means that it is the responsibility of the coach to continuously evaluate and
ensure that the coaching process is moving in the right direction regarding the initial purpose of
the session and the changing perspectives of the player during the session. The player, on the
other hand, is responsible for the specific contents of the session, because the player decides
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within the framework of the session exactly which topics the dialogue will address, as a result of
his or her reflection process. In the role of game master, the coach needs to be able to work on
two levels – the “meta” level and the “specific” level. Each of these two levels has a different
purpose and involves different approaches and communication techniques, as will be explained
below.
COACHES’ MANUAL
The meta level:
Working on the meta level involves thinking about and discussing how the specific coaching
dialogue is happening. It is, in other words, “communication about the communication”. The
coach has three fundamental tools, when dealing with the meta level:
• the contract
• time outs
• the evaluation
The first tool is the contract. Before starting the specific coaching session, the coach and the
player agree on the “how”, “what” and “where” of the session (Molly, Storch, Juhl, Molly-
Søholm, & Dahl, 2013). In this case, the agreement could be that the “how” will be a dialogue
based on questions. They also agree on what the topic of the session should be, with the
understanding that as the dialogue develops, the topic may need to be modified or adjusted.
Finally, they agree on the expected outcome of the process. In terms of the player, the purpose
of the contract is to create ownership of the process and thereby facilitate engagement and
reflection during the session. The coach can then use the contract as a tool on which to base the
evaluation of the process that took place during the coaching session.
The second tool is “time outs”. Time outs are small breaks in the coaching session, where
coach and player discuss whether or not the process is moving in the right direction according to
the agreements in the contract. Time outs can be used to adjust the process or to redefine the
purpose or direction of the session. It is fundamentally the coach, as game master, who decides
if there is a need for a time out during the session. However, in working with elite players, it could
also be quite appropriate for the player to ask for a time out. The player, as mentioned before, has
valuable knowledge and experience that coaches will want to externalise, and asking for a time
out actually indicates that the player has been reflecting and is actively engaged with the topic of
the session.
The third tool is the evaluation of the session. In this kind of formalised coaching session, the
evaluation fundamentally centres around finding out if the player is happy about the outcome of
the session, with regard to what was agreed in the contract. This part of the evaluation also aims
to motivate the player for future action as a result of the coaching session. Part of the evaluation,
therefore, could be to determine what should happen next, based on the discussions in the
session, as well as to establish how to follow up on this. As such, the evaluation phase is a key
element in ensuring that specific results will follow from the coaching session.
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The specific level:

Specific coaching sessions will develop differently and involve different types of questions,
as each coaching dialogue is unique and difficult to predict. The communication framework
developed by Karl Tomm (1988) can help explore the different ways in which coaches may use
questions to achieve a variety of purposes during a coaching session.
Tomm proposed this model as a way of classifying the nature of questions and why they might
be used. However, it may also be useful to look at Tomm’s model in phases, where coaches
might start with lineal questions and then moving on to circular, reflexive, and strategic questions.
The original model of Interventive Interviewing
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(Karl Tomm 1987 & 1988)
Linear
assumptions
COACHES’ MANUAL
Lineal Strategic
questions questions
Orienting Influencing
intent intent
Circular Reflexive
questions questions

Circular
assumptions
Below are some examples of what this might look like in practice.
PHASE 1:
In this initial phase, the coach has the role of a “detective”, in trying to find out exactly what
the player’s problem or challenge is. This generally involves asking about things that have
happened in the past, in order to create an understanding of the issues involved. In this phase,
the coach’s questions have an orienting intent, meaning they help the coach get a better
picture of the situation. The questions asked are in this phase based on lineal assumptions,
which means that there is an expectation of causal connections (cause and effect). Examples
of specific questions in this phase might be, “When does this happen?” or “What do you do
when this happens?”
PHASE 2:
In this phase, the coach has the role of an “anthropologist”. This means that the coach’s
questions still have an orienting intent (i.e., the coach is still trying to get a clear understanding
of the situation), but the questions are now based on circular assumptions, rather than lineal
assumptions. Circular assumptions build on the importance of the relation of the different parts
of a system, and they are therefore in contrast to ideas about direct causality. For example, the
coach asks into the player’s relations, and how these relations affect the player’s situation and
challenges. This is a good example of the systemic perspective discussed earlier, as systemic
thinking is characterised by a focus on relations and patterns. Examples of questions in this
phase might be, “If I were a fly on the wall in the situation you are describing, what do you
think I would see?” or “How do you think other players see you when you practice together?”
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PHASE 3:
In this phase, the coach has the role of an “artist”, helping the player to come up with solutions
regarding the challenges discussed. The questions here are still based on circular assumptions,
and furthermore, they aim to make the player reflect. The basic purpose of this part of the
session is to influence what will happen in the future. Again, this is a good example of the
systemic perspective, as the coach can use different techniques including hypotheses to
“disturb” and “provoke” the player. In other words, the coach is a co-producer of potential
solutions to be implemented in the future. Specific questions in phase three might include,
“If you act this way, what could we expect would happen?” or “What do you think the other
players would suggest in order to solve this problem?”
PHASE 4:
In this last phase, the coach has the role of “captain”. The purpose here is to agree on a
specific plan, in order to implement new solutions. The questions used in this phase are based
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on lineal assumptions, as a specific question should lead to a specific answer as part of the
plan. In other words, this phase is about deciding specifically what to do next. Examples of
questions in this part of the session might be, “At what point do you think this problem will be
solved?” or “What will you do first thing in the morning?”
B) COACHING AND GENERAL INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN ELITE ENVIRONMENTS

COACHES’ MANUAL
Coaching in formalised sessions has advantages as well as disadvantages. The advantage is that
the coach has a lot of time available with the player and can therefore get to know the player very
well. This makes it possible to establish a deeper understanding of the player’s problems and
challenges, which can help develop and maximise the player’s potential. The disadvantage is that
the coach must have time available to do sessions like these, which can be problematic if the
coach is responsible for a squad of players.
One way of handling this challenge is to encourage players to support each other as part of their
day-to-day training practice. For example, players could try to implement questions and dialogue
aimed at improving aspects of training into their general communication within the elite training
environment. This would allow players to get high-level input more often and from different
perspectives. However, this way of communicating may not come easily or naturally to the
players, as shown by a study (Larsen, 2016) where players had a three-hour course on coaching
techniques at the beginning of the project and were continuously encouraged to use questions
when interacting during practice. In this case, the attempt to implement a kind of ongoing
coaching among peers was not found to have a positive effect on the players’ communication, as
in follow-up interviews, they all said that they found it strange and embarrassing to communicate
in this way.
Because players are generally not accustomed to this kind of communication with their peers,
they may need support in adopting new ways of interacting, as well as time to see the potential
benefits. In the interest of taking advantage of players’ unique skills and knowledge as an
important resource in supporting each other’s growth, some of these issues will be discussed
further in the sections on Recognition and Teamwork, as well as Peer Feedback.
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Photo credit: Badminton Africa

MODULE 8
COACHES’ MANUAL
04. CULTURAL ASPECTS IN ELITE COACHING CONTEXTS
CULTURAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

While in the past the majority of elite players came from Asia, there is currently more and more
diversity at the top levels, with Europe in particular gaining a lot of ground. Recent medal spreads
include a greater variety of Asian countries, as well as an important presence from Denmark, England,
and Spain, among others. In addition, players are training in more international contexts, and elite
players will often spend significant periods of time not only outside of their home country, but outside
of their region or continent. Along the same lines, elite coaches are working in an increasingly
international market, and they may find themselves coaching players of many different nationalities
during the course of their coaching careers.
Previous sections have stressed the importance of effective communication in the coaching
process, and there can be little doubt that communication is at the heart of elite coaching. Given
the internationalisation described above, a successful elite coach must not only demonstrate solid
communication skills, but must also be able to put these into practice in different cultural contexts.
This can be a challenge, as when people are socialised into a specific culture, they also learn specific
ways of communicating. The norms, values and rules of their society instil certain communication
styles, which differ from culture to culture (Gudykunst et al., 1996).
While it is beyond the scope of this resource to provide an analysis of individual cultures, there are
certain fundamental patterns, or universal dimensions, that can be seen in cultures across the world
(Hall, 1976; Hofstede, 1980; Schwartz, 2006). We will explore the following dimensions in order to
help coaches navigate the challenges involved in cross-cultural communication:
• Orientation: Individualistic or collectivistic

• Style: High-context or low-context
• Time: Polychronic or monochronic
• Power: Egalitarian or hierarchical
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Each of these dimensions will be discussed below, examining the two extremes in the dichotomy,
and offering some examples of the frustrations that tend to arise from each side. However, it is
important to keep two main principles in mind:
• First, each dimension is actually a continuum, and different cultures will fall at different points
along that continuum.
• Second, there is also a good deal of variation among individuals from the same culture, so not all
individuals from “x” culture will behave in “y” way.
The key lesson here is that by understanding some of the dimensions that affect interaction, we will
be better equipped to effectively communicate with others, or to recognise and make repairs when
we suspect there has been a breakdown in communication.
INDIVIDUALISTIC OR COLLECTIVISTIC
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Cultures may differ in terms of how whether their members are seen primarily as individuals or
as members of a group. With individualistic cultures, the goals of the individual overshadow the
goals of the group. This is often characterised by a focus on responsibility for yourself and your
closest family. In collectivistic cultures, the feeling of belonging to a group and loyalty towards
this group are key elements. An individual is seen in relation to others and cannot be understood
in isolation from context and social relations (Hofstede, 1980).
COACHES’ MANUAL
People who come from individualistic cultures will generally pride themselves on being self-reliant
and often try to promote their own achievements, which may seem confrontational or selfish to
those from collectivistic cultures. Those from collectivistic cultures will look to promote harmony
in the group and loyalty within their group, which those from individualistic cultures may perceive
as a failure to stand up for oneself, or as indifference towards those who are not part of that
group.
Within a sporting context, this dichotomy may come to play in how an elite athlete views his
or her success, for example. Someone from an individualistic culture may see success as the
natural result of personal effort and commitment, whereas someone from a collectivistic culture
may credit this result to group-related factors (Schinke, R.; Hanrahan, S.J. & Catina, P., 2008).
HIGH-CONTEXT OR LOW-CONTEXT
Closely related to the issue of individualism and collectivism, are two communication styles called
low-context and high-context communication (Hall, 1976).
High-context cultures rely on common knowledge and understanding among members, so

communication tends to be less direct and less explicit. This means that the listener has a great
deal of responsibility for discovering the meaning. In contrast, low-context cultures tend to state
things explicitly and depend heavily on what is actually said or written. As a result, the burden for
sending the message falls primarily on the speaker.
Communication problems can easily arise along these lines, as individuals from high-context
cultures may find those from low-context cultures to be too direct or to insult them by
explaining the obvious. Conversely, individuals from low-context cultures may feel that those
from high-context cultures provide insufficient inputs or direction, or that they are enigmatic or
unforthcoming.
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If we look at the first two dimensions in conjunction, within individualistic cultures, low-context
communication seems to be the most prevalent type. People from individualistic cultures

tend to talk more, and be more affect oriented, which means that people from these cultures
have a tendency to be impulsive and say what they think in the actual moment. In other
words, people from such cultures find that being direct is the best way to achieve the goals
of the communication process. On the other hand, within collectivistic cultures, high-context
communication is the most prevalent. In these cultures, it is important NOT to be too direct in
your communication, in order to avoid insulting other people.
Applied to a badminton context, an example of this would be if a low-context coach tells a high-
context player, “You are very good at building up the rally, but sometimes you don’t get the
reward from this build-up”. This could be interpreted in many ways – for example, that the player
is not choosing the right attacking shot to finish the rally, or that the quality of the attacking shot is
not good enough. The coach may feel that the message has been communicated, but the player
may be unsure as to what to do to improve the situation.
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POLYCHRONIC OR MONOCHRONIC
Hall (1976) also made a distinction as to how different cultures perceive time. Individuals from
polychronic cultures tend to do many things at once, and they usually manage interruptions
and changes in plans well. They place great value on relationships with those around them. In
COACHES’ MANUAL
contrast, those from monochronic cultures prefer to do one thing at a time and like to focus on
schedules and time commitments. They value order and generally do not like changes in plans.
Problems in communication may arise when those from monochronic cultures feel insulted or
undervalued by interruptions in meetings or schedules, as well as when those from polychronic
cultures feel that their efforts towards relationships and objectives are unnecessarily constricted
by rigid schedules.
As applied to badminton training, a coach from a polychronic culture might make last-minute

changes to the practice plan in order to schedule a session with a high-profile visitor. This may
make monochronic players feel that the coach does not have a clear end goal or is not respecting
their schedule. However, if they were to raise this objection, the coach would likely feel that they
are being too rigid and that they do not trust in him/her to ensure that the overall goal will be met.
EGALITARIAN OR HIERARCHICAL
Different cultures also have different ways of perceiving authority, responsibility, and power
(Schwartz, 2006). Egalitarian cultures value equality in terms of rights and power distribution.
They appreciate input from many sources in the decision-making process. Subordinates are
encouraged to ask questions and give opinions. In hierarchical cultures, on the other hand,
those in top positions are entirely responsible for making decisions and are not to be questioned
or challenged. The superior is the one who initiates conversations, and subordinates should only
speak when spoken to.
There can be an obvious mismatch in style when leaders from egalitarian cultures invite opinions,
discussion and even disagreements as a way of showing interest, and find their subordinates to
be passive, unmotivated, or unwilling to participate. Likewise, leaders from hierarchical cultures
may feel threatened or disrespected by subordinates who freely express their opinions or
question decisions.
This last dimension has particular relevance for the discussion on constructivism and reflection in the
previous module. The view of the coach as a co-constructor of knowledge and experience supposes
a very egalitarian approach. If this is to be successfully implemented at the elite level, coaches will
need to be aware of their level of comfort (as well as that of their players) with this kind of dynamic.
Where there are significant differences in expectations around the roles of coach and players, these
will need to be addressed before moving forward.
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COMMUNICATING WITH PLAYERS FROM DIFFERENT CULTURES

CATION AND COACHING
Communication has repeatedly been emphasised as a vital tool when trying to bring the players’
unique experiences into play and make them explicit. This section has highlighted some of the
additional challenges that can arise when that communication takes place between individuals from
different cultures.
Successful intercultural communication involves knowing

where potential areas of difficulty lie. Probably the most
important first step for both coaches and players is to realise
that their own way of seeing things is not the only way. Once
they are aware that there are other ways of interpreting
situations/messages/contexts, etc., they can begin to
consider the dimensions along which cultures tend to vary, as
discussed above. While neither coaches nor players will ever
know all the details of another culture (nor is this a realistic, or
even advisable, expectation), the different dimensions offer a
starting point for considering other perspectives.
Along those lines, the question arises as to whose

responsibility it is to adapt their communication style.
While ideally, both parties will be able to grow and learn in
the process, the particular situation in question is also of
significance. For example, a coach who goes into another
COMMUNI-
culture and is working with players primarily from that culture will undoubtedly have to make some
adjustments in communication. However, this does not mean that the coach must completely
change his/her style. If handled well, this can also represent an opportunity to challenge the
players’ way of thinking and encourage them to consider other perspectives. Armed with a solid
understanding of some of the dimensions discussed, the coach (and if they are included in the
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process, the players) should be better equipped to successfully manage some of the obstacles in the
process.
Conversely, if it is a player who is integrating into a new culture, s/he may have trouble adapting and
understanding what the coach/teammates expect. If the coach tries to adapt and treat that player as
s/he is accustomed to being treated, this may actually be a disservice, as the player will not learn to
COACHES’ MANUAL
handle the challenges that will ultimately arise in interactions with other people. However, the coach
can, by all means, try to understand where the player is coming from – especially when this can help
lessen friction or misunderstandings (with the coach and/or other players). The coach can also help
other teammates view the player as a resource with a different point of view (thereby creating rich
“disturbances”), rather than a source of conflict. This is also particularly true in multi-cultural training
situations where coaches and players come from different cultures and may even be training in
“neutral” territory (in other words, yet another country).
As such, working effectively in an intercultural environment is not a matter of the coach adapting
a communication style 100% to the player or the culture, but much more a matter of trying to
understand each other’s backgrounds and motives. This will allow those involved to optimise the
communication process and take maximum advantage of the opportunities that result.
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REFERENCES

Andersen, H & Leth-Jorno, M, “Communication in praxis”, Samfundslitteratur, 2013
Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an ecology of mind: Collected essays in anthropology, psychiatry,

evolution, and epistemology University of Chicago Press.
Cross, S. E., Hardin, E. E., & Swing, B. G. (2009). 35. independent, relational and collective-
interdependent self-construals. Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior, 512-526.
Flood, R. L. (2010). The relationship of ‘systems thinking’to action research. Systemic Practice and
Action Research, 23(4), 269-284.
Frandsen, F et Al, “Introduction to international business communication”, Systime, 2002
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Greve, L, “The good performance”, Samfundslitteratur, 2010
Hall, Edward, T. (1976). Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Workrelated Values.

London: Sage Publications
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Lu, L., & Gilmour, R. (2004). Culture and conceptions of happiness: Individual oriented and social
oriented SWB. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5(3), 269-291.
Luhmann, N, “Communication theory”, Wiley online library, 1992
Maturana, H. R., & Varela, F. J. (1987). The tree of knowledge: The biological roots of human
understanding. New Science Library/Shambhala Publications.

Molly, A., Storch, J., Juhl, A., Molly-Søholm, T., & Dahl, K. D. K. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching
Lindhardt og Ringhof.
Moltke, H. V. (2009). Systemisk coaching-en grundbog.
Schinke, R.; Hanrahan, S.J. & Catina, P. (2008). Introduction to Cultural Sports Psychology. In
R. Schinke & S. J. Hanrahan (Eds.), Cultural Sports Psychology (pp. 3-12). Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics
Tomm, K. (1988). Interventive interviewing: Part III. intending to ask lineal, circular, strategic, or
reflexive questions? Family Process, 27(1), 1-15.
Whitmore, J. (1996). Coaching på jobbet. P.Asschenfeldts Nye Forlag,

COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 9
TEAMWORK AND GROUP
DYNAMICS
MODULE 9
01. Introduction 75
02. Recognition and Teamwork 75
03. Using Peer Feedback 79
04. Handling Conflicts 82

10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
www.bwf.sport
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01. INTRODUCTION

In the previous module, communication was explored as a tool to bring elite athletes’ unique
experiences into play. This module will look at how the recognition of those experiences can
benefit the individual players, as well as how teamwork can ensure that their skills contribute to the
development of the entire training group. Peer feedback will also be explored as an efficient tool to
help elite players develop better skills and results by optimising their own learning process as well as
that of their peers.
It must be recognised, however, that along with elite players’ experience and knowledge come
deep-rooted identities as badminton players, which can result in conflicts if they do not learn to
recognise and understand each other. Unresolved or unaddressed conflicts, whether among players
or between player(s) and coach, can have a significant negative effect on the training environment,
and can even undo much of the benefits achieved through teamwork and peer collaboration. The
previous module emphasised that individuals must be seen as part of a complex system in order to
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understand why they interact and react like they do, and this is also true when dealing with conflict.
As such, this module will also discuss how to handle conflict from a systemic perspective.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
COACHES’ MANUAL
• describe the importance of recognition, especially in relation to self-esteem and motivation

• incorporate recognition in their day-to-day work with players
• explain how implementing a team focus can benefit elite players
• describe the advantages of using peer feedback with elite players
• create conditions for peer feedback to be implemented within their coaching practice
• explain the reasons for the appearance of conflicts from a systemic perspective

• apply conflict-resolution techniques in their coaching practice
02. RECOGNITION AND TEAMWORK
RECOGNITION – WHAT IS IT AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
Recognition is fundamentally about demonstrating to other people that they have value and
importance. Furthermore, it is about seeing others as real people who are equal and interesting
(Heidegren, 2010). German social philosopher Axel Honneth (1996) states that recognition can be
come from three different spheres:
• “love and friendship” (provided by family and close relations)

• “justice and equal rights” (provided by society)
• “social recognition for having unique skills” (provided by other players and colleagues)
Here we will focus on “social recognition”, which is the most relevant to coaching in elite training
environments. This is the recognition provided by group members who see an individual’s
competences as important for themselves and the social group to which they belong. Because elite
players have a lot of high-quality experience regarding badminton and badminton practice, it should be
possible to identify different areas in which each player is especially competent. In identifying these
areas and making them visible to the other players and coaches, we create the conditions for players
to experience social recognition.
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There are many simple ways to show recognition, from a sincere compliment to a pat on the back.
However, it is important to keep in mind that such gestures and expressions of encouragement
are often culturally bound, and what is appropriate in one culture may be offensive in another. For
example, eye contact is considered a show of interest and respect in some cultures, but a sign of
defiance in others. Physical contact (like that pat on the back) will not be interpreting the same way in
all cultures. If you are working across cultures, it is important to know what makes your players feel
valued and recognised, as well as how they may interpret your customary displays of recognition.
As mentioned in the section on cultural aspects, it is not necessarily about one side or the other
completely changing their behaviour, but in ensuring that understanding has indeed taken place.
Otherwise, all the work that is put into creating a climate of recognition may end up backfiring! A
simple conversation with the players at the beginning of the training process can help everyone
understand the intentions behind different actions and also let the group know how the various
members would like to be recognised. In a multicultural environment, this can also help players learn
about each other’s cultures and provide for further recognition of their teammates as unique and
interesting people.
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In the end, no matter how it is demonstrated, the importance

of social recognition cannot be underestimated, as it is
closely connected to the identity formation of the individual
(Heidegren, 2010; Honneth, 1996; Honneth, 2003; Mead,
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1913). Honneth (1996) even defines social recognition for

unique competences as a fundamental psychological condition
for developing high self-esteem, which has a number of
positive consequences for the individual. People with high
self-esteem are, among other things, characterised by being
happier, more optimistic and more motivated, as well as
being better able to handle feedback in a constructive way
(Bandura & Cervone, 1986; Deci & Ryan, 2008; Lyubomirsky
et al., 2006). This last point is important, as an improved
ability to handle feedback will also improve the quality of

the cooperation with coaches and other players. The use of Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
feedback will be discussed in greater detail later in this module.
HOW CAN WE FOSTER RECOGNITION WHEN WORKING WITH ELITE PLAYERS?
In order to create a recognising environment with elite players, we have to identify and bring into play
their experiences and competences in such a way that the individual player will represent a positive
element for the other players in the training environment. The importance of communication in
bringing these competences into play was addressed in the section on Systemic Coaching. Once
these areas have been identified, it can be very beneficial to delegate responsibility to the players,
so that that each player is in charge of an area connected to practice, tournament activities, or social
aspects of the elite environment.
Research in an elite badminton club in Denmark (Larsen, 2016), where a number of players were
responsible for different tasks, shows that self-esteem is boosted if the tasks in question have the
following characteristics:
• Tasks are chosen by the players themselves.

• The players’ tasks are accepted by the rest of the group.
• Tasks are unique, meaning that players’ competences around the specific tasks are also higher
than those of the coach.
• Tasks involve communication and dialogue with other players or coaches.
• The players have the possibility to develop their areas of responsibility themselves.
An example from the above-mentioned study is that one of the players was appointed team captain,
a role that didn’t exist prior to the research project. The player actually defined and developed his
functions as captain during the project and was recognised 100% by the other players for the way his
role improved the training environment. The specific player’s self-esteem developed quite remarkably
during the seven-month project. Data for the study were collected through qualitative interviews with
players, along with observations on players’ behaviour regarding self-esteem parameters.
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In short, the coach’s role in an elite context will often centre on taking maximum advantage of
players’ prior knowledge and experiences, and one way to achieve this is through the delegation of

areas of responsibility in the training environment. Apart from better results, this process will help
develop stronger individuals, who are happy, believe in themselves, and are comfortable around
others – qualities which are important in elite badminton, as well as in life in general.
EXPANDING THE BENEFITS OF RECOGNITION THROUGH TEAMWORK
Social recognition in elite badminton training, such as the experience described above, will often take
place in the context of a team. The benefits of team cohesion were briefly addressed in the Level
2 Coaches’ Manual, and this next section will further explore the nature of working in teams. It is
important to clarify that “team” here refers to a group of players that regularly train together, rather
than the specific line-up of players selected to compete in a team event. Understood as such, the
benefits of working cohesively as a team in an elite setting are especially important, due to the high
level of experience and knowledge of elite players. As previously mentioned, in some areas the
players will have more knowledge than the coach, and in these cases, the coach’s role centres around
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taking advantage of that knowledge to the benefit of the team.
There are many different definitions as to what constitutes a team, but most coincide on a few basic
characteristics:
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• interdependence
• a common goal
• a variety of skills
The fundamental idea of teamwork, from a systemic point of view, is that the team is more than just
the individual parts added together. In other words, working as a team produces a synergy effect,
which will add value and better results to the work done in this environment.
Another characteristic of teams is that each member has unique skills that complement the skills

of the other team members (Søholm, Storch, Juhl, & Thiesgaard, 2009). This means that teams
are heterogeneous groups, where each member has a unique role to play and is important in
reaching the common goal of the team. At the elite level, one of the most relevant goals is that the
members of the team continuously develop their badminton skills – in technical, tactical, physical,
and psychological areas. Teamwork and team environments can help players to reach higher levels,
as compared to other training environments, as a result of having the opportunity to learn from other
players’ specific and unique skills.

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From the above discussion around teams, it can be seen that team environments are ideal contexts
for recognition to occur. As players have unique roles to play based on their particular skills and
experiences, the key conditions for experiencing social recognition will be present. Thus, working
as a team at the elite level can be a way to increase the quality of the work on specific badminton
skills, as players will learn not only from the coach but also from each other. At the same time,
because teams are ideal contexts for recognising the unique contributions of each player, teamwork
can develop the players’ self-esteem, which should result in higher motivation, and hopefully, better
results.
In terms of what characterises a good team member, research supports the idea that elite players
are especially suited to working in team environments. Bannerot (2004) found that factors such
as maturity, work experience, and the ability to be self-critical were key for optimum functioning in
teamwork. Logically, elite players have reached their high level of skill through years of experience.
This also means that they generally reach elite level at a certain age and a greater level of maturity
than, for example, youth players. Finally, the nature of elite-level play, in which opponents try to
minimise possibilities for anticipation, means that players are always handling changing situations on
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court. As such, they are usually self-critical, constantly having to evaluate their own performance and
question if they read the game correctly and made the right choices.
IMPLEMENTING TEAMWORK
COACHES’ MANUAL
When implementing a team approach in elite environments, there are a number of guidelines that
may prove helpful:
• Each player should have a defined area of special competence. These should be chosen by the
players themselves, and the players should have the chance to function as “coaches” for the
other players, in order for them to learn from the specific players’ competences.
• It could be beneficial for players, at some point in practice or tournaments, to have the chance to
watch each other, with a focus on the special competences of the watched player. As discussed
in the section on learning theories, this will help them to learn from each other through the
“modelling” of special competences. Modelling is about learning and implementing other players’
skills, as these are seen as positive options for improving one’s own game (Bandura, 1974).
• In general, teamwork is about delegating responsibility to the team members. This means that
the coach will have to define which areas in practice and tournament situations are suitable for
delegation. This could be done in cooperation with the players.
• As teams and teamwork are characterised by communication (Søholm et al., 2009), it is important
that the players in the team have the opportunity to communicate about and evaluate the work
done within the team. Brief team meetings every week or every month could be a part of the
schedule for the players.
• Specific team exercises could be implemented in daily practice, in order to highlight the idea that
everyone in the practice group can contribute with something that is helpful for the whole group.
Examples of specific exercises will be shown below.
The strategies listed above should aid in the development of “team thinking” with elite players.
Depending how familiar, and how comfortable, the players are with the idea of teamwork, the
strategies may need to be addressed and discussed at the beginning of the process. This will allow
players to understand the potential benefits and express any questions or concerns they may have. It
will also help the coach monitor how players feel about the process over time.
SAMPLE EXERCISES FOR BUILDING TEAMWORK
1. Singles exercise: Two teams of four players (for example) are competing against each other.
They will play a match of four different games with the following rules:
• Game 1: You lose 2 points for making an unforced error in a rally.

• Game 2: You get 3 points for making a winning shot that the opponent does not touch with
racket or body.
• Game 3: You have to win 3 rallies in a row to get a point.
• Game 4: Normal singles match.
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The team match is played on time, for example 30 minutes, and the winning team is the one with
the highest number of points in total.

Each team will have to discuss, before the match, which player will have which task, in order to
give the team the strongest possibility to win the match. In this process, the players will have to
discuss and evaluate each team member’s special competences, and how each member can best
contribute to the team, in order to win the match.
The restrictions in the games could be designed so that different players’ special competences,
defined beforehand, would be in play. This could also be used as a general exercise aiming at
developing overall team spirit.
2. Doubles exercise: Two teams of six players/three pairs (for example) are competing against each
other. They will play three different doubles games with the following rules:
• Game 1: You get 3 points if a smash from the backline is followed by the net player killing the
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smash return.
• Game 2: You get 3 points if the rally is won within the first 6 shots. Either pair then has the
possibility to win 3 points in every rally.
• Game 3: The pair that makes the first defensive shot in the rally will have to stay in defence for
the rest of the rally.
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The purpose and rules for the doubles exercise are the same as for the singles exercise
described above. It can be seen that in order for players to make the most of these exercises,
they will need to incorporate recognition, evaluation (of others and self), reflection, and good
communication skills. All of these can serve to build team cohesion towards reaching a common
goal, thereby reinforcing motivation and self-esteem, and thus pulling together many of the
elements discussed this far.

03. USING PEER FEEDBACK
WHAT IS PEER FEEDBACK?
From a learning perspective, feedback can be described as “information provided by an agent

(e.g., teacher, peer, book, parent, self, experience) regarding aspects of one’s performance or
understanding” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, 81). In a sporting context, obviously that list of agents
would also include „coach“. The BWF Level 1 and Level 2 Coaches’ Manuals address different
aspects of how coaches can best provide feedback to players. Furthermore, the role of verbal
feedback from the coach within players’ motor learning process is examined in Module 13 of
this resource. However, in keeping with the intent to capitalise on elite players’ experience and
knowledge, as discussed in the previous section on teamwork, the focus here will be on peer
feedback.
Peer feedback can be defined as “a communication process through which learners enter into
dialogues related to performances and standards” (Liu & Carless, 2006, p. 280). As the definition
indicates, peer feedback is about two people on the same level or having the same role, providing
each other with information aimed at improving knowledge or skills within a specific learning context.
In an elite training context, this not only takes advantage of players’ skills and experience, but also
encourages them to take an active role in the management of their own learning.
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WHY USE PEER FEEDBACK IN ELITE ENVIRONMENTS?

As mentioned at various points already, bringing the players’ unique experiences into play has many
benefits that can aid not only their own development, but also that of their peers in an elite training
environment. For example, players involved in peer feedback situations will serve as resources for
their peers, but they will also have the opportunity to reflect on their own development, especially
if the peer feedback model described a little later in this section is implemented. Because elite
players can benefit from achieving high levels of reflection, which is an important condition for further
development of skills, the use of peer feedback can be an efficient tool for improving performance
and results for elite players.
Another advantage of using peer feedback is that the amount of feedback each player receives will
be much greater, compared to the coach being the only one giving feedback to the players. This can
dramatically increase the opportunities for learning, provided that the feedback given by other players
is relevant and constructive.
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Furthermore, when players give feedback to their peers, they will, in the process, learn things about
their own game that can be transferred directly into their own practice and badminton development.
It is important for players to understand not only that peer feedback is a two-way process, but also
that there are opportunities for learning and development when both giving and receiving feedback.
They should not assume that the person giving feedback gets no benefit from the interaction. On the
contrary, when we express and articulate to others what we know, our own learning will improve and
COACHES’ MANUAL
be reinforced (Liu & Carless, 2006).
Finally, in the process of giving feedback to their peers, players will

have the chance to develop general competences in communication
skills, empathy, and so on. As such, if we are interested in
developing “whole players”, which is often mentioned in the overall
goals for sporting organisations, peer feedback can be a relevant tool
for achieving a more holistic development that will serve players on
and off the court.
PEER FEEDBACK IN PRACTICE
Research by Liu & Carless (2006) looked at how peer feedback and
peer assessment influenced the learning situation when Hong Kong
university students gave feedback to each other. They found that
that one of the challenges in implementing peer feedback could
be the matter of perceived expertise. Their results indicated that
many students felt their peers were not qualified to give feedback.
This, however, should not be an issue in peer feedback with elite
players, as by definition they already have a very high level of Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
expertise, which makes the relevance of the feedback even greater.

As previously mentioned, in some areas the knowledge of the players
is even higher than that of the coach, which is another reason that the use of peer feedback is an
important tool within elite environments. If coaches want to foster an effective use of peer feedback
and encourage players to appreciate its value, it may be advisable for them to point this out.
On another note, the Hong Kong study also showed that many students felt it was easier emotionally
to receive feedback from peers as compared to teachers. This is probably because in the peer
feedback situation there were no power relations or feelings of pressure. Thus, assuming that
the quality of the feedback is good, this is yet another reason for implementing peer feedback in
work with elite players. Of course, the feedback given by peers should be constructive and non-
judgmental. In the following section, we will describe a feedback model which could be used to help
players give effective peer feedback.
A FEEDBACK MODEL
In their work on supervision and learning, Alrø & Kristiansen (1998) describe a model for giving
feedback, which aims to make the feedback constructive, as well as making the person receiving the
feedback feel seen and heard, and thereby motivated to use the feedback positively.
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The model consists of four steps:
1. The first step involves telling the person receiving the feedback what you specifically and
objectively see happening in the situation. In other words, you hold up a mirror in front of the

other person, so s/he can also see what has happened. This is to help the person receiving
feedback feel seen and heard, and thus open to the feedback, so it can be used in a constructive
and positive way.
2. The second step involves the person who is giving the feedback telling the other person how
the situation influences the feedback giver on an emotional level. In other words, it is about
communicating what you feel when you see what objectively has happened. For example, you
might say, “When I saw you make this spin shot, I felt optimistic, even though the shuttle did
not go over the net”. This is to make the feedback situation “symmetric”, creating a situation
where both participants are on the same level. The idea is that the person receiving the feedback
experience the feedback giver as a genuine person that can be trusted.
3. The third step involves interpreting what you have seen. In other words, it is about trying to
explain WHY you think things happened as they did. For example, “I think the reason the shuttle
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did not go over the net is because you hit it too low”. This interpretation opens up for the next
step.
4. The fourth step involves giving advice based on the first three steps. For example, you could say,
“My advice is that you hit the shuttle closer to the top of the net if you want to do a spin shot”.
COACHES’ MANUAL
A golden rule when giving advice is to be sure that the person receiving feedback actually wants
the advice. To ensure this, you can simply ask, “Do you want my advice on this matter?”
As mentioned before, both parties should be active in the feedback process. This means that it is
important for the person giving feedback to invite the person receiving feedback into the dialogue, by
being open for comments on the feedback given.
Although the model may appear to be simple, many people have a tendency to jump right into step
three and begin to interpret immediately. The risk in doing this is that you become judgmental, or

that the other person has not been able to recognise what you are talking about. The effect of the
feedback is thus at risk of become weaker or even non-existent.
IMPLEMENTING PEER FEEDBACK
The following ideas should be taken into consideration when implementing peer feedback in an elite
training environment:
• Involving the players from the start of the process, by informing and discussing with them the
purpose of using peer feedback. The positive acceptance of the players involved is very important
if the process is to be constructive and engaging.
• “Educating” the players in the use of the feedback model. This means making time for small
“workshops” or courses with the players.
• Making room for feedback sessions in the daily practice with the players. For example, small
breaks between matches or exercises could be used for peer feedback sessions. Short sessions
like this should last only a couple of minutes. Longer sessions could be placed before and after
practice, and of course between practices.
• Continuously evaluating the concept of peer feedback with the players. There should be
discussion around how it is working, or whether further actions are needed to optimise peer
relations.
• Examining the role of the coach, which differs from environments where peer feedback is not
being used. The coach has to be willing to hand responsibility over to the players, which has also
been discussed at various points in this manual. In other words, the role of the coach in these
situations will shift to that of a manager, coordinating and optimising the resources available.
In summary, peer feedback can be understood as a tool for improving elite players’ performance and
results. Furthermore, the use of peer feedback can help players develop better communication skills.
At the same time, players will be able to further develop a sense of autonomy and improved reflective
skills in the process, which should make them generally more motivated towards participating in
badminton-related learning environments, as well as in other relevant contexts in their lives.
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04. HANDLING CONFLICTS

WHAT ARE CONFLICTS AND WHY DO THEY APPEAR?
In general, conflicts appear when people disagree on different matters. From a systemic perspective,
however, it is very important to remember that when people disagree, each person has a good reason
for feeling and acting as s/he does. As discussed in previous sections, people will always understand
situations from their own perspectives and interpret things based on their prior experiences. In many
cases, conflicts are only conflicts because we interpret situations differently, and even though two
people disagree on matters, they can actually both be right. The issue of fault or blame is therefore
absent and irrelevant when handling conflict from a systemic view.
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COACHES’ MANUAL
The reason for conflicts to appear could be many. Hornstrup et al. (2004) address four main dilemmas
which are the basis for conflicts, as follows:
1. The first dilemma is that human beings are autopoietic systems (Maturana & Varela, 1987), which
means that they always refer to their own experiences when trying to understand situations or
other people. Because we have all accumulated different experiences during our lives, no two
people can ever understand a situation in the same way, which will of course cause a risk of
conflict.
2. The second dilemma is that we are limited by our language when communicating with other
people. As Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953) said, “The limit of my language is
the limit of my world”. The limitations in and personal choices of our language mean that there is
a lot of room for interpretation in everyday communication, which can result in misunderstandings
and conflicts. As discussed in the section on “Communication”, we can never be sure that a
message will be understood by the receiver in the same way the sender meant it. Again, this
does not mean that one person is right and the other is wrong, but rather that the only tool to
solve problems is the same one that causes them – namely communication.
3. The third dilemma is that when people disagree, they often tend to focus on isolated elements
confirming their own view on things, and at the same time they often refer to the past. In other
words, they focus on things that can no longer be changed. This approach of course makes it
difficult to find common ground, which means that conflict can arise.
4. The fourth dilemma is that when people disagree, they very often use negative language. The
focus created by the use of this kind of language will then be on other people’s mistakes and
wrongdoings, which means that the situation tends to focus on placing blame or guilt. When the
issue of blame is introduced into a discussion, it will generally be very difficult not to end up in
conflict.
In order to deal with these dilemmas from a systemic point of view, we need to truly believe that
other people have their own stories and have good reasons for acting the way they do. As mentioned
before, the only tool that can be used for solving or avoiding conflicts is effective communication.
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Next, we will describe a specific model for handling conflicts.

THE CMM MODEL – COORDINATED MANAGEMENT OF MEANING
The CMM model, developed by Cronen, Pearce & Harris (1982), consists of four steps and aims to
handle conflicts by making visible different people’s reasons for acting the way they do. The rationale
behind the model is that if people understand each other better, the risk of conflicts will be lower. The
four steps are:
1. “The episode” – In this step, those involved in the conflict express their views on the matter,
in order for everyone to see and hear the different perspectives around the conflict. The main
purpose of this first step is to offer a more detailed understanding of the situation for all involved,
so that the problem can be understood in different ways.
2. “Relations and positions” – In this second step, the previous step is reinforced by talking about
what people have said and done, in what contexts, and what different views they hold. The idea
here is to make visible why different people have different views on things. At this point, the
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process also aims to highlight the fact that we all have some influence on other people’s actions
and opinions. This focus may actually succeed in removing the issue of blame/fault from the
discussion.
3. “Identity” – In this step, those involved in the conflict share their personal backgrounds and any
experiences from their lives that might be relevant for others to better understand why they see
COACHES’ MANUAL
things the way they do. Making each individual’s “life script” visible in this way can help others
see “the person behind the conflict” and thus be more motivated and able to understand him or
her.
4. “The culture” – In the fourth and last step, there is an examination of the way the culture (the
organisation, club, etc.) influences how people in the group experience situations and how they
act in different situations. For example, if a badminton organisation’s most important goal is to
win, this could clearly have an effect on how players interact with each other. If, on the other
hand, their most important goal is for the players to develop their badminton skills, this would
probably mean that they will interact in a different way.

Solving problems from this perspective could, of course, be relevant for anybody, but because elite
players have some very special “life scripts” and competences, handling conflicts in this systemic
way can help to ensure that these players feel validated and understood.
As badminton is an individual sport, elite players need to focus on their own personal goals and
follow their own personal paths to reach those goals. This focus on their individual journeys could
make it difficult for them to understand that other players have different realities. Using the CMM
model could make other players’ “realities” visible, thereby opening up possibilities for greater
understanding and fewer conflicts.
Communication processes in player groups are often started up only when problems have already
arisen. However, from a systemic approach, the CMM model could also be used for avoiding conflicts
in the first place. It could, for example, be a good idea to have a weekly or monthly meeting, where
players, coaches and any other relevant participants discuss what has happened during the last
period and use the CMM model to share their views on things. Such a meeting could also be used to
introduce new ideas or proposals, and again make different players’ views visible and accessible to
the others in the group.
84
REFERENCES
Alrø, H., & Kristiansen, M. (1998). Supervision som dialogisk læreproces Aalborg Universitetsforlag.
Bandura, A. (1974). Psychological modeling: Conflicting theories Transaction Publishers.
Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1986). Differential engagement of self-reactive influences in cognitive
motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38(1), 92-113.
Bannerot, R. (2004). Characteristics of good team players. Age, 9, 1.
Cronen, V. E., Pearce, W. B., & Harris, L. M. (1982). The coordinated management of meaning: A
theory of communication. Human Communication Theory, 61, 89.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation,
development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182. The Power
MODULE 9
of Feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77 (1), 81–112 DOI: 10.3102/003465430298487

University of Auckland
Heidegren, C. (2010). Anerkendelse Samfundslitteratur.

COACHES’ MANUAL
Honneth, A. (1996). The struggle for recognition: The moral grammar of social conflicts The MIT
Press.
Honneth, A. (2003). Behovet for anerkendelse Hans Reitzel.
Hornstrup et al., (2004), Conflicts and conflict solving, MacMann Berg
Larsen, K. (2016). “Recognizing sport club cultures, and the effect of these on the individuals identity
formation”. PHD in Pr. University of Aalborg
Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal
monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(3), 518.
Liu, N., & Carless, D. (2006). Peer feedback: The learning element of peer assessment. Teaching in
Higher Education, 11(3), 279-290.
Ludwig, W. (1953). Philosophical investigations. London, Basic Blackw,
Lyubomirsky, S., Tkach, C., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2006). What are the differences between happiness
and self-esteem. Social Indicators Research, 78(3), 363-404.
Maturana, H. R., & Varela, F. J. (1987). The tree of knowledge: The biological roots of human
understanding. New Science Library/Shambhala Publications.
Mead, G. H. (1913). The social self. The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods,
10(14), 374-380.
Molly-Søholm, T., Juhl, A., & Nørlem, J. (2007). Lederen som teamcoach Lindhardt og Ringhof.
Søholm, T. M., Storch, J., Juhl, A., & Thiesgaard, L. J. (2009). Teambaserede organisationer i praksis:
Ledelse og udvikling af team Dansk Psykologisk Forlag.
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 10
TECHNICAL & TACTICAL ASPECTS
AT THE ELITE LEVEL
MODULE 10
01. Introduction 85
02. How Do Elite Players Anticipate? 85
03. Practicing Anticipation Skills with Elite Players 86
04. Exercises for Developing Anticipation Skills 87
05. Connecting Technical and Tactical Practice 87

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85
01. INTRODUCTION

One of the most notable characteristics of elite badminton players is that they make frequent use
of deception when playing. Deception can be achieved by using the movement of the racket to
suggest to the opponent that something else is going to happen (versus what actually happens). Cut
shots and delayed shots are probably the most commonly used types of deception at the elite level.
Deception using the movements of the body to send “faulty” signals to the opponent is also common
in high-level badminton. The purpose of using deception, of course, is to frustrate or minimise the
opponent’s chance to anticipate what will happen next in the rally and make advantageous choices
based on this anticipation.
Perhaps one of the main competences defining the world’s best players is their ability to anticipate
and thus make the best possible choices on court. It could be argued that even among elite players
the technical and physical differences are not so great. In contrast, anticipation is the one area of
competence that can be developed throughout an entire elite career. It is worth pointing out that
anticipation is closely related to the reflection process described in Module 8.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
MODULE 10
• explain what anticipation skills are and why they are important
• describe what kind of information elite players use to anticipate
• design exercises to foster anticipation skills in players
COACHES’ MANUAL
02. HOW DO ELITE PLAYERS ANTICIPATE?
Anticipation is about being able to “look into the future”. It has to do with predicting what will happen
next on court, in order to choose the best strokes or movements and thus achieve a better position in
the specific rally.
COACH EDUCATION LEVEL 3

In dealing with non-deceptive shots and situations, elite
players are much better at anticipating what will happen next
than are lower-level players. This is because elite players,
as mentioned before, have a lot of experience and reflective
skills that can help them identify the relevant clues in their
opponents’ movements. However, the use of deceptive shots
and situations levels out much of the difference between elite
and lower-level players, as players at the elite level use high-
quality deception precisely in order to lower the chances for
their opponents to anticipate. Research done in tennis found
that elite players still had an anticipation advantage over lower-
level players, but that deception was indeed more efficiently
used at the elite level, in order to disturb the opponents’ ability
to anticipate (Rowe, Horswill, Kronvall-Parkinson, Poulter, &
McKenna, 2009). Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
Elite players make use of their extensive experience,

BADMINTON
as well as reflection on what has happened at other moments on court, but if we look at how
anticipation actually happens, it is also interesting to note that elite players rely on different kinds
of “clues” or signals when observing the opponent. Whereas lower-level players mainly use local
movement clues to predict and anticipate what will happen, elite players use a global strategy
in the anticipation process. In the case of badminton, this means that elite players extract clues
and information regarding the opponent’s intentions from the racket as well as the opponent’s
entire body, with the racket arm, however, being the most important source of information.
86
Along similar lines, research done with handball players shows that when information clues were
neutralised in the throwing arm, anticipation skills dropped significantly for elite players, compared to
when other areas of the body were neutralised in the movement (Bourne, Bennett, Hayes, Smeeton, &
Williams, 2013).
When extracting information from the movement clues of the opponent, two kinds of information come
into play. The first kind is called structural information, or simple patterns of mechanical motions
(Bourne et al., 2013). In this case, the player extracts information from looking at isolated movements,
for example in the arm. The second kind of information comes from what is called the biological
motion (Bourne et al., 2013; Johansson, 1973). This kind of information comes from observing the
whole body of the opponent, in motion on court, in the specific situation in question. As shown by the
studies mentioned above, biological motion is the most important source of information in terms of
anticipating what will happen next on court. It can be argued, then, that elite players are characterised
by a global process of collecting information, combined with the biological motion approach as the basis
for anticipation. As such, these could be extremely relevant considerations in preparing and organising
practice and exercises for developing anticipation skills with elite players. There is further discussion
around how anticipation happens, particularly from a motor learning point of view, in Module 13,
Section 5 (Processing Information). Those who would like further background on the topic will find the
Anticipation and Deception section particularly useful.
MODULE 10
03. PRACTICING ANTICIPATION SKILLS WITH ELITE PLAYERS

Research shows that elite players become better and better at anticipating over the course of their
careers, and that it takes around six or seven years of accumulated experience within a sport to really
COACHES’ MANUAL
develop advanced anticipation skills (Weissensteiner, Abernethy, Farrow, & Müller, 2008).
The same research also indicates that the contents of the practice are important in developing
experiences that will help improve anticipation skills. It seems important, then, that players have a large
amount of task-related practice, which means that, in order to develop anticipation skills, practice has to
be functional and game-like.
Taking a functional approach to practice is also in line with the idea that elite players extract information
and movement clues from watching the opponent’s whole body in motion, and not by focusing only
on specific parts of the body. From this perspective, structured exercises such as multi-feeding are
probably not the best way to develop anticipation skills, as players will not have the opportunity to read
the necessary clues in this kind of practice.
As mentioned before, the ability to anticipate drops dramatically for elite players when the opponent
uses deceptive shots or movements. Therefore, relevant practice with elite players should focus
especially on developing anticipation in these situations. It can be argued that this is one of the key
areas where elite players have the greatest development potential.
In working with exercises to develop anticipation, it is certainly beneficial, from a motivational and
learning point of view, for players to feel rewarded when they anticipate correctly. For example, they
may win a rally after having anticipated the outcome of a specific situation. Similarly, they may anticipate
a smash from an opponent, and thus avoid losing the rally. As such, there is a built-in control in the
exercises which will help players evaluate if the anticipation was correct. If this is deliberately explored
in a reflection process, it can help players examine the situation that brought about the anticipation,
and because of the positive outcome, they will try to achieve similar results in future rallies. This keeps
players actively involved in evaluating the anticipation process, which, as previously discussed in the
constructivist approach to learning, takes full advantage of elite players’ unique experiences.
87
04. EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING ANTICIPATION SKILLS

EXAMPLES FOR SINGLES:
1. Singles match. The tactical restriction is that, when returning the shuttle from an offensive
position in the forehand rearcourt, the “feeder” can only choose between a straight smash
and a crosscourt cut shot. The “player” works on identifying the clues in the opponent’s
movements and position, in order to develop the ability to anticipate which shot will be used.
When the player anticipates correctly, he or she will automatically be in a better position in the
rally than a moment before.
2. Singles match. The tactical restriction is that, when returning the shuttle from an offensive
position in the backhand forecourt, the “feeder” can only choose between a straight
backhand spin shot and a delayed backhand crosscourt lob. As in the exercise above, the
player will practice the ability to identify clues in the biological motion of the opponent,
thereby improving anticipation skills.
EXAMPLES FOR DOUBLES:
1. Doubles match. The tactical restriction is that whenever the “feeder pair” are in an offensive
position with a backline player who can attack, this player can only choose between a
MODULE 10
full straight smash and a delayed straight dropshot to the middle. The “players” practice
identifying the clues in the attacker’s global biological motion, in order to bring themselves
into a better position when the delayed drop shot is used. It is important to point out that if
the dropshot is clearly towards the middle, it is the crosscourt defender who should make the
return.
COACHES’ MANUAL
2. Doubles match. The tactical restriction is that when one of the “feeder pair” returns a short
serve, a short straight net return should be used when his/her racket is horizontal, and a
pushed return around the server should be used in the case of a vertical position. The server
practices the ability to anticipate the service return, focusing again on the biological motion
clues of the player returning the service. It is worth mentioning that although this specific
exercise does not involve the “feeder” using deception, it is still a functional example of
practicing anticipation skills, used by the best players in the world.
These exercises involve working with one of the players/pairs as feeders, with the other(s) actually

practicing anticipation skills. A progression in the exercises would be to give all players the same
restriction. In this way, all players are functioning as feeders as well as practicing anticipation skills.
05. CONNECTING TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL PRACTICE

Alongside work on developing anticipation skills, it is obviously important to keep strengthening and
refining players’ technical skills, particularly with regard to the use of deception. This will help develop
strategies to handle any improved anticipation skills on the part of their opponents. For example, it
is possible to implement both a tactical and a technical focus in the exercise examples above, as
success in one area is dependent on the opponent’s skills in the other area.
As has been emphasised in the Level 1 and Level 2 Coaches’ Manuals, technical and tactical practice
should never be disconnected. This is because “pure” technical practice still includes choices,
and tactical practice must always take into account the technical level of the players involved. This
integration of technical and tactical aspects is relevant not only for elite players, but as a general
approach to practice with all ages and levels in badminton.
88
REFERENCES
Bourne, M., Bennett, S. J., Hayes, S. J., Smeeton, N. J., & Williams, A. M. (2013). Information
underpinning anticipation of goal-directed throwing. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 75(7),
1559-1569.
Johansson, G. (1973). Visual perception of biological motion and a model for its analysis. Perception &
Psychophysics, 14(2), 201-211.
Rowe, R., Horswill, M. S., Kronvall-Parkinson, M., Poulter, D. R., & McKenna, F. P. (2009). The
effect of disguise on novice and expert tennis players’ anticipation ability. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 21(2), 178-185.
Weissensteiner, J., Abernethy, B., Farrow, D., & Müller, S. (2008). The development of anticipation: A
cross-sectional examination of the practice experiences contributing to skill in cricket batting. Journal
of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30(6), 663-684.
MODULE 10
COACHES’ MANUAL
SECTION FOUR
SPORT SCIENCE IN ACTION
Level 3 candidates need to have a broad understanding of the pathway within which they
are working and along which their players will progress. At the same time, they also need
to have an in-depth understanding of the underpinning principles of sport science that will
allow them to apply these concepts effectively in their work with players. These principles
will form the basis for choosing or designing the training exercises that will best serve
the needs of their players. They will also be useful in making informed decisions about
assessments, whether in the application of appropriate testing protocols or in reaching a
clear understanding of what programme-mandated tests are actually measuring.
Because an understanding of sport science can be useful at any level of training, along any
point along the player pathway, this section is addressed separately. The idea of this section
is to provide coaches with the knowledge they need to make the best possible decisions,
based on sound scientific principles, no matter what their area of work. Specifically:
• Module 11 will examine the physiological development that occurs in various body
systems during human development, in order to help coaches understand the
implications of physical development on training.
• Module 12 will present the basic concepts involved in biomechanics, before moving on
to examples of how coaches can apply these to their on-court work with players.
• Module 13 will look at the workings of the nervous system and the processes involved
in motor learning, in the interest of helping coaches create the conditions for optimum
learning to take place.

COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 11
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND
IMPLICATIONS FOR WHEN TO COACH
MODULE 11
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS FOR WHEN
TO COACH
01. Introduction 89
02. Skeletal System 89
03. Muscular System 91
04. Endocrine System 93

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Fax +603 2303 9688
www.bwf.sport
89
01. INTRODUCTION
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS FOR WHEN TO COACH

The progress of young players through different stages in their development was examined from a
coaching point of view in Module 5. The emphasis there was on how coaches could best support
young players’ changing needs for coaching, training, and competition, as well as in relation to
the different performance factors. This module will complement the view of player development
presented there, providing coaches with a deeper understanding of young players’ physical growth
and development, in order to help them further shape their coaching practice. Three main systems
will be examined here in terms of the significant changes that take place from development in the
womb through adulthood:
• Skeletal system • Muscular system • Endocrine system
In addition, there is a thorough overview of the structure and function of the nervous system, as well
as how these relate to motor learning, in Module 13 of this Level 3 manual.
It is worth pointing out that the different body systems were introduced in detail in the Level 2
Coaches’ Manual, where the focus was on deepening coaches’ understanding of these systems and
helping them apply this knowledge to high-level badminton training. In contrast, this Level 3 module
looks specifically at physical maturation and the underpinning aspects that coaches need to consider
when working with young players.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
MODULE 11
• identify the main age-related changes that occur in each of the body systems discussed
• explain physical development issues that should be considered when working with young
players
• demonstrate awareness of growth and development issues for young players in their session
planning
COACHES’ MANUAL
02. SKELETAL SYSTEM
In the early stages of embryo Spongy bone
development, the skeleton is
Bone Growth
Articular
cartilage
a cartilage model. Cartilage
is a more pliable tissue than
bone. Two months into
embryo development, bone Epiphyseal
plate
formation (ossification) begins
in centre of long bones such Blood
Medullary
cavity
as the humerus and the Periosteum vessels
femur. These central sites

are known as sites of primary Bone
Primary
ossification Periosteum
ossification. Bone growth collar center
occurs outwards, increasing Hyaline

cartilage
both length and width of “model”
Secondary
ossification
Compact
bone
bones until, at birth, the entire center
shafts of long bones have

changed from cartilage to
bone tissue.
90
After birth, secondary ossification centres are created at the end of long bones, separated from the
primary ossification sites by epiphyseal plates consisting of cartilage. These areas are responsible for
controlling the future length of bone development. Future bone growth that increases the width of
bones occurs below the periosteum, or outer surface of the long bone.
Bone growth is usually fully complete by the late teenage years, with all the epiphyseal plates being
turned from cartilage into bone.
From the mid-twenties onwards, overall bone mass begins to decline at an average rate of 1% per
year (Smith, Semsos and Purvis, 1981). The composition of bones also changes during a person’s
lifespan. Children tend to have an equal balance of organic (carbon-based fibres) and inorganic
(minerals such as calcium) materials, giving the ability to deal effectively with both bending and
compressive forces. In older adult years, this can change to a ratio of 1:7 (organic to inorganic) making
adults’ bones brittle and susceptible to fracture.
Osteoporosis, a disorder characterised by loss of bone mass, increases the chances of bone fracture
and reduces the effectiveness of the body in repairing those fractures. The hip is an area that is
particularly vulnerable to this condition.
Bone loss with age is influenced by:
• diet
• hormone levels
• exercise
Exercise stimulates bone formation, whereas hormone (e.g., oestrogen) and mineral (e.g., calcium)
MODULE 11
supplementation can help to reduce bone loss.
IMPLICATIONS FOR COACHING PRACTICE (“WHEN TO COACH”)
• There should be regular variation in

practices for children in order to avoid
COACHES’ MANUAL
excessive, repetitive loading on bones

during the growth process, as this can
damage the epiphyseal plates and inhibit
bone growth.
• Particularly during the growth spurt,
some children are vulnerable to Osgood-
Schlatter’s disease, which causes pain at
the point of insertion of the patellar tendon
on the tibia (just below the front of the

knee). In this case, coaches should once
again avoid excessive, repetitive loading
of the knee joint (e.g., excessive jumping,
squatting, and lunging) and prolonged
participation on uneven, hard and/or
slippery surfaces.
• Diet should look at the correct levels of
mineral intake throughout the different
stages of life.
• An emphasis on balance training,
particularly for older adults, is helpful Osgood
to reduce risk of falls and subsequent Schlatter
damage to the skeletal system (wrist and Disease
hip).
91
03. MUSCULAR SYSTEM

MUSCLE GROWTH: BIRTH TO YOUNG ADULT
Whilst in the womb, muscles can grow in size by two methods:
• hyperplasia (an increase in the number of muscle cells)

• hypertrophy (an increase in the size of muscle cells)
At birth, muscle mass accounts for approximately one

quarter of bodyweight. After birth, increase in muscle
sarcomere
mass is predominantly due to hypertrophy (increase in Muscle fiber or cell
muscle cell size). Myofibril
Z line
Gains in muscle mass are the result of increases in Z line
sarcomere
both the diameter and length of the muscles. Muscle
diameter increases naturally with growth; however,
this effect can be increased by the intensity of
HZone
exercise that these muscles undertake during growth. M line Z line
On the other hand, muscles increase in length by:

I Band H Band I Band H Band
• the addition of contractile units (sarcomeres) Thick Filament

within the muscle cell Thin Filament
• an increase in the length of those sarcomeres
Prior to puberty, boys tend to have only a slightly greater amount of muscle mass than girls.
MODULE 11
After puberty however, young adult males tend to have an average muscle mass of 54% of their
bodyweight, whereas young adult females have an average muscle mass of only 45% of their
bodyweight. Due to the earlier onset of puberty, females can reach these muscle mass proportions
by the age of 13, whereas males can expect to reach these muscle mass levels by the age of 17.
These gender differences can generally be observed in the higher muscle mass in the upper bodies of
males as compared to females.
COACHES’ MANUAL
MUSCLE FIBRE TYPES
Muscles consist of three different types of muscle fibre:
• Type I fibres, also known as slow-twitch fibres,

which are more suited to endurance activities
• Type IIa and IIb fibres, also known as fast-
twitch fibres, which are more suited to high-

intensity activities of short duration
Twelve months after birth, the percentage of type

I fibres is fixed. The situation with regards to type
IIa and IIb is less clear. However, it is recognised
as a general principle that, from a muscle-
type perspective, some adults may be more
predisposed to aerobic activity, whereas others
may be more suited to high intensity, anaerobic
activity.
Muscle biopsy procedures can be used to take

samples of muscle tissue to analyse the relative
percentages of muscle fibre types.
92
motor neurons
MOTOR UNITS spinal cord
A single nerve cell and all the muscle cells

muscle
it “fires” are known as a motor unit. All the
muscle cells within a motor unit are either slow-
twitch or fast-twitch. fast
twitch
CARDIAC MUSCLE
slow twitch
The heart is made up predominantly of cardiac motor end plate
muscle cells. The heart can grow via both
hyperplasia (increase in number of cells) and
hypertrophy (increase in size of cells). The heart
grows proportionally with the body, meaning
for example that when the body experiences a
growth spurt during puberty, the heart responds
in similar proportional fashion.
In old age, the heart copes less well when

exposed to heavier workloads. This is thought
to be due to a loss in cardiac muscle mass,
a reduction in the elasticity of the heart as
a whole, and possibly changes in the heart
valves. Major blood vessels close to the heart
also lose elasticity. Many of these reductions in
performance can, however, be attributed to a
MODULE 11
decrease in activity as a person ages.
ADULTHOOD AND AGING
From the mid-20s up to around the age of 50, an average loss in muscle mass of approximately 10%
COACHES’ MANUAL
can be expected. This can increase to as much as 30% by the age of 80. Appropriate diet and the
maintenance of a consistent exercise regime can do much to arrest this reduction.
The reduction in muscle mass can be attributed to decreases in both the number and size of muscle
cells. In the case of the number of muscle cells, initial losses are low (around 5% up to the age of 50),
but this can then increase to as much as 35% by the age of 80. Muscle size will also decline with age,
especially if an exercise regime is not maintained.

Bearing in mind the comparable muscle masses of boys and girls in pre-puberty stages, it is
interesting to consider whether boys and girls should compete against each other in the younger age
groups (for example, U11 events).
As leg muscle mass values for males and females are also comparable, another interesting question
is whether jumping should become more of a feature of female play. Certainly, recent changes in the
women’s singles game would point to a more athletic approach, including more explosive jumping in
the rearcourt.
Finally, looking back at the player pathway concept explored earlier in the manual, the question could
be raised as to whether an evaluation of fast/slow twitch fibres (using muscle biopsy techniques)
should be used as part of a selection process for elite badminton players.
93
04. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine glands of the body, plus the hormones (chemical messengers) they secrete, play
a major part in controlling the actions of the cells of the body. The workings of these glands and
hormones are highly complex and a full appreciation of all the complexities is beyond the scope of
this publication. The section will, therefore, provide an overview and focus on the particular aspects of
function that may be relevant for coaches in relation to sports performance.
The endocrine system has a close working relationship with the nervous system. Both systems have
a controlling influence over the workings of the body, but the nervous system tends to be fast acting
(via nerve impulses), whereas the endocrine system is relatively slow acting (hormones travelling via
the bloodstream).
THE HYPOTHALAMUS
Cerebral Cortex The hypothalamus is the most

Cerebrum
significant example of the interaction
Corpus Callosum between the nervous and endocrine
systems. It is a section of the
brain that interprets the sensory
Thalamus
information it receives and interacts
with the pituitary gland, which in turn
influences other glands in the endocrine
Hypothalamus system. Although the hypothalamus
Pituitary is technically a part of the nervous
system, the close functional relationship
MODULE 11
with these glands means it is often
included as part of the endocrine
Spinal Cord system.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
COACHES’ MANUAL
The endocrine glands influence the workings of the body by secreting hormones into the
bloodstream. There are a number of different endocrine glands, as can be seen in the diagram below,
including the:
• pituitary gland
• thyroid gland
• parathyroid glands
• adrenal glands
• pineal gland
• pancreas
• ovaries (in females)
• testes (in males)
94
A brief overview of the location and function of each of the endocrine glands is
offered below.
PITUITARY GLAND
The pituitary gland is located at the base Skull Brain

of the brain, close to the brain stem.
The pituitary gland is regulated to a large
degree by the hypothalamus. In turn,
the pituitary gland regulates many of the
other glands within the endocrine system,
such the adrenal and thyroid glands.
Growth from birth to early adulthood is

highly influenced by growth hormone
(GH), which is released by the anterior
Pituitary
(front) pituitary gland following stimulation
from the hypothalamus in the brain. GH
Brain stem
is responsible for encouraging proteins to
form new tissues within the body.
THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland is located in the throat.

Its function is heavily influenced by the
MODULE 11
hypothalamus and pituitary glands. The thyroid

gland secretes hormones that:
• stimulate the use of oxygen in tissues

• support skeletal growth
COACHES’ MANUAL
Thyroid (front view)

PARATHYROID GLANDS
The parathyroid glands are located

at the back of the thyroid gland. The
main function of the parathyroid glands
is to keep the body‘s calcium and Thyroid (back view)

phosphate at optimum levels, so that
the nervous and muscular systems can
function properly.
Parathyroid
glands
ADRENAL GLANDS Adrenal glands
There are two adrenal glands, located on top of

the kidneys. The main hormones secreted by
the adrenal glands, along with the functions they
perform, are outlined in the table below.
Kidneys
95
NAME OF ADRENAL HORMONE

KEY FUNCTION

Overall Category Sub-category Example
Mineralcorticoids Aldosterone Regulate mineral balance and
blood volume
Corticosteroids
Glucocorticoids Cortisol Increase levels of glucose and
free fatty acids
Adrenaline
(also known as epinephrine)
Stimulate increase in heart rate
Catecholamines and blood pressure (“the fight
or flight” response)
Noradrenaline
(also known as norepinephrine)
“Metabolic intermediates”,
or put simply, a stage in the
Androgens DHEA
formation of testosterone and
oestrogen
Pituitary and Pineal Glands

PINEAL GLAND Pineal gland
The pineal gland is situated in the centre of brain. Its Cerebellum
main function is to produce and release melatonin,

a hormone responsible for the regulation of sleep Pituitary gland
MODULE 11
patterns. Pons
Medula oblongata
Spinal cord
COACHES’ MANUAL
PANCREAS
The pancreas is located in the abdomen, just

behind the stomach. Its role is to secrete
hormones that regulate blood sugar levels – in
particular, the hormones glucagon and insulin.
Glucagon is responsible for increasing blood
sugar levels, whereas insulin is responsible for
reducing blood sugar levels.
GONADAL HORMONES
Ovary (in female)
Hormones secreted from the testes
Placenta
(male) and ovaries (female) affect sexual (in female
during pregnancy)
maturation, especially during puberty with the
development of the sex organs and secondary
sex characteristics (such as breast size in
women and facial hair in men). Testis (in male)
Testosterone from the testes and oestrogen

from the ovaries speed up the maturation
of the skeletal system. They do this by promoting the fusion of the epiphyseal growth plates at
the end of bones. The consequences of this are that early maturers tend to be shorter than late
maturers. Testosterone also helps stimulate an increase in muscle mass during adolescence,
whereas oestrogen promotes fat accumulation, mainly in the hips and breasts.
96
Note that although men have more testosterone in the bodies than women, this does not
mean that women have no testosterone in their bodies, as there are other potential sources of
testosterone besides the testes. Likewise, women have more oestrogen in their bodies than
men, but this does not mean that men have no oestrogen in their bodies, as there are potential
sources of oestrogen other than ovaries.
A basic understanding of the role of the different glands and hormones in the endocrine system
can provide coaches with insight as to how players’ bodies are developing. These functions affect
growth, sleep, and the regulation of other biological conditions, which in turn have an effect on other
body systems.
REFERENCES
Smith, E.L., Sempos, C.T., and Purvis, R.W. (1981). Bone Mass and Strength Decline in Age. In E.L.
R.C. Serfass (Eds.), Exercise and aging: The scientific basis (pp. 59-87). Hillside, NJ: Enslow.
Sources for images:
Bone growth:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bone_growth.png/450px-Bone_growth.
png
Osgood-Schlatter’s disease:
MODULE 11
http://www.betterbraces.com/media/osgoodschlatterdisease.jpg
Muscle growth:
http://dumuscle.free.fr/myofibrille.gif
Muscle biopsy:
COACHES’ MANUAL
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_-8EqsebsUGw/SokoLIOGOeI/AAAAAAAABcE/CiZhgk2Oo3o/s400/
SL372176.JPG
Motor units:
http://www.stretching-exercises-guide.com/images/motor-unit.jpg
Cardiac muscle:
http://www.erincurren.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/heart-muscle.jpg
Hypothalamus:
http://www.trinity.edu/lespey/biol3449/lectures/lect7/Fig.7.A.jpg
Pituitary gland:
http://www.dickymoo.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/pituitary-gland.jpg
Thyroid gland:
http://www.compassionatenutritionist.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/thyroid1.jpg
Parathyroid glands:
https://myhealth.alberta.ca/_layouts/healthwise/media/medical/hw/h9991362_004.jpg
Pancreas:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas
Gonadal hormones:
http://www.rajeun.net/images/endocrine_glands_and_organs.jpg
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 12
BIOMECHANICS
MODULE 12
BIOMECHANICS
01. Introduction 97
02. Key Terminology and Units of Measurement 98
03. Principles of Motion 104
04. On-Court Application 107
05. Application to Specific Strokes 109
06. Application to Court Movement 117
07. Application to Fitness Testing 119

10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
www.bwf.sport
97
01. INTRODUCTION
BIOMECHANICS
In order to fully understand and apply the information included within this section it is important that
coaches revisit the Physical Performance Factor sections of the BWF Level 1 and 2 manuals. This
Level 3 Biomechanics module will build on those concepts and includes:
• learning outcomes for the section

• theoretical information to aid in achieving the learning outcomes
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• practical examples of biomechanical principles applied to badminton
• questions to help coaches measure the extent of their learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
COACHES’ MANUAL
• define biomechanics and kinesiology

• list and explain the key terminology and units of measurement used in biomechanics
• explain the key principles of motion
• apply the principles of motion to badminton techniques in practical sessions

DEFINITIONS
Kinesiology can be defined as:
“the scientific study of human movement.”
Biomechanics, on the other hand, can be defined as:
“the understanding of forces and their effects on (and by) the human body and implements.”
(Dictionary of Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine: Churchill Livingstone © 2008 Elsevier
Limited)
From these two definitions, it can be seen that kinesiology is a much bigger area of study, with
biomechanics being a sub-section of this.
Biomechanics
Kinesiology
98
02. KEY TERMINOLOGY AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

BIOMECHANICS
In order to understand the principles of motion, which will be discussed in the following section, it is
first useful to define the terms used in this area of study, along with some practice examples.
DISTANCE
Distance can be defined as “a numerical measurement of the pathway between two points”.
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The basic unit of measurement of distance is the metre (m).
In some cases, the distance between points A and B is simply a straight line between those two
points. However, the distance can be greater if the pathway used between those two points is
not a straight line.
COACHES’ MANUAL
A B
One application of distance to badminton is to compare the distances travelled for straight and
crosscourt strokes. A crosscourt dropshot (shown by the red line) has to travel a horizontal
distance of 10.60 metres, compared to a straight dropshot (shown by the yellow line) with a
horizontal distance of 8.68 metres, which is a difference of 22%.
TIME
Time can be defined as “a measure of duration”. The basic unit of measurement is the second
(s).
VELOCITY
Velocity can be defined as “the rate at which an object covers distance”. Velocity is calculated
mathematically by dividing distance by time. The basic unit of velocity is metres/second (ms-1).
Technically speaking, there is a difference between speed and velocity. Both have the same units
(ms-1), but velocity should contain an element of direction, whereas speed does not. However, for
our purposes, the terms speed and velocity will be used interchangeably.
As an example, a shuttle travelling 2 metres in 0.5 seconds will have an average speed of 4m/s
(2m/0.5s = 4ms-1).
2 metres in 0.5 seconds

99
Velocity/speed can be represented using a distance/time

graph.
BIOMECHANICS
Distance (metres)
3
The image to the left illustrates a distance/time graph for
an object travelling at 1ms-1. After 1 second, the object
2
has travelled 1m, after 2 seconds the object has travelled

2 metres, etc. Note, however, that the above calculations
are for average speed. In reality, a shuttle will be gradually
1
slowing down throughout its flight, due to its design and air
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resistance.
1 2 3
Time (seconds)
ACCELERATION
COACHES’ MANUAL
Velocity (metres/sec)
Acceleration can be defined as “the rate of change of
3
velocity”. It can be calculated mathematically by dividing
velocity by time. The standard unit of acceleration is
metres/second/second (m/s-2).
2
For example, if an object is travelling at 1 metre/second
and 1 second later it is travelling at 2 metres/second, then

it has an acceleration of 1 ms-2. The object has increased its
velocity by 1/m-1 in 1 second.
1 2 3
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY Time (seconds)
Acceleration due to gravity can be defined as “the rate of change of velocity experienced by free-
falling bodies due to the attractional pull of the Earth”. Although the value of acceleration due to
gravity can vary (mainly due to changes in altitude), for our purposes acceleration due to gravity
can be regarded as having a numerical value of 9.81ms-2. This means that acceleration due to
gravity will be the same for two objects of the same shape and size. For example, a rubber ball
and a lead ball dropped from the same height will hit the ground at the same time. This is because
they are both being acted upon by gravity which accelerates objects at 9.81ms-2, whatever their
weight.
100
MASS
BIOMECHANICS
Mass can be defined as:
1. “A property of an object which determines that object‘s resistance to being accelerated

by a force”. Put simply, an object with a larger mass will have greater resistance to being
accelerated by a force than an object with a lower mass. A simple example is that a racket
with more mass will require more force to reach a particular acceleration than a racket with
less mass.
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2. “The strength of that object’s mutual gravitational attraction with other bodies”. For example,
a large mass object will exert a large gravitational attraction on other objects. Thus, during
a jump smash, the large mass of the Earth will exert a gravitational attraction on the player,
causing the player to move downwards back to the Earth.
The basic unit of measurement of mass is the kilogramme (kg). A typical shuttle weighs around
COACHES’ MANUAL
0.00482kg (4.82 grammes).
FORCE
Force can be defined as “any influence that causes an object

to undergo a change in movement, direction, or structure”.
Force can be calculated by multiplying mass by acceleration (F
= m x a). The basic unit of force is the newton (N).
If a racket applies a force to a shuttle, it can bring about a

change in movement (accelerating the shuttle), a change in
direction (hitting a straight shot crosscourt), or a change in
structure (deforming the shuttle base on impact).
Forces are often represented by lines with arrow heads,

giving an indication of the direction in which that force is being
applied.
COMPONENTS OF FORCE
Forces can be divided into components that are

perpendicular to each other. For example, in the
diagram to the left the force represented by the red
arrow can be split into 3 components:
• The yellow line illustrates that part of the red

force will act in an upwards direction.
• The green line illustrates that part of the red
force will act in a sideways direction.
• The black line illustrates that part of the red force
will act in a forwards direction.
In badminton terms, a player jumping diagonally

backwards (the red line) will do so by pushing off the
floor in such a way that:
• the green component of force means the jump is

partly sideways
• the black component of force means the jump is
partly backwards
• the yellow component of force means the jump
is also upwards
101
CENTRE OF MASS
BIOMECHANICS
The centre of mass can be thought of as the point at which the
mass of an object is concentrated. One way to understand the
concept of the centre of mass is to think of it as the balance point
of an object. Because the mass is evenly distributed around that
balance point, if we support that object at that point then the object
will remain in balance.
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CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity can be defined as “a point through which the

weight of a body or system may be considered to act”. For our purposes,
COACHES’ MANUAL
the terms centre of gravity and centre of mass can be thought of as
the same. The centre of gravity of an adult standing normally would be
around the navel ( ). Note that the location of the centre of gravity of
the body can change depending on the position of the body or of the
limbs. For example, raising the arms above the head raises the centre of
gravity above the navel.
This is important in badminton because the

centre of gravity position is linked to balance. For
example:
• a player will lose balance more easily if acted

upon by a force in the direction where the
centre of gravity is closest to the edge of
the base of support. In badminton, in some
situations it is better for the centre of gravity
to be positioned close to the edge of the
base of support, as movement in that shorter
direction can be easier to initiate.
• lower centres of gravity are often
associated with enhanced balance. This
can have particular relevance for badminton
movement, especially when defending.
It is also possible to identify the centre of gravity

of particular parts of the body, such as the arms
and legs ( ).
MOMENT OF FORCE (TORQUE)
Moment of force can be defined as “the tendency of a force to rotate an

F object about a pivot”.
F
Moment of force is calculated by multiplying the perpendicular force
d applied to the lever arm by the length of that lever arm. The basic unit of
d moment of force is the newton metre (N m).
There are two moments of force to consider in the above illustration.

The moment of force anticlockwise is provided by forces from muscles
attached to the upper arm (F), acting through a point of attachment a
distance (d) from the pivot point ( ). The moment of force clockwise is
provided by the downward force from the weight of the arm (F) acting
through the centre of gravity of the arm, which is a certain distance (d)
from the pivot point ( ).
102
If the clockwise moment is equal to the anticlockwise moment, then the arm will remain
stationary. This can be represented by the mathematical equation:
BIOMECHANICS
Force x distance = Force x distance
If the clockwise moment is greater than the anticlockwise moment, then the arm will move
upwards. This can be represented by the equation:
If (Force x distance) › Force x distance, then the arm will move upwards
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Note that because the distance d is much greater than the distance d, then the force exerted
by the muscle has to be much greater than the force of the arm in order to allow the arm to be
raised. However, the advantage of this situation is that a small amount of movement at the point
of attachment of the muscle will bring about a large amount of movement at the end of the arm.
COACHES’ MANUAL
INERTIA
Inertia can be defined as “an object’s resistance to motion”.

There is a close link between an object’s inertia and its mass
– i.e., the greater an object’s mass, the greater its inertia
(resistance to movement). This means that lighter players will
use less energy moving around the court, although this has to
be balanced with those lighter players having sufficient muscle

mass to create the necessary force for movement to occur.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
The moment of inertia can be defined as “the measurement

of an object’s resistance to angular (rotational) movement”.
This principle is explained using the illustration to the left.

Note how as the arm bends (as shown by the blue arrow),
the centre of gravity ( ) moves along the arm ( ), closer to
the pivot point ( ). This decrease in distance from the pivot
point to the centre of gravity of the limb reduces the turning
force required to move that limb (i.e, the arm’s moment of
inertia has reduced). Thus, bent limbs generally require less
effort to move, as they have a smaller moment of inertia.
In badminton strokes, there are many examples where the
arms are bent during the preparation, backswing and early
stages of the forward swing. These will be looked at in more
detail later in this section
MOMENTUM
Momentum can be defined as “a measure of the motion of a body equal to the product of its
mass and its velocity”. This can be represented as:
momentum = mass x velocity (kg m/s)
Thus, a shuttle weighing 0.00482kg leaving a racket at 115m/s has a momentum of 0.00482 x
115 = 0.5543kg m/s.
103
IMPULSE
BIOMECHANICS
Impulse is defined as “the application of force over a particular interval of time”. Impulse can be
calculated as follows:
impulse = force x time (Ns)
For example, a player pushing off the ground as quickly as possible has to apply as much force as
possible to the floor in a short period of time in order to:
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• not remain on the ground for too long
• move off as quickly as possible
OPEN KINETIC CHAIN
COACHES’ MANUAL
The open kinetic chain is the name given to describe the sequential movement of a series of body
parts, resulting in the forceful striking of an object (such as a shuttle, in the case of badminton). In
order to be at its most efficient, the open kinetic chain should display the following characteristics:
• Forces begin from the ground and are then generated in sequence through different
segments of the body, including legs, hips, trunk, shoulder, elbow, wrist, and fingers.
• Each segment should be at its maximum velocity when the movement of the next segment
begins. If this is achieved, the maximum force from each segment is passed on to the next

segment. The forces add together (summate) to provide a forceful strike of the shuttle.
Wrist Fingers
Shoulder Elbow
FORCE
Trunk
Hips
Legs
TIME
A forehand smash, starting from a sideways stance and using a whole body, kick-through
movement, is a good example of using the kinetic chain to generate force efficiently.
ENERGY
Energy can be defined as “the capacity of a physical system to perform work”. A standard unit
of energy is the joule (J). One joule is equivalent to the work done when a force of 1 newton is
applied through 1 metre. This can be explained mathematically by the equation:
joules = newtons x metres (Nm)
A key concept regarding energy is that it cannot be created or destroyed – it can only be
converted from one form to another.
104
Different types of energy include:

BIOMECHANICS
• Chemical energy, released for example when food is broken down in the body
• “Internal” movement energy, for example when a muscle contracts
• “External” movement energy, for example just as a player leaves the ground
• Potential energy, which results from the body’s position (for example, at the peak of a jump)
Movement (or kinetic) energy can be calculated by the mathematical equation shown below:
MODULE 12
kinetic energy (joules) = ½ mass x velocity2
Thus, a 78kg player leaving the ground at 3.13ms-1 will have kinetic energy of ½ x 78kg x 3.13ms-1
x 3.13ms-1= 382 joules.
COACHES’ MANUAL
Potential energy can be defined as “stored energy due to a body’s position in space”. A frequently
used equation for potential energy is:
potential energy (joules) = mass x acceleration due to gravity x height
As such, a 78kg player who is at the peak of a 0.5-metre jump in the rearcourt will have potential
energy of 78kg x 9.81ms-2 x 0.5m = 382.6 joules.
03. PRINCIPLES OF MOTION
The principles of motion are based on the work of Sir Isaac Newton.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW
“Objects continue at rest, or to move in a state of constant

velocity, unless acted upon by an external force.”
As such, this law would argue that a shuttlecock:
1. will remain on the floor unless acted upon by an external force (e.g., someone picking it up)
2. will fly at a constant velocity (speed and direction) unless acted upon by an external force
10
6
Y (m)
1
0.1 0.8 1.5 2.2 2.8 3.6 4.3 5 5.7 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.5 9.2 9.9 10.6 11.3 12 12.7 13.4 14.1 14.8 15.5 16.2 16.9
X (m)
Lung-Ming Chen, Yi-Hsiang Pan and Yung-Jen Chen (2009)

105
Zero Vertical
The second point above may at first
BIOMECHANICS
Velocity
appear to disprove Newton’s First
Law, as a shuttle will clearly slow
down and change direction (following
a curved path). However, the slowing
down and curved path are the result
of external forces such as gravity and
Increasing
air resistance acting on the shuttle,
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Vertical
Decreasing Velocity so the second example actually
Vertical
reinforces rather than contradicts
Velocity
Newton’s First Law. The graph to the
left indicates the types of trajectories
displayed by a shuttlecock in flight
when struck at different angles and
COACHES’ MANUAL
http://archive.ncsa.illinois.edu/Cyberia/VideoTestbed/Projects/Sports/path2.jpg with different degrees of force.
It is interesting to note how this differs from the flight path of a ball, which follows a parabolic,
symmetrical pattern of flight.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
“The acceleration of an object is proportional to the

force applied and inversely proportional to its mass.”
This means that:
1. the more force you apply to an object, the more it will accelerate
2. the greater the mass, the harder it is to accelerate
Thus, a heavier player will have to apply more force to the ground in order move away at the same
acceleration as a lighter player.
More force required to Less force required to

move off with a given move off with a given
acceleration acceleration
This law can be represented mathematically by the following equation:
• Force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s/s)

106
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

BIOMECHANICS
“To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
Thus, a player who exerts a force against the ground will experience an equal force in the opposite
direction.
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The ground exerts an

The player exerts a equal and opposite
force downwards force on the player,
against the ground. enabling him to jump
COACHES’ MANUAL
upwards.
In the illustration above, the player has exerted a force down into the floor, and a reaction force is
exerted by the floor in an equal and opposite direction, which raises the player into the air.
Reaction forces can help the player not only to move upwards, but also to move across the floor.
1. The player exerts a force

diagonally into the floor. This
force can be split into two 2
components. 1
2. A small downward component

3
(2) will produce an upward
reaction force from the floor,
which allows the foot to be
lifted from the floor.
3. A larger sideways component
(3) will produce a sideways
reaction force from the floor,
which will move the player
across the court.
107
04. ON-COURT APPLICATION
BIOMECHANICS
The next few sections will look at how coaches can apply biomechanical principles/concepts to
badminton to inform their coaching practice.
This section examines two basic biomechanical principles and how these can be applied to different
aspects of badminton movement. The following sections will then consider:
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• application to specific strokes
• application to court movement
• application to fitness testing
1. APPLYING FORCE OVER DISTANCE
COACHES’ MANUAL
It is possible to improve performance (for example, increasing the velocity of a ball upon release when
throwing, or generating racket head speed when hitting) by applying forces over greater distances.
These distances can be linear (straight line) distances or rotary (curved) distance. Some examples in
badminton are shown below.
Increasing the linear distance over which a

force is applied
Stepping back to increase the distance between

the feet in preparation for a forehand overhead
increases the linear distance over which force
can be applied. This, in turn, can produce a
greater racket head speed.
Increasing the rotary distance over which a

force is applied
A backswing which makes full use of rotation

allows forces to be applied over greater
distances in the forward swing. This, in turn, can
produce a greater racket head speed.
Some care should be taken, however, when trying to maximise the distances over which forces can
be applied. For most skills, there is an ideal compromise of force production and distance over which
that force is applied. Excessive attempts to increase the distances over which a force is applied can
reduce rather than improve overall skill production, by making:
• the player off-balance, or

• a joint unstable by creating excessive flexibility.
108
2. ROTATING AND EXTENDING LIMBS TO PRODUCE FORCE

BIOMECHANICS
There is obviously a close relationship between the speed of the racket head on impact and the
resulting speed of the shuttle leaving the racket. Applying the concepts of impulse, the racket strikes
the shuttle with a force for a short period of time (impulse = force x time). This creates momentum
in the shuttle (momentum = mass of shuttle x velocity of the shuttle). Hitting generally involves the
rotation and bending of joints on the backswing, followed by rotation in the opposite direction and
straightening of joints on the forwards swing. There are sound biomechanical reasons for this.
MODULE 12
Backswing
Less force has to be applied (and hence, less

COACHES’ MANUAL
energy expended) when the arm is bent on the

backswing of a stroke. In biomechanical terms,
this is because by bending the limb, the centre of
gravity of that limb is moved closer to the pivot
point, meaning less force has to be exerted by the
muscle to move that limb. In technical terms, it
also means the racket can be taken back quickly.
Note also the use of rotation (upper and lower
arm) in the backswing.
Forward Swing
On the forward swing, rotation occurs in the

opposite direction to the backswing and the arm
is also extended. From a technical point of view,
this is necessary in order to take the shuttle
early. From a biomechanical point of view, this
allows muscle force to be applied over a greater
distance, giving the option for the shuttle to be
struck more powerfully, if desired.
109
05. APPLICATION TO SPECIFIC STROKES
BIOMECHANICS
BIOMECHANICS AND GRIPS
This section will look at the biomechanics of particular hitting actions.
GRIPS
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It is generally accepted that gripping the racket in a relaxed way is helpful to badminton performance,
with a tightening of the grip happening prior to impact with the shuttle. A relaxed grip can help
because:
• the arm muscles are less fatigued over the period of a match
• the chance of repetitive strain injury to the muscles of the forearm and elbow is reduced in the
COACHES’ MANUAL
long term
• it allows for the tightening of the hand on the racket upon impact to contribute to greater racket
head speed
• it makes it easier to change the grip
It is the last point above that we will look in more detail.
Simple lever systems, which were introduced in the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual, involve:

• a point where effort is • a pivot point • a load (for example, the
applied racket)
Looking at the thumb grip first:
The fingers
represent the
point at which
the effort is
applied on the
racket hand.
The upper
part of the
thumb
represents
the pivot.
The rest of
the racket
represents
the load.
As the fingers of the racket squeeze down on the racket, the pivot point created by the thumb helps
create a movement of the racket head. Because the distance from the thumb to the racket head is
4-5 times greater than the distance from the thumb to the fingers pulling down on the racket, any
movement of the racket head is 4-5 times greater than that at the handle. Thus, a 5mm movement of
the racket handle will cause a 20-25mm movement of the racket head.
110
It will only take a fraction of a second for the racket handle to move a few millimetres. Within that
same time period, however, the racket head will move 4-5 times further. Mathematically, this means
BIOMECHANICS
that the velocity of the racket head will be 4-5 times greater than the velocity of the racket handle.
This is what allows the best players to hit deceptive backhand lifts and net kills with a minimum of
backswing – by using a relaxed grip and squeezing the racket handle on impact.
Applying a similar concept to the basic grip:

MODULE 12
The fingers
represent the
point at which
the effort is
applied on the
racket hand.
COACHES’ MANUAL
The index
finger creates
a pivot point.
The rest of
the racket
represents
the load.
Whilst in theory the same squeezing of the racket handle as on the backhand side can be used to
impart racket head speed, it can be argued that this technique is less important on the forehand side,
with the movement of the wrist being more crucial.
DISCUSSION POINT
One point to debate is exactly how relaxed the grip should be to allow this “squeezing” technique to
be effective. For example, it is possible for a player/coach to stand statically and hit lifts/net kills with
a highly exaggerated loose grip, squeezing the racket handle to impart racket head speed. There is a
point at which such a loose grip becomes impractical in a game-like situation because:
• when moving across the court with too loose a grip, you are likely to drop the racket
• racket head control can become more difficult if the grip is too loose
For these reasons, it is probably better to describe grips as “relaxed”, rather than “loose”.
COACHING SUGGESTION
1. Ask players to hold their rackets as lightly as possible. The rackets should be almost slipping out
of their hands. Call this a “zero” grip.
2. Then ask the players to hold their rackets as tightly as possible. The rackets should be gripped
maximally, as though the intention were to crush the rackets. Call this a “ten” grip.
3. Now ask the players to try to find a “four” grip and perform some relaxed hitting practices where
the aim is to establish this level of grip after each stroke.
111
FOREHAND LIFT
BIOMECHANICS
PREPARATION
The racket is held out in front of the body (relaxed reach) with
the frame of the racket at 90° to the ground. In biomechanical
terms, to achieve this position:
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• Grip: A relaxed basic grip should be established.
• Shoulder: The arm is flexed at the shoulder (reaching
forwards in a relaxed manner).
• Shoulder: The wider the shuttle, the more the arm is
abducted at the shoulder (reaching sideways).
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Elbow: The elbow is slightly bent (relaxed reach).
• Radio-ulnar: The lower arm is “semi” pronated.
BACKSWING
• Shoulder: The racket arm extends (drops back slightly) at
the shoulder.
• Radio-ulnar: The forearm supinates.

• Wrist: The wrist hyperextends and abducts.
FORWARD SWING
• Shoulder: The arm flexes at the shoulder (reaches
forwards).
• Radio-ulnar: The lower arm pronates slightly.
• Wrist: The wrist reduces (moves towards a neutral
position).
FOLLOW-THROUGH
• Radio-ulnar: The forearm pronates further due to racket
head momentum.
• Wrist: The wrist returns to a neutral position.
From this analysis, it can be seen that supination of the forearm and hyperextension of the wrist are
used to help present the strings of the racket to the shuttle. A combination of reduction at the wrist
plus pronation is used on the forward swing. Much of the pronation on the follow-through of the
forehand lift can be attributed to relaxation of the muscles and momentum of the racket, with the
possible exception here being the crosscourt lift.
COACHING SUGGESTIONS
1. Allow players to experiment with the stroke and discuss the relative contributions of wrist and
pronation to the production of this stroke.
2. Hand feed shuttles along the singles or doubles side-line and encourage the striker to hit along
the line when practicing straight forehand lifts (i.e., the racket head travels along the path of the
side-line during the forward swing).
3. Place the emphasis on the finish position of the racket, pointing the racket where you want the
shuttle to go at the end of the stroke.
112
BACKHAND LIFT
BIOMECHANICS
PREPARATION
The racket is held out in front of the body (relaxed reach) with
the frame of the racket at 90° to the ground. In biomechanical
terms, to achieve this position:
• Grip: A relaxed basic grip should be established.
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• Shoulder: The arm is flexed at the shoulder.

• Elbow: The elbow is slightly flexed.
• Wrist: The wrist is kept in a neutral position.
BACKSWING
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Grip: The thumb is more committed to the back of the

racket handle, but the grip remains relaxed.
• Shoulder: The arm extends (drops down slightly) and
adducts slightly (moves sideways across the body).
• Shoulder: The arm then:
» flexes again (lifts slightly)
» abducts (moves sideways across the body in the
opposite direction to previous bullet point)
» rotates inwards
• Elbow: The elbow bends.
• Radio-ulnar: The forearm pronates.
• Wrist: The wrist abducts (it bends sideways, so the thumb
moves closer to the side of the forearm) and hyperextends
slightly.
FORWARD SWING
• Shoulder: The arm continues to flex (lifts away from the
body).
• Elbow: The elbow straightens.
• Radio-ulnar: The forearm supinates.
• Wrist: The wrist adducts.
• Fingers and Thumb: The fingers tighten on the racket
handle on impact.
• On a crosscourt lift, there may be a slightly increased
contribution from supination on the forward swing.
FOLLOW-THROUGH
• Radio-ulnar: The forearm pronates.
In contrast to the forehand lift, forearm rotation plays a bigger role in this stroke, as does bending/
straightening of the elbow and abduction/adduction of the wrist.
COACHING SUGGESTIONS
1. Differentiate between shorter and longer hitting actions (relate this to defensive and attacking
situations).
2. Draw arrow heads on the upper and lower arms when demonstrating, to let the visual learners
appreciate the role of upper and lower arm rotation in the stroke.
113
FOREHAND DRIVE
BIOMECHANICS
PREPARATION
The racket is held out in front of the body (relaxed reach)
with the frame of the racket at 90° to the ground.
• Grip: A relaxed basic grip is established.
• Shoulder:
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» the arm is flexed at the shoulder (reaching
forwards in a relaxed manner)
» the wider the shuttle, the more the arm is
abducted at the shoulder (reaching sideways)
COACHES’ MANUAL
BACKSWING
• Grip: The grip is adjusted depending upon the
anticipated impact point of the shuttle (e.g.,
panhandle grip if the impact point is in front of the
body).
• Shoulder: The arm abducts (moves sideways away
from the body).

• Upper arm: The upper arm externally rotates.
• Elbow: The elbow flexes (bends).
• Forearm: The forearm supinates.
• Wrist: The wrist hyperextends and abducts.
FORWARD SWING
• Shoulder: The upper arm externally rotates.
• Elbow: The elbow extends (straightens).
• Forearm: The forearm pronates.
• Wrist: The wrist adducts and reduces (goes from
hyperextended to normal).
• Grip: The grip tightens on impact.
FOLLOW-THROUGH
• Shoulder: The upper arm internally rotates.
• Forearm: The forearm pronates
BACKHAND DRIVE
PREPARATION
The racket is held out in front of the body (relaxed reach)
with the frame of the racket at 90° to the ground.
• Grip: A relaxed basic grip is established.
• Shoulder: The arm is flexed at the shoulder (reaching
forwards in a relaxed manner).
114
BIOMECHANICS
BACKSWING
• Grip: The grip is adjusted so the thumb is more
involved (e.g., if the anticipated impact is in front of
the body, then a full thumb grip could be used).
• Shoulder: The racket arm flexes (bends) at the
MODULE 12
shoulder joint – the arm reaches up and out from the

body.
• Upper arm: The upper arm adducts (arm is moved
across the body) and rotates internally.
• Elbow: The elbow flexes (bends).
• Forearm: The forearm pronates.
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Wrist: The wrist abducts and hyperextends.
FORWARD SWING
• Grip: The grip tightens on impact.
• Shoulder: The racket arm remains flexed (bent) at
the shoulder – the arm reaches out from the body.
• Upper arm: The upper arm abducts (moves off the
body) and rotates internally (slightly).
• Elbow: The elbow extends (straightens).

• Forearm: The forearm supinates.
FOLLOW-THROUGH
Options include:
• Striking with a tapping action where the racket
“rebounds” after impact. Note this rebound should
be a consequence of relaxation and racket recoil
rather than being forced back by deliberate muscle
action.
• After impact, relaxing and allowing the momentum of
the racket to continue to supinate the forearm.
COACHING TASKS
• You are coaching a person who drops his/her elbow and head considerably during the production
of a backhand drive. Much of this issue is caused by over-rotation of the upper arm on the
forward swing.
» Select and describe three coaching methods you might use to help resolve this issue other
than the coach showing and telling.
• Compare and contrast the biomechanical differences between straight and crosscourt drives,
both backhand and forehand. Your analysis should use:
» the structure applied in the above tables (preparation, backswing, forward swing, and follow-
through)
» extensive use of biomechanical terminology (flexion, extension, etc.)
115
BIOMECHANICS
FOREHAND OVERHEAD
A forehand overhead hitting action has as its basis a throwing action, with an additional lever added to
the end of that action (i.e., the racket). The effectiveness of the action is influenced by:
• the whole body’s throwing action, with force generation being dependent upon effective
segmental recruitment of body parts, from large to small. The last three segments to be recruited
MODULE 12
would be:
» the lower arm, by the use of forearm rotation
» the hand, by the bending and straightening of the wrist
» the fingers tightening on the racket handle
• the way the player grips the racket. A basic grip is generally recommended, as it allows the
COACHES’ MANUAL
racket head to be accelerated by a combination of forearm rotation and wrist action. A relaxed
grip, tightening only in the later stages of the forward swing, also helps the muscles of the
forearm and wrist work more effectively.
Care must be taken when correcting a forehand overhead hitting action, as there are many body
segments that need to integrate effectively. Breaking down the action too much can easily lead to a
lack of flow in the hitting action.
The diagram below was used in the “Terminology” section to explain how the different body

segments fit into the open kinetic chain. Here it will serve to show what an ideal integration of body
segments looks like, as well as to contrast with some of the more common problems seen with
executing an effective forehand overhead shot, as discussed below.
Wrist Fingers
Shoulder Elbow
FORCE
Trunk Graph showing each segment of the

Hips body contributing to the eventual
force production at the racket head
Legs
TIME
116 Two of the most typical issues surrounding force generation on the forehand overhead include:
1. Lack of involvement of the lower body and trunk. This is often seen in beginner players, who
mainly rely on an arm action to hit the shuttle. The diagram below shows how there are fewer
BIOMECHANICS
body segments involved than in the ideal sequence shown above.
Graph showing reduced force

production at the racket head as
a result of fewer body segments
contributing to the hit
MODULE 12
FORCE
Wrist Fingers
COACHES’ MANUAL
Wrist Fingers
Shoulder Elbow
Shoulder Elbow
TIME
The issue of lack of involvement of the body can be addressed by:
o encouraging a more sideways stance in preparation for striking the shuttle

o bending (“loading”) the rear leg, then straightening it to start the overhead hitting action
o using the straightening of the rear leg to push the rear hip forwards
o encouraging the player to “be brave”. Beginners tend to hit with a short, arm-dominated
action as it gives a good chance of success. Involving the body increases the difficulty (makes
the whole movement longer) and decreases the chance of successfully striking the shuttle in
the initial stages, although the eventual rewards of striking the shuttle more effectively make
the learning process worthwhile. Be brave!
2. Moving the larger segments of the body forwards at the same time. The diagram here illustrates
the lack of proper timing in the involvement of certain body segments, in contrast with the ideal
diagram above.
Graph showing the larger

segments of the body moving
forwards in a more overlapping
manner
In real life, this would look like:

Wrist Fingers
• the legs, hips and trunk
appear to be moving
forwards at the same time,
FORCE
Shoulder meaning one segment is

Elbow not passing on its force
contribution to the next
• the shoulders and arms
are introduced to the
movement when the
Trunk forces generated by the
Legs lower extremities are
already declining
Hips
Both the above factors mean
there is a reduction in the total
force produced.
TIME
The issue of “mistiming” the contribution of the larger segments of the body can be solved by: 117
o encouraging a more sideways stance in preparation for striking the shuttle

o bending (“loading”) the rear leg, then straightening it to start the overhead hitting action
BIOMECHANICS
o using the straightening of the rear leg to push the rear hip forwards
Note that any “stepping through” of the racket leg, if it does occur, should happen well after the
shuttle has been struck. In effect, that leg “catches” the body as it moves forwards.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
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• Coaches often encourage that the throwing elbow come upwards and forwards at the same time
as the hip. Do you feel this is good practice/helpful for players?
• Sometimes (such as in the case above of beginners learning to involve the whole body rather
than using shorter, arm-dominated movements) a solid learning process may mean that learners
experience less immediate gratification (actually hitting the shuttle more often) but greater long-
COACHES’ MANUAL
term gains (eventually more effective hitting). How can coaches deal with this?
06. APPLICATION TO COURT MOVEMENT

The purpose of this section is to provide:
• examples of biomechanics applied to specific court movements

• tasks that challenge coaches to apply their biomechanical knowledge to different court
movements
MOVEMENT DIRECTLY BACKWARDS
One suggestion for moving directly backward is, from a sideways stance, to cross the non-racket leg
behind the racket leg, then step back with the racket leg to complete the movement, finishing in a
sideways stance. Possible advantages of this method of approach are:
1. the length of step taken back by the non-

racket leg is increased as it passes beyond
the racket leg – effectively it hyper-adducts.
This means the player can move back further
on that step than by chasseing backwards.
2. as the non-racket leg moves behind the

racket leg, the abductor muscles (e.g., 2
gluteus maximus) are stretched rapidly,
creating a stretch reflex action that
strengthens the subsequent contraction
of the adductor muscles. This stronger 1
contraction helps to propel the player
backwards, increasing the stride length.
The disadvantage of the cross-behind movement is the potential strain on the hip joint.
118
LANDING FROM A JUMP-OUT (FOREHAND REAR COURT)

BIOMECHANICS
Landing effectively from a jump-out in the

forehand rear court is always a compromise
between landing on balance (wider stance, two-
footed landing, etc.) and landing in a less stable
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stance that allows the player to move off quickly.

Landing with the feet slightly closer together
means the body’s centre of gravity has to travel
a shorter distance to move outside that base of
support. Effectively this means the player is able
to move more quickly back to his or her base.
COACHES’ MANUAL
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Two coaches disagree on a particular aspect of the split-step. The first coach believes that the
split-step should always be coached so both feet land at the same time. The second coach
believes one foot should land before the other foot. Using relevant biomechanical concepts and
terminology, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
2. Two coaches disagree on a particular aspect of the split-step. One coach prefers a high action
where the player leaves the ground with more of a jumping action in preparation for the split-
step, whereas the second coach prefers more of a “dropping” motion into the split-step. Using
relevant biomechanical concepts and terminology, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
each approach.
3. Using relevant biomechanical terminology, analyse the use of the non-racket arm during:
a. lunging to the net

b. all phases of a forehand smash
119
07. APPLICATION TO FITNESS TESTING
BIOMECHANICS
The aim of this section is to apply biomechanical principles to a specific fitness test – the vertical
jump. One guiding principle that underpins this analysis is that:
“energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be converted from one form to another”.
FITNESS TESTING: VERTICAL JUMP
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A typical fitness test used in badminton is the vertical jump test, which is covered in the Level 2
Coaches’ Manual in some detail. A measure of leg power, the test involves a player jumping vertically
as high as possible, and that measurement is then recorded.
The vertical jump test is an easy way to measure improvement in jump height, which will affect
COACHES’ MANUAL
the power of a player’s jump smash, for example. As such, it is often used to determine the
effectiveness of a training programme. The idea of this section is to help coaches understand the
biomechanical basis behind the test and what elements contribute to the eventual height of a player’s
jump.

• Standing still at the start of • The body relaxes, allowing gravity • At the peak of the jump the
the test, the body contains to push down on it. The ankles, body will be momentarily
chemical energy stored in the knees and hips bend. stationary in mid-air. The
bonds between molecules. • Towards the end of the bending potential energy can be
phase, the chemical energy in calculated by the equation
the body begins to be released introduced earlier: “mass x
and muscles start to contract acceleration due to gravity x
(eccentrically). The bending phase height”.
slows and then stops.
• The contractions strengthen and
the muscles contract, with the
chemical energy converting to
movement energy (i.e., the body
starts to straighten up).
• At the point of leaving the
ground, the body will have kinetic
energy, which can be calculated
by the equation introduced earlier
in this section: “ ½ x mass x
velocity2 ”.
120
Biomechanics can help us to calculate the force being generated by the player.
BIOMECHANICS
Using the equations above, it is possible to determine the take-off velocity of the player.
Assume that:
m = mass of the player = 75kg

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/s/s
h = height jumped = 0.7m
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Referring back to the idea that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can only be converted
from one form to another, this means that kinetic energy on take-off = potential energy at the peak of
the jump.
½mv2 = mgh
COACHES’ MANUAL
½ x 75kg x v2 = 75kg x 9.81m/s/s x 0.7m

37.5 x v2 = 515.025
V2 = 13.734 m/s
V = 3.70 m /s
Thus, the velocity at take-off is 3.7m/s, which will dictate the height of the jump.
COACHES’ MANUAL
LEVEL 3
MODULE 13
MOTOR LEARNING
MODULE 13
MOTOR LEARNING
01. Introduction 121

02. Ability and Skill 122
03. Nervous System 127
04. Interactions between Nerves and Muscles 130
05. Processing Information 132
06. Limits to Information Processing 140
07. Memory Systems 142
08. Closed Loop Model 144
09. Open Loop Control 145
10. Open and Closed Loop Combined 148
11. Generalised Motor Programmes 149
12. Feedback and Motor Learning 150
13. Motor Learning and Attentional Focus 154
14. Skill Acquisition and Implicit/Explicit Learning 156

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121
01. INTRODUCTION
MOTOR LEARNING
The aim of this module is to introduce a variety of key motor learning concepts to coaches and
provide opportunities for coaches to apply these concepts to their own coaching practice.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
MODULE 13
• define “motor learning”
• describe a variety of concepts that underpin motor learning
• apply motor learning concepts to their own coaching practice
• reflect on the effectiveness of applying different approaches to motor learning
COACHES’ MANUAL
MOTOR LEARNING DEFINED
Motor learning was defined by Schmidt and Wrisbert (2000) as:
“changes in the internal processes that determine an individual’s capability

for producing a motor task”.

It is useful to look at this definition in a little more detail in order to improve our depth of
understanding. For example, “changes in the internal process” is a broad term that could include the
functioning of many body systems. For our purposes, however, it is useful to narrow this down to
the structure and function of the nervous and muscular systems. “A motor task” can alternately be
replaced by the word “movement”.
Thus, an alternative definition might be that motor learning consists of:
“changes in the nervous and muscular systems that control the production of a movement”.
Motor Learning
Changes to the nervous

system and muscles
Photo credits: James Varghese (left) and BWF/BadmintonPhoto (right)

122
02. ABILITY AND SKILL

MOTOR LEARNING
The concepts of ability and skills have been addressed previously in the BWF Coach Education
resources. This Level 3 resource will review these two concepts and will also provide a deeper
analysis of each.
ABILITY
In the study of motor learning, the term “ability” is frequently used. It is useful, therefore, to look
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more closely at this word to ensure that it is used consistently.
Ability has been defined in the BWF Coach Education resources as a “consistent, long-lasting
attribute that is largely genetically determined and underpins a player’s sporting performance”. The
key points to highlight from this definition are that abilities:
COACHES’ MANUAL
• are inherited
• remain relatively the same through life
Initially there was support for the concept of a single, all-round ability that underpinned excellent
sporting performance (Brace, 1927). This was perhaps not surprising, as even today we often point
out people who we regard as all-round athletes that appear to be able to play any sport with apparent
ease. To test whether an all-round sporting ability truly existed, experiments were conducted to see
if there was a correlation between performances in different sporting tasks. For example, researchers
might look at a person’s ability to throw a tennis ball and then kick a football accurately. If there was
a general all-round sporting ability, then you would expect those with a high sporting ability would be
good at both, whereas those with a low sporting ability would be poor at both.
However, the reality was that experiments conducted using these methods did not show these
results. An athlete being good at one motor activity did not necessarily mean they were good at
another. Drowatzky and Zuccato (1967) also demonstrated that an athlete’s performance in a variety
of balance tasks was inconsistent, even when those tasks appeared to be related. Thus, the concept
of an all-round athlete born with single highly developed motor ability has little historical scientific
support.
In contrast, Henry (1968) suggested that rather than a single motor ability there are thousands of
underlying abilities. Thus, a world champion badminton player may have been born with a lot of the
abilities required for excellence in badminton, but those abilities would not necessarily guarantee
excellence if they had attempted to succeed in another sport.
Fleishman (1964) developed the available knowledge surrounding abilities, resulting in the
identification of a number of abilities, listed below.
Ability Name Ability Description (“The ability to…”)

Multi-limb Coordination co-ordinate the movement of a number of limbs simultaneously
perform highly controlled movement adjustments, particularly where
Control Precision
larger muscle groups are involved
Response Orientation make quick choices among numerous alternative movements
Reaction Time react in tasks where there is a single stimulus and a single response
produce continuous anticipatory movement adjustments in response to
Rate Control
changes in the speed of a continuously moving target or object
Manual Dexterity manipulate relatively large objects with the hands and arms
Finger Dexterity manipulate small objects
make precise arm- and hand-positioning movements where speed and
Arm-Hand Steadiness
strength are not required
perform rapid movement of the wrist and fingers with little or no accuracy
Wrist-Finger Speed
demands
123
Aim produce accurate hand movements to targets under speeded conditions
MOTOR LEARNING
Explosive Strength expend a maximum amount of energy in one explosive act
Static Strength exert force against a relatively heavy weight or immovable object
Dynamic Strength repeatedly or continuously move or support the weight of the body
exert dynamic strength that is particular to the trunk and abdominal
Trunk Strength
muscles
Extent Flexibility extend or stretch the body as far as possible in various directions
Dynamic Flexibility perform repeated, rapid movements requiring muscle flexibility
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Gross Body Equilibrium maintain total body balance in the absence of vision
Balance with Visual Cues maintain total body balance when visual cues are available
perform tasks in which the arms and legs must be moved quickly, but
Speed of Limb Movement
without a reaction time stimulus to minimise movement time
Gross Body Co-ordination perform a number of complex movements simultaneously
COACHES’ MANUAL
Stamina exert the entire body for a prolonged period of time
Keele and Hawkins (1982); Keele, Ivry & Pokorny (1987) and Keele, Pokorny, Corcos & Ivry (1985)
have identified several additional abilities which are listed in the table below.
Ability Name Ability Description (“The ability to…”)

Movement Rate perform a series of movements at maximum speed

Motor Timing execute accurately timed movements
Perceptual Timing make accurate judgements about the timing of perceptual events
Force Control apply forces of varying degrees in order to achieve the desired outcome
ASSESSING ABILITIES AS A MEANS OF IDENTIFYING FUTURE CHAMPIONS
There are many problems associated with using a range of tests in order to try to spot young children
with necessary underpinning abilities to become future badminton champions. These issues include:
• The research of Fleishman (1964) and Keele et al. (1982, 1985, 1987) mentioned earlier in this
section provides a useful basis for further research and discussion. However, these studies
have not focussed on more “real-life” movements, particularly those involving co-ordination of
the whole body. It is therefore not advisable to regard the abilities in the tables as a final list, but
rather as a work in progress requiring much additional investigation.
• When testing children to measure underpinning abilities, it is important to keep in mind that all the
children will have had differing levels of exposure to playful activities which may have led them
to develop sporting skills to different levels. Rather than measuring their underpinning abilities,
you could be simply measuring how much one set of parents has played with their children as
compared to another set of parents!
• Even if you could precisely measure underpinning, genetically determined abilities, it is highly
questionable that such measures would be an accurate predictor of a child’s capability to become
a badminton champion. You would be, in reality, measuring that child’s performance in a task,
rather than potential to perform at the highest level in 20-25 years’ time.
• Most “ability-based tests” are physical in nature and do not address more psychological
issues (rate of learning, personality, determination, etc.) that could also be key areas for future
champions.
For the reasons stated above, it can be argued that early selection of children on the basis of ability-
led testing is more likely to de-select future champions than to select them.
SKILL
The terms “ability” and “skill” are often used interchangeably, as though they were same thing.
However, with regards to motor learning, they are actually very different concepts. As ability has
already been addressed, this section will focus on the concept of skill.
124
Skill was defined in the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual as:

MOTOR LEARNING
“a learned movement, or sequence of movements, that allow for the completion of a particular task”.
It can also be defined as:
“Proficiency, facility, or dexterity that is acquired or developed through training or experience”.

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/skill (2016)
MODULE 13
SKILL CLASSIFICATIONS
There are different ways in which skills can be classified and these are outlined below.
CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS AS PERCEPTUAL, COGNITIVE OR MOTOR

COACHES’ MANUAL
Skills can be classified by what they allow the person to do.
• Perceptual skills can be defined as “the capacity to be aware of information provided by the
senses”.
• Cognitive skills can be defined as “the capacity to process information”.
• Motor skill focuses on “the quality of the movement”.
Perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills are represented diagrammatically below.

In reality, skills are a combination of perceptual, cognitive, and motor elements. We see, hear, and
feel information from the environment, make sense of it, and then perform a physical response.
Badminton certainly involves all three elements. For example, a player:
• sees the stroke played by an opponent

• makes sense of the stroke from previous experience
• responds with an appropriate movement and stroke selection
125
CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS AS DISCRETE, CONTINUOUS, OR SERIAL
MOTOR LEARNING
Skills can also be classified by the nature of the task being performed.
DISCRETE SKILLS
Discrete skills involve

movements that have a definite
start and finish and very often
take place within a short period
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of time. Potting a ball at snooker
or pool is a good example of a
discrete skill.
CONTINUOUS SKILLS
COACHES’ MANUAL
Continuous skills involve the
same movement, repeated over
a long period of time. Examples
would be running, cycling, and
swimming.
SERIAL SKILLS

Serial skills involve putting
together different movements
to create more complex actions.
Badminton consists of players
performing serial skills, as both
strokes and movement patterns
are constantly changing.
Photo credits: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS AS OPEN OR CLOSED
Skills can also be classified according to the environment in which they are being performed.
CLOSED SKILLS OPEN SKILLS

Skills executed in an Skills executed in an
environment that is consistent environment that is
and predictable inconsistent and unpredictable
(e.g., bowling) (e.g., badminton)
In reality, skills are rarely performed in a completely closed or open environment. Skills are
usually performed in environments that have varying amounts of predictability and consistency.
For example, whilst ten-pin bowlers are largely performing closed skills, they may have to
bowl with a crowd creating a lot of noise, other players in the adjacent lanes, etc. Badminton
is largely played indoors in a closed environment, protected, for example, from the weather.
However, even in these circumstances, players may have to cope with environmental factors
that are more open in nature, such variable playing backgrounds and air currents in the hall that
cause the shuttle speed to vary depending on the direction of the drift.
126
CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS BY LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY

MOTOR LEARNING
Guthrie (1952) suggested that high levels of proficiency in skills were characterised by:
• Maximum certainty of goal achievement,

meaning the skilled performer demonstrates
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a consistently high level of skill.
For example, a skilled player may perform a

jump smash consistently well, even under
the pressure of competition.
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Minimum movement time, meaning a skilled

performer executes a particular skill much
more quickly than an unskilled performer.
For example, a skilled player may be able

to play a backhand crosscourt net shot
accurately despite having little time to
execute the stroke.
• Minimum energy expenditure, meaning a

skilled performer will be able to perform a
skill with more much economy of effort than
an unskilled performer.
For example, a skilled player would be able

to maintain balance even under extreme
pressure.
Photo credits: James Varghese (3rd) and BWF/BadmintonPhoto (1st and 2nd)
SKILLS AND ABILITY
In summary, the key differences to keep in mind between skills and abilities are:
• skills are learnt, whereas abilities are • skills can develop or decline, whereas
genetically endowed abilities remain at a relatively stable level
127
03. NERVOUS SYSTEM
MOTOR LEARNING
Because there is a close link between motor learning and the nervous system, a greater
understanding of the nervous system’s structure and function can therefore help us to develop our
knowledge of motor learning.
NERVE CELLS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The building blocks of the nervous system are individual nerve cells. Another name for nerve cells is
MODULE 13
neurons. The characteristics that distinguish nerve cells from other types of cells are their ability to:
• respond to electrical signals

• pass on signals to other cells via “junctions” known as synapses
Although there are many variations in both the structure and function of different types of nerve cells,
COACHES’ MANUAL
it may help our basic understanding to start by reviewing the structure of a “typical” nerve cell. It is
important to keep in mind that this is a very simple version of a nerve cell, presented to familiarise
coaches with the key structural components. In reality, there are many variations.

http://nervecell-assesment.weebly.com/2d-labelled-diagram.html
In simple terms:
• The nucleus controls the workings of the cell.

• The nucleus is located within the main cell body, or soma.
• The cell body has many “branches” know as dendrites, which are responsible for receiving
“messages” from other cells and sending these into the nerve cell body, as indicated by the
yellow arrows.
• Each nerve cell body has one axon, which is a single branch responsible for transmitting
“messages” away from the cell body, as indicated by the violet arrows
• Schwann cells produce myelin, an insulating material that helps to speed up the transmission of
signals along the axon.
• Nodes of Ranvier are gaps between the Schwann cells where the axon remains exposed. These
gaps also play a part in speeding up the conduction of messages along the axon.
• The axon can split and form many axon terminals. These terminals are the areas where signals
are transferred into other cells – for example other nerve cells or muscle cells
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NERVE CELLS: DIFFERENCES IN STRUCTURE

MOTOR LEARNING
Nerve cells can be split into motor neurons, interneurons, and sensory neurons. Structurally, the key
difference between types of neurons is the positioning of the cell body. These differences in structure
are illustrated below.
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COACHES’ MANUAL
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• Motor neurons transmit information from other neurons to the muscles, which helps to bring
about movement.
• Interneurons communicate from neuron to neuron.
• Sensory neurons take sensory information (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch) from the
environment and transmit this information to other neurons.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
The nervous system can be split into two parts:
• The Central Nervous System

• The Peripheral Nervous System
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord.
THE BRAIN
The brain is located in the head and is protected by the bones of the skull
It is beyond the scope of this publication to go into great detail about the
structure and function of the brain. As an
overview, however:
• structurally, the brain mainly consists

of interneurons – nerve cells that communicate with each
other
• functionally, the brain is responsible for:
» receiving information from sensory nerves (e.g., sight,
sound, smell, touch, balance, taste)
» interpreting information received from sensory nerves
» storing and retrieving information
» putting together responses to sensory information
» initiating the response to information received
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THE SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord extends downwards from the brain to the lower back. It is protected by the
interlocking bones of the back known as vertebrae.
• Like the brain, structurally the spinal cord

is made up predominantly of interneurons
White matter
– nerve cells that communicate with each
other. Sensory root
• Functionally, the spinal cord is responsible
for: Spinal nerve Grey matter
» passing messages from the senses to

the brain Motor root
» passing messages from the brain to

the muscles in order to bring about http://biology.about.com/od/Nervous-System/ss/
movement spinal-cord.htm
» initiating and controlling simple reflex

actions, such as pulling the hand away
http://www.sci-recovery.org/sci.htm
rapidly from a hot surface
MOTOR LEARNING
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is made up of the sensory

and motor nerves, branching out from the spinal cord to all parts of
the body.
The Peripheral Nervous System contains:
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• sensory nerves, which collect information from the eyes, ears,
limbs, etc. and send it to the Central Nervous System
• motor nerves, which take information from the Central
Nervous System and send messages though the body to start
a response (e.g., a muscle contraction)
COACHES’ MANUAL
Functionally, the nervous system can also be separated into:
• the autonomic PNS, which works without conscious control

and regulates functions such as breathing, heartbeat, etc.
• the voluntary PNS, which works under conscious control (e.g.,
most skeletal muscle contractions)
FOLLOW-UP TASK
Research deeper into the basic structure and function of the brain. In particular, find out about:
• the areas of the brain predominantly responsible for the control of voluntary movement
• the relationship between the brain and the concept of a motor program
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04. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN NERVES AND MUSCLES

MOTOR LEARNING
The focus of this section is to explore the interactions between the muscular and nervous systems.
It is strongly recommended, therefore, that readers revisit the information regarding the muscular
system in the BWF Level 2 Coaches’ Manual. This will help to reinforce their earlier learning and
improve their understanding of this section.
MOTOR NERVES AND SKELETAL MUSCLES

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COACHES’ MANUAL
Most motor nerve impulses originate in the brain and are passed down the body via the spinal cord.
Eventually those nerve impulses will reach their destination and pass into the cell body (soma) of
the target motor nerve (see the yellow arrows above). Note that the body of a motor nerve cell
is still situated within the spinal cord, so effectively at this stage the impulse has still not left that
spinal cord. The impulse then travels outside the spinal cord, along the axon of that motor nerve (see
the violet arrows) which effectively acts as the pathway to the destination muscle. Schwann cells
wrapped around the axon act as insulators which help to increase the speed of conduction of the
nerve impulse. As it reaches the muscle the axon branches out, so the impulse can reach not just
one, but several muscle fibres.
THE MOTOR UNIT
A single motor nerve cell and

all the muscle cells it connects
to are collectively known as a
motor unit. In the illustration
below, the single nerve cell
attaches to three muscle cells/
fibres. Where very fine control
of muscles is required (for
example, in the eye), the nerve-
to-muscle cell ratio may be
as low as 1:1. In large muscle
groups requiring more powerful
movements, the ratio could be
1:300.
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NERVE IMPULSE SUMMATION
MOTOR LEARNING
A single, short-lived nerve impulse would have little effect, as it would not be strong enough
or sustained enough to bring about a muscle contraction. In reality, the effect of large numbers
of nerve impulses, following very quickly one after another and adding together, produces an
impulse of sufficient magnitude and duration to cause a muscle cell to contract.
ALL OR NONE
Nerve impulses are either of sufficient magnitude or not to bring about contraction in a muscle
MODULE 13
cell. If the nerve impulse is too weak, then none of the muscle fibres connected to that motor
unit will contract. If the nerve impulse is of sufficient magnitude, then all the muscles cells within
that motor unit will contract. A useful analogy is firing a gun. You can exert very light force on the
trigger and the gun may not fire. However, at a certain point if you keep increasing the pressure
the trigger will move and the gun will fire. It is all or none. So if there is a single nerve cell
COACHES’ MANUAL
connected to a single muscle cell (a 1:1 ratio motor unit) then when the nerve impulse reaches
a particular threshold level that single muscle cell will contract. If a single nerve cell is connected
to 300 muscle cells (a 1:300 ratio motor unit) then when the nerve impulse reaches a critical
threshold level all the muscle cells it connects to will contract.
HOW WE CONTROL MUSCLE FORCE
Muscle force is controlled by how many motor units are used. Thus, if we require large forces, we
send many nerve impulses from the brain to many motor units, which means all the muscles cells

contained within those motor units will contract. If we require less force, then fewer motor units
are used, so fewer muscle cells contract.
SENSORY NERVES AND SKELETAL MUSCLES
Sensory nerves cells can also take information from inside muscle cells and return this information
to the brain and spinal cord. The key sensors within muscles are “muscle spindles”, which are
embedded deep within muscle structures.
Muscle spindles are able to sense both the rate and
amount of stretch within a muscle. In the illustration
above, a rapid stretching of the hamstrings will be sensed
by the muscle spindles, which starts a nerve impulse
which travels back to the spinal cord. Since the spinal cord
is able to deal with control of reflex actions, if the rate
of lengthening is severe, then the spinal cord will send
a message quickly back to the same muscle, via motor
nerves, instructing the muscle to contract. In a sense, this
stretch reflex, caused by the sensory work of the muscle
spindles, helps to protect the muscle when it senses it is
being stretched rapidly, by countering this with a muscle
contraction. Note also, however, that the stretch reflex
http://www.bandhayoga.com/images/spindle_organ.jpg
can be not only a source of muscle “protection” but also
a fundamental means by which muscle forces can be
increased.
FOLLOW-UP TASK
1. Once the nerve impulse enters the muscle cell, how does it contribute to the cell contraction
process?
2. What is the relationship between muscle fibre types and motor units?
3. Explain how the action of muscle spindles can be used to enhance muscle power. Relate
your answer to the action of the wrist flexors on a forehand lift and the soleus/gastrocnemius
muscles during a split-step.
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05. PROCESSING INFORMATION

MOTOR LEARNING
In simple terms, we can describe how humans produce voluntary movement using a three-stage
model. This is shown diagrammatically below.
Information processing
Sensory input to the body Motor output from the body
within the body
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COACHES’ MANUAL
Interpret sensory input, select

and organise a response
Identify Select Organise

information response response
Response
time
External sensory input can be provided from sight, sound, touch, smell, or taste. Within the body,
we identify what sensory information is being provided, we select the response to that information,
and organise what needs to be done to bring about that response. These three stages of internal
processing are often referred to as “response time”.
The level of skill demonstrated by a player is largely governed by the capacity to process incoming
sensory information. These sensory signals can be split into two types – external and internal.
SENSORY INPUT: EXTERNAL SOURCES
The external sensory information most relevant to sporting performance is visual and, to a lesser
extent, auditory.
VISUAL INPUT
Visual information enters the body through the eye.

Structurally, the eye consists of:
• the sclera, which is responsible for

maintenance and protection of the eye, as
well as for retaining its shape. The cornea is
a stronger section of the sclera which helps
protect the front of the eye.
• the pupil, which allows light to enter the eye.
• the choroid, which provides oxygen and
nutrients to the eye.
• the retina, which helps to form the images
from the light entering the eye via the pupil. http://bms-vanessa-aveline.blogspot.co.uk/2015/06/the-eye.html
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Functionally, the eye collects, focuses, and transmits light through a lens to create an image of
the external environment. This information is converted into a nerve impulse, which is transported
MOTOR LEARNING
to the brain via the optic nerve.
Vision itself can be split into two sub-systems of focal and ambient vision. The characteristics of
each type of vision are included in the table below.
DEFINITIONS/CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TWO VISUAL SYSTEMS

FOCAL VISION AMBIENT VISION
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Responsible for spatial awareness/
Definition Responsible for identification of objects
movement control
Information the system What is it? Where is the object?
provides (e.g., a shuttlecock) Where am I in relation to the object?
Central Central and peripheral
COACHES’ MANUAL
Size of visual field
Level of conscious
Conscious Non-conscious
control

USE OF FOCAL VISION TO CONTROL MOVEMENT
Because focal vision (concerned with the identification of objects) is a conscious process, it
is relatively slow. A badminton player will use focal vision to identify the shuttle in a rally (for
example, as it is about to be struck by the opponent).
Research by Bard and Fleury (1981) has shown that expert ice hockey goaltenders tend to use
focal vision to concentrate on the stickwork of the shooting player, rather than the puck, allowing
them to anticipate the shot earlier and block more successfully. In contrast, novice performers
concentrated their focal vision at the puck itself. Applied to badminton, with intermediate/
advanced players, coaches should therefore help them to look for the shape of strokes created by
their opponents (rather than looking at the shuttle) in order to anticipate probable replies. Video
analysis of specific players playing specific strokes may help this process. The kind of information
that elite players use in anticipating, in contrast to lower-level players, was also discussed in
Module 11 in the Elite Coaching section.
USE OF AMBIENT VISION TO CONTROL MOVEMENT
In contrast to focal vision, ambient vision (concerned with spatial awareness and movement
control) is an unconscious process and is therefore very quick. Fundamental to the understanding
of ambient vision is the concept of optical flow, which is a term used to describe how light
reflected from objects flows across the retina at the back of the eye, forming moving images
which are relayed to the brain by the optic nerve.
According to Schmidt and Wrisberg (2000), optical flow gives observers many different types of
information about their movement, including:
• their state of stability and balance

• their velocity of movement
• their direction of movement relative to fixed objects
• movement of external objects relative to their position
• time of contact between an object and themselves
Of the above list, stability and balance is possibly the most surprising, as these concepts are more
usually associated with the balance sensors in the ear and the sensory information received from
muscles and joints.
134
This means that unnecessary movements of the head during the production of strokes will cause
an excess of sensory information from not only the ear but also from ambient vision, resulting
MOTOR LEARNING
in many compensatory movements that can affect players’ balance and subsequently their
production of the skill.
AUDITORY INPUT
Auditory sensory input (hearing) enters the body

through the ear. The structure of the ear can be seen
in the diagram below.
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The ear has outer, middle, and inner sections. The

outer ear (made of cartilage covered by skin) funnels
sound into the ear canal, a short tube that ends at
the eardrum. Sound causes the eardrum and its
COACHES’ MANUAL
tiny, attached bones in the middle portion of the ear

to vibrate, and the vibrations are conducted to the
nearby cochlea. The spiral-shaped cochlea is part of
the inner ear; it transforms sound into nerve impulses
that travel to the brain via auditory nerves.
The fluid-filled semicircular canals (labyrinth) attach to the cochlea and nerves in the inner ear.
They send information on balance and head position to the brain. The Eustachian (auditory) tube
drains fluid from the middle ear into the throat (pharynx), behind the nose.
When coaching, it is easy to think of auditory information as simply being the coach providing
instruction to the athlete. However, additional auditory considerations that could aid motor
learning could include:
• the use of rhyming language (e.g., “tricky flicky” for a forehand lift)
• highlighting differences in sound from the shuttle racket impact (e.g., between a slice and
smash)
• trigger words to prompt a particular behaviour (e.g., the word “calm” to trigger a deep breath)
SENSORY INPUT: INTERNAL SOURCES
Vision and hearing are examples of sensory input obtained from outside the body. However, the body
has a number of other internal providers of sensory information. The information provided by the
various internal sensors is collected, organised, and interpreted by the Central Nervous System. Such
information is often referred to as “proprioceptive” or “kinaesthetic”.
The structure and function of various internal sensory mechanisms are included in the table below.
STRUCTURE IMAGE FUNCTION
Skin receptors, including:
• Merkel’s receptors
Provide information about pressure,
• Meissner’s corpuscles
temperature, and touch
• Ruffin’s corpuscles
• Pacinian corpuscles
• Hair receptors
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MOTOR LEARNING
Vestibular apparatus
Provide information about balance
and posture
Located in the inner ear
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Golgi tendon organs
Provide information about the
Located where muscles merge into amount of force being generated in
tendons muscles
COACHES’ MANUAL
Muscle spindles
Provide information about changes
Located within the muscles (see
in muscles’ length
dark red lines wrapped around
muscle fibre)

Kinaesthetic information sent to the brain is highly complex, as it often involves integrating different
types of information from each of these receptors. This is different from visual or auditory sensory
input, which can be dealt with in isolation.
FOLLOW-UP TASK
• Guided actions, where a coach physically manipulates a player’s body in order to produce a
desired shape of movement for the racket head, is sometimes used by coaches. Discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of using this technique to coach a backhand overhead. Make
sure in your answer you refer back to the internal sensory mechanisms described in the
previous table.
• With reference to internal sensory mechanisms, discuss the possible advantages and
disadvantages of encouraging a beginner to perform certain skills with their eyes closed (e.g.,
a backhand serve (striking the shuttle), a forehand clear with kick-through (shadowed), and a
round-the-head movement pattern (shadowed).
EFFECTS OF AROUSAL
The ability to process information in order to perform a sporting task can be affected by many things,
including the arousal level of the participant.
Arousal can be defined as:
“the level of activation of the nervous system”.

136
MOTOR LEARNING
Yerkes and Dodson (1908) first developed the concept of the “inverted-U” principle of arousal, which
established the nature of the relationship between the level of arousal and performance of a specific
task. Essentially, in cases of under- or over-arousal, performance levels dropped, whilst moderate
levels of arousal resulted in the best performances. This relationship is demonstrated graphically
below:
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Whilst this is a generally accepted basis from

which to consider arousal and performance,
peformance
other factors need to be taken into account in

Level of
order to get the full picture. Wrisberg (1994)

suggests that in order to achieve a level of
arousal suitable for optimal performance, the
COACHES’ MANUAL
person, the specific task, and the situation all

need to be taken into consideration.
Level of arousal
The diagram below demonstrates how optimum arousal levels might vary, even within a single rally of
badminton!
Backhand Backhand Forehand

Low Serve Block off Body Jump Smash
Peformance
Arousal
Note from the diagram how the successful completion of finer motor skills such as a low serve
requires a lower level of arousal than a gross, powerful skill such as a forehand smash.
High levels of arousal can affect performance level because of a phenomenon known as “perceptual
narrowing”. This phrase is used to describe how the amount of information received by the senses
can be reduced as arousal levels increase. This is demonstrated in the diagram below, with high
levels of arousal narrowing the amount of sensory input entering the body.
137
High Arousal
MOTOR LEARNING
INSIDE THE BODY
Select a Organise
Identify the
response the
Sensory sensory Motor
to the response
Input information Output
information to the
provided
provided information
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RESPONSE TIME
High Arousal
At higher levels of arousal, players may naturally focus their attention on the stroke being produced
by the opponent, rather than the noise from, or movement of, the crowd in the background. So
COACHES’ MANUAL
perceptual narrowing can, in this sense, enhance performance. However, a highly aroused doubles
player may be too focussed on returning a smash with a block to the net and fail to notice the position
of the smashing player’s doubles partner at the net, who intercepts the blocked return.
Lower levels of arousal can also reduce the level of performance. In these cases, the arousal level
is so low that sensory input becomes too broad, with many irrelevant pieces of sensory information
being included in the internal processing phase. This increases the chance of irrelevant information
being processed and relevant information being missed.

The aim, therefore, is to achieve an arousal level that allows for sufficient narrowing of attention so
that unnecessary cues are cut out, but not so much that relevant cues are overlooked.
FOLLOW-UP TASK
• Read the Psychology: Control section of the BWF Level 2 Coaches Manual. From this,
suggest methods by which arousal levels can be managed in order to achieve optimum
arousal levels and control the potential effects (positive or negative) of perceptual narrowing.
• In terms of managing arousal, research the terms “muscle to mind” and “mind to muscle”.
Gives badminton examples of how you can use these techniques to manage arousal and
therefore improve motor learning and performance
RESPONSE TIME
The time taken to make sense of the information, decide on a response and start that response
is called “Response Time”. This is represented diagrammatically in the diagram below, which is
a slightly greater development of the basic information processing model presented earlier in this
section.
INSIDE THE BODY

Select a Organise
Identify the
response the
Sensory sensory Motor
to the response
Input information Output
information to the
provided
provided information
RESPONSE TIME
138
MOTOR LEARNING
The simplest example of response time is when

there is only one stimulus and one response. An
example would be an experiment where people are
asked to respond as quickly as possible to a ruler
being dropped by catching that ruler. The greater the
distance the ruler drops the longer the response time.
Obviously, sport involves far more than one stimulus

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and one possible response. This naturally means that

sport requires a lot more decision making than that
involved in this simple example.
HTTP://WWW.DISCOVERYEXPRESSKIDS.COM/BLOG/ARCHIVES/05-2016
COACHES’ MANUAL
INCREASING THE NUMBER OF POSSIBLE STIMULUS-RESPONSE PAIRS
Hick (1952) demonstrated that the greater the number of possible stimulus-response pairs, the
longer the response time. Thus, players who have a greater variety of strokes and produce them
with a similar action will manage to increase the response time of their opponents. This can have
consequences for the opponent (such as a later and/or off-balance return).
Clear...?
Smash...?
Drop...?
THE COMPATIBILITY OF THE STIMULUS AND RESPONSE
The more natural the link between a particular stimulus and a response the faster the reaction
time. As an example, a smash played slightly to the forehand side of an inexperienced player
would naturally result in a quick reaction to play a forehand stroke on that side of the body.
However, there can be disadvantages to this relationship. For example, if the smash is only
slightly to the forehand side it is generally more effective to play this as a backhand as this keeps
the elbow away from the body.
139
MOTOR LEARNING
Although compatible and resulting in a fast
response, playing a forehand on the forehand
side is not always the best response.
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THE RIGHT PRACTICE CAN HELP!
Practice can help players deal with many issues concerned with stimulus and response. Response
COACHES’ MANUAL
times can be reduced by practice, with players learning to read the sensory information (e.g., read
which stroke is being played), select and organise a response more quickly than without practice.
For example, a beginner who tries to jump to the side and return a smash to the body with a
forehand stroke (often an undesirable response) can be trained to respond by maintaining his/her
body position and returning the shuttle with a backhand stroke.
ANTICIPATION AND DECEPTION
The use of anticipation by elite players as one of the defining characteristics of elite-level play was

discussed extensively in Module 10 in the Elite Coaching section. Here anticipation will be examined
from a motor learning perspective.
Anticipation can be defined as “being able to predict what event will occur and when”. Anticipation
therefore has two elements:
• What is going to occur (e.g., smash, reverse drop, held clear etc.)?
• When this will occur (take early, late, delayed, etc.)
Anticipation can be used to quicken response time. Diagrammatically this can be represented by a
shortening of the response time box shown below.
ANTICIPATION
Inside the body

Sensory Motor
Identify Select Organise
Input Output
RESPONSE TIME
THE POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES OF ANTICIPATION
Players with highly developed anticipatory skills are

able to reduce their response time substantially.
However, effective anticipation requires a lot of
experience in order to identify aspects such as:
• a particular opponent’s favourite shot (played

frequently in certain situations)
• the shots they play when approaching a shot
with a particular movement pattern
• the pressure their opponent is under
• their body shape in preparation for a stroke
• grip Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
140
THE POTENTIAL DISADVANTAGES OF ANTICIPATION
Whilst anticipation can be valuable there are also

disadvantages if that anticipation leads to an incorrect
reading of the situation, resulting for example in moving
off to the wrong area of a court. For example, a player
may anticipate a straight dropshot to their forehand
side and prepares mentally to perform a split-step in a
particular way so they move quickly to that corner as the
opponent strikes the shuttle. However, if the opponent
then plays a straight clear, the player may need to “re-
programme” their planning and adjust the split-step
accordingly. If the anticipation has been taken a stage
further, the player may have already performed the split-
step prior to the stroke. In this situation considerable
mental and physical work would be required to readjust
Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto their feet in order to move back to the rearcourt rather
than forwards to the forecourt.
MOTOR LEARNING
COMBATING ANTICIPATION THROUGH DECEPTION
A number of methods can be used to reduce the effectiveness of an opponent’s use of

anticipation. These methods include:
• being able to play a wide variety of strokes

• using the same preparation to play a variety of strokes
• delaying or “holding” stokes so the impact of the strokes is later than expected
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• avoiding repetitious patterns of play (unless of course they are winning patterns!)
• using double motions
COACHES’ MANUAL
06. LIMITS TO INFORMATION PROCESSING
It is generally accepted that humans can only process a limited amount of information at a time. Much
thought has also been devoted to the ability of humans to deal with information in a:
• serial manner (one piece of information, followed by another, then another, etc.)
• parallel form (i.e., more than one piece of information at a time)
A greater understanding of potential limitations on information processing can be achieved by relating

this to the information processing model introduced earlier in this section (repeated and adapted
below).
INSIDE THE BODY

Identify the Select a Organise the
External
sensory response to response Motor
Sensory
information the information to the Output
Input
provided provided information
Parallel
Parallel
and serial Serial
processing
processing Processing
possible
possible
RESPONSE TIME
141
IDENTIFYING THE SENSORY INFORMATION
MOTOR LEARNING
MacLeod (1991) suggests strongly that we can process more than one type of sensory information
at a time, with that information being processed in parallel (i.e., at the same time). So a player’s
information processing system is capable, for example, of identifying:
• the shape of an opponent’s preparation for a stroke

• an opponent’s position on the court
• their partner’s position on a court
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• noise from the crowd
• their own position on the court
• their own state of balance
Limitations of information processing are therefore not thought to be at the sensory identification
phase, where more than one piece of information can be deal with in parallel (i.e., at the same time).
COACHES’ MANUAL
SELECTING THE RESPONSE
Schmidt and Wrisberg (2000) describe two types of processing – controlled and automatic - which can
occur during the response selection phase of information processing.
Controlled processing: Automatic processing:
• is slow • is fast

• is serial in nature (only one response dealt • requires little attention
with at a time) • can operate in parallel
• is voluntary (i.e., done under conscious • is involuntary
control)
• requires a lot of attention
During the response selection phase, the amount of information that can be processed is likely to
be dependent upon the how familiar the person is with the task. Imagine player 1 (an inexperienced
badminton player) is in a rally where their opponent (player 2) is playing a forehand net shot, so the
shuttle is going to travel to their backhand at the net.
Player 1 has to select from a lot of possible

responses, such as:
• how to move his/her feet
• how to position his/her body
• how to carry the racket on the approach
• which stroke to play – lift, held lift, spin net
shot, crosscourt net shot, held net shot, etc.
In this case, it is quite understandable that the

beginner’s response selections:
• are slow – with so much to think about Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto
• require a lot of attention, with each possible

response competing with another
• will most likely occur one after another, rather than all being addressed at once
• are voluntary, in the sense that the response selection is consciously controlled
In contrast, automatic processing can occur after large of amounts of practice. Thus, an expert player
in the same situation will be able to select the appropriate responses:
• quickly
• with less attention
• in parallel (i.e., selecting a number of appropriate responses at the same time)
• involuntarily (i.e., so practiced that it becomes automatic)
142
First impressions might lead us to believe that automatic processing, brought about by much practice,
is ideal for badminton. Responses to an opponent’s stroke would be automatic, quick, allow for
MOTOR LEARNING
selection of a number of techniques at the same time and require less attention. This is true to a
certain extent; however, it could lead to:
• problems if the opponent is able to change their stroke at the last minute (e.g., from a net shot to
a lift), with the receiving player selecting an incorrect movement pattern
• predictability, with the receiving player always playing the same stroke in this situation
Therefore, training for badminton should involve a lot of practice to try to achieve an automatic
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processing state, however training must include choices/decision-making to reflect the open-skill,
variable nature of the sport.
ORGANISING THE RESPONSE

COACHES’ MANUAL
Once the response(s) have been selected, then the brain needs to organise that response. Relating
this to the structure of the nervous system, the brain will programme the response and send it
through the motor nerves of the peripheral nervous system in order to contract muscles in way that
results in the desired technical response. Response programming is thought to occur in a serial
manner, meaning we can only organise and start responses one at a time.
The serial, one response at a time, nature of response programming can be used to advantage in
sport by learning to use deception. For example, in the rally below:
• Player 1 watches Player 2 (her opponent) approaching the net.

• Player 1 predicts from the shape of the approach that Player 2 is going to play a backhand net
shot and begins to programme her response, for example, by performing a split-step so she
can push off explosively to the net.
• Player 2 changes the stroke very quickly at the last minute and lifts the shuttle.
• Player 1 has to allow her original response programming to finish before she can form and send
a new set of instructions to the working muscles.
• The delay of processing in the previous stage causes Player 1 to move later for the lift, putting
her under more pressure.
In order to maximise the effectiveness of deception, it is recommended that:
• any techniques involved in the deception have the same shape, so they are more difficult to tell
apart (e.g., straight dropshot and reverse slice cross dropshot)
• any fake action and the actual performed action should happen very quickly, one after the other,
meaning the receiving player has less time to readjust
• the fakes should not be over-played so they in themselves do not become predictable
07. MEMORY SYSTEMS
Memory can be defined as “the process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved”.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory (2016)
Memory can be divided into three sections (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968):
• Sensory memory (SM)

• Short-term memory (STM)
• Long term memory (LTM)
143
These are represented diagrammatically below.
MOTOR LEARNING
SENSORY SENSORY SHORT-TERM LONG-TERM
INPUTS MEMORY (SM) MEMORY (STM) MEMORY (LTM)
• Receives
Seeing Information • Storage size
selected
passed to and storage
information
• Large storage LTM via duration
from sensory
area rehearsal and virtually
Hearing memory
• Information meaningful unlimited
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• Small storage
held for a association • Memories
area
short period in LTM may
• Information
of time (less never be
Touching retained for up
than 1 second) destroyed
Selective to one minute
(Sperling, – we just
attention • Limited in
1963) have trouble
capacity to
COACHES’ MANUAL
Proprioception • Different (we choose retrieving
(e.g., balance) what to 5-9 pieces of
“sections” some
focus upon) information
of sensory memories
(Miller, 1956)
memory • A type
• With practice,
Smell depending Information of LTM
information
upon source can be memory
transferred
(e.g., seeing retrieved known as
to long term
goes to visual from LTM procedural
memory
short-term and passed memory
• Information
memory) back to STM (“knowing

can be
Taste • No conscious how”)
received back
involvement is most
from long-term
relevant to
memory
motor skills
FOLLOW-UP TASK
• In terms of memory, define the term “meaningful association” and explain with examples
how this might be used to enhance coaching effectiveness.
MOTOR PROGRAMS
In the previous section, different types of memory were explained. In the Long-Term Memory
section, the concept of a “procedural memory” which defines how a motor skill should be performed
was introduced. This procedural memory is more often referred to as a “motor program”.
Put simply, a motor program can be defined as:
“a set of pre-arranged movement instructions, stored in the Central Nervous System, which defines
the underpinning specifics of a movement”.
Motor programmes can be broken down into building blocks, often described as “sub-routines”. For
example, the sub-routines that make up the backhand doubles long defence would consist of:
• Stance • Backswing
• Racket carriage • Impact
• Grip • Follow through
See the “Hitting Skills” modules in the Level 1 and Level 2 manuals for further examples and images.
144
08. CLOSED LOOP MODEL

MOTOR LEARNING
So far, we have used a simple three-stage model to describe how motor skills are produced, the
stages consisting of sensory input, information processing and motor output.
Information processing
Sensory input to the body Motor output from the body
within the body
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Interpret sensory input, select

COACHES’ MANUAL
and organise a response

A development of this basic model that can further help our understanding of motor control is the
Closed Loop model. A simple version of this model is shown below.
In the closed loop model:
1. Sensory
• Sensory input (1) is inputted to the executor
(2) which makes sense of, selects, and
Input
organises the response. These processes
take place in the brain.
• At this stage information about the desired
2.The Executor:
response (3) is sent to a comparator (4) for
later use.
making sense of the • Information about the desired response is
input, selecting and
organising the desired also sent to the effector (5). The effector’s
response
role is to take the desired response
3. 4. provided by the executive and uses a motor

programme to produce the necessary
Desired Response The Comparator:
comparison of desired and
actual response
movement instructions. These instructions
are sent via the spinal cord and the peripheral
5.
nervous system to the muscles. These
The Effector:
7a. Internal Feedback
muscles then contract, acting on the skeleton
to produce movement.
actioning the selected
response • The movement produced by the executor
produces an output (6), for example a
forehand lift.
• Internal feedback (7a) is provided from
6. 7b.
muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, etc.
regarding elements such as muscle length,
Output: External Feedback muscle force, balance, etc. This feedback is
results of the action
sent to the comparator (4) for later use.
• External feedback (7b) is provided from
sound and vision about the outcome (e.g., lift
travels out of the court).
• The comparator compares the internal/external feedback with the desired response and sends
details of errors to the input so future behaviour can be adjusted appropriately.
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A badminton example using the closed loop model of motor control would be returning a low serve.
MOTOR LEARNING
MODULE 13
COACHES’ MANUAL
The receiver:
• watches the serve being delivered (i.e., visual input)

• the executor plans the response, which may include how the receiver’s feet might move, how
their racket will move, and the shot selected. Information about this desired response is sent to
the comparator for later use
• the effector uses a combination of the nervous and muscular systems to initiate the necessary
muscle contractions in order to move to and strike the service return. Internal feedback (regarding
balance, muscle length, muscle load, etc.) is sent to the comparator
• the muscle contractions bring about skeletal movement, and the service return is performed (the
output). External feedback (e.g., the sound of the shuttle on the racket, the accuracy of the return)
is sent to the comparator
• the comparator compares the internal and external feedback with the desired state, providing
information regarding errors which act as input to influence the executor when that situation
arising again.
Although the closed loop system is useful for helping us to understand how we control skills, it does
have some disadvantages, most notable of which is that the whole process is slow. Thus, a skilled
server who can change their serve to a flick serve in the last part of the action may gain a significant
advantage, as the receiver may not be able to change their footwork, racket carriage, etc. in time to
readjust and return the flick serve.
09. OPEN LOOP CONTROL

The previous section described the structure and function of a closed loop system of motor control,
which contained key aspects such as:
• the use of feedback loops

• a comparator to compare desired and actual outcomes
• the capability to detect errors and make correction in movement
The main disadvantage of the closed loop system of motor control is that because of the complexity
it can only work slowly, often too slow for more rapid actions of the body experienced in sport.
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However, sport shows us how skilled performers can perform these rapid actions successfully, so an
alternative method of motor control, called “Open Loop Control” has been proposed to explain this.
MOTOR LEARNING
OPEN LOOP CONTROL MODEL
Open loop control is a system used to control fast,

distinct movements (e.g., a throwing action). It is
a system that consists of the use of stored, pre-
prepared instructions in the brain that are sent to
the muscular system to bring about a particular
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movement pattern. The movement is pattern

completed so quickly there is no chance for
feedback during the movement.
Open loop control of movement is effective provided

COACHES’ MANUAL
that the conditions around the production of that

movement remain the same. There is no flexibility
within the system to change the pre-planned
movement once it has begun.
An example would be a player attempting to clear

a shuttle under pressure in the forehand rearcourt,
with the shuttle well behind them. In mid-stroke,
the player may become aware that the shuttle is
slightly deeper than first predicted. Unfortunately,

because of the speed of the stroke, it would not be
possible to adjust the grip position in time change
the direction of the stroke, meaning the player may
well hit the shuttle out the side of the court.
The open loop control model is illustrated on the

next page. Note how it actually contains many of the Photo credit: James Varghese
elements of the closed loop system, apart from the
absence of the comparator and feedback loops.
OPEN LOOP CONTROL AND THE MOTOR PROGRAM
The motor program is key to understanding the functioning of the open-loop system. The
characteristics of a motor program include:
• a set of pre-set movement commands • requires little attention when used

• created via practice of that movement • can become more complicated with practice
• stored in the brain
Specifically, the motor programme exerts the following control upon the muscular system:
• selects the muscles needed to produce the • sets the level of force exerted by different
movement muscle groups
• decides the sequence in which those • controls the time each muscle contracts
muscles should be triggered
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1. SENSORY INPUT
MOTOR LEARNING
• Making sense of the
input
• Selecting the
2. THE EXECUTOR
response
• Organising the
response
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• Motor programme
COACHES’ MANUAL
(brain)
• Actioning the selected

3. THE EFFECTOR • Spinal cord and
response
nerves

• Muscles
4. OUTPUT
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10. OPEN AND CLOSED LOOP COMBINED

MOTOR LEARNING
In the previous sections, both closed and open loop systems were used to explain how the body
may control movement. The closed loop system was most appropriate for slower movements and
characterised by use of feedback loops and a comparator to detect and adjust errors. The open loop
system is more appropriate for faster skills, relying on pre-defined motor programs to control the skill
being produced.
In reality, the human body controls movement by using a combination of both closed and open loop
MODULE 13
control. The diagram below represents this situation theoretically, showing the components of the
closed loop system, which contains the open loop system as well (highlighted in yellow).
1.
COACHES’ MANUAL
Sensory
Input
2. The Executor:
making sense of the

input, selecting and
organising the desired
response
3. 4.
Desired Response The Comparator:
comparison of desired and
actual response
5. 7a.
The Effector:
actioning the selected Internal Feedback
response
6. 7b.
Output: External Feedback
results of the action
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11. GENERALISED MOTOR PROGRAMMES
MOTOR LEARNING
Whilst the concept of the motor program is useful, one question not immediately dealt with by the
motor program theory is how totally new movements, or variations of an existing movement, can be
performed successfully. Motor program theory can explain our ability to perform these new actions by
describing each motor program as a “generalised motor program”. This generalised motor program:
• would contain the essential instructions required to perform the basic shape of a movement. In
particular, these “deep” instructions set the order of muscles used to produce the movement
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and the relative timing of when those muscles are used.
• has the capacity to adjust this basic programme depending on the requirements of each specific
situation. The “surface” adaptations that a generalised movement program would have to be able
to provide would be variations in:
» speed of movement
» force of movement
COACHES’ MANUAL
» muscles and limbs
An example of a generalised motor program

would be overhead throwing. Deep
instructions for overhead throwing would
consist of the order of recruitment of muscles
(from large muscles to small muscles) and the
timing of when those muscles are activated

relative to each other. “Surface adaptations”
would include the speed of the movement,
the force used, and the specific muscles/limbs
used.
FOLLOW-UP TASK
A basic forehand net lift would be controlled by a motor program that contains all the “deep”
instructions required to perform the technically “correct” shape of that stroke. With reference to
the concept of a “generalised motor program”, explain in detail the possible “surface” variations
that may need to be used to play different types of forehand net lift.
Referring back to the content of the BWF Level 2 coaches’ manual, describe how you might use
varied practice to develop not only a simple motor program for the forehand net lift, but also a
more generalised motor program that would help the player use variations of that stroke more
effectively.
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12. FEEDBACK AND MOTOR LEARNING

MOTOR LEARNING
Feedback can be defined as “knowledge of the results of any behaviour, considered as influencing or
modifying further performance”.
Feedback can be split into two subsections: intrinsic and extrinsic feedback
• Intrinsic feedback consists of feedback that the player experiences naturally when performing a
skill. This type of feedback can be split in visual (sight), auditory (sound) and kinaesthetic (feel).
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An example in badminton would be a player performing a smash - the player would get visual
feedback about the accuracy, auditory information from the sound of the hit and kinaesthetic
information regarding the flow/balance of shot.
• Extrinsic feedback consists of feedback that comes from sources other than the player
themselves. Often (but not always) the source of this feedback is the coach – an example
being the verbal instruction, “Take your time between serves and breathe deeply”. In addition,
COACHES’ MANUAL
the specific dynamics of peer feedback at the elite level were discussed in depth in Module 9
(Teamwork and Group Dynamics).
Extrinsic feedback can be used with two potential outcomes in mind:
1. To help the player develop a new skill by assisting them to make choices about what to do in
order to be successful.
2. To help motivate the player (e.g., via encouragement)
Great care must be taken here regarding the amount, timing, and type of external feedback to
avoid creating a situation where that feedback, rather than enhancing learning, actually becomes
detrimental to skill improvement.
VERBAL FEEDBACK
One of the greatest sources of extrinsic feedback is verbal feedback given by the coach to the player.
Key issues to consider in this area are:
1. The amount of information given

2. The content of the information
given
3. What verbal information should be
prioritised
4. The explicitness of the information
given
5. The timing of the verbal feedback

151
THE AMOUNT OF INFORMATION GIVEN
MOTOR LEARNING
Many badminton skills are highly complex, so this gives great potential for many errors, both
technical and tactical to occur. For example, the list below includes a few of the basic aspects that
should be in place to perform a backhand net shot effectively.
• Watch the • Foot/ankle/knee
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shuttle aligned
• Use a thumb • Hips turned
grip • Rear foot turned
• Take the shuttle
out
early
• Rear arm extended
• Push the shuttle
COACHES’ MANUAL
• Hit using relaxed • Racket head below
reach the hand
The tendency, therefore, is for coaches to give too much information in a well-intentioned attempt
to correct everything at once. Unfortunately, this approach is at odds with much research in the

field of human memory and learning, which clearly demonstrates that there are severe limitations
on the amount of verbal information that can be processed effectively at any one time. Indeed,
MacGill and Anderson (2012) have suggested that as little as one piece of verbal information may
be enough to bring about optimum improvement in a skill.
This relationship between the optimum

skill development and the amount of
information given can be represented
hypothetically by the graph shown
The amount of
to the left. Note how providing no

learning
verbal feedback could inhibit skill

development (i.e., the player has
nothing to work with) whereas too
much verbal feedback also inhibits
learning by confusing the player. The
key is for the coach to provide “just
enough“ verbal feedback for optimum
The amount of verbal learning to occur.
instruction
THE CONTENT OF THE VERBAL INFORMATION
The verbal feedback should be something that the player can relate to. For example, “look at
your watch” can be a useful phrase to help the player to establish an effective preparation for a
backhand drive.
Coaches should also consider whether use of “judgemental” feedback is either effective or
desirable. By judgemental feedback we mean using words such as “poor”, excellent”, “good”,
“bad”, etc. to describe performance. Gallwey (1974) highlights that such approach introduces
great deal of emotion into the coaching which ultimate creates a deterioration rather than
improvement in performance.
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PRIORITISING THE VERBAL INFORMATION

MOTOR LEARNING
The verbal feedback has to focus upon the specific aspect of the skill that will bring about the
greatest improvement. In order to achieve this the following model is suggested:
• List all the aspects of a particular skill in order, with most essential components first and the
least essential last
• Identify the errors being made by the player from the list and select the single, highest priority
error to work on only
• Provide feedback on that part of this skill and once corrected, move down the list to the next
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priority
The effectiveness of this approach has been shown to be effective in developing skills in
football, rhythmic gymnastics, and weight training, so a sustained look at this approach applied to
badminton coaching might be worthwhile. As an example, the list used previously in this module
COACHES’ MANUAL
(focussing on the backhand net shot) will be used. The suggested prioritised list below is literally
that – a suggestion – which will hopefully stimulate a debate in this area.
ORDER OF PRIORITY FOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

REASONING BEHIND THE ORDER
OF BACKHAND NET SHOT
1. Foot/ankle/knee of lunging leg in line Safety first!!
2. Racket head below hand It is a shot hit upwards
3. Push the shuttle Pushing the shuttle gives control
4. Use a relaxed reach Has potential benefits for 6, 7, 8 and 9

5. Use a thumb grip Makes the hand more stable on racket
6. Take the shuttle early Gives opponent less time
7. Hips turned sideways Improves reach
8. Rear foot turned out Should happen as hips turn sideways
9. Rear arm extended Improves sideways stance and balance
Note some useful things to consider when compiling such a list:
• Prioritise safety first.

• Try to think about what is absolutely necessary to play the shot. For example, it is not
absolutely necessary to play use a thumb grip, but it probably is necessary to push through
the shuttle for control.
• Consider introducing a teaching point which will have related benefits for other parts of the
skill. For example, a relaxed reach may have benefits to for taking the shuttle early, turning the
hips, etc.
THE “EXPLICITNESS“ OF THE VERBAL FEEDBACK
For beginners, it has been suggested that telling a player how to correct an error may be most
beneficial as that beginner has little knowledge of potential solutions. “Push the shuttle to
improve control on your net shot“ would be an example of this.
More experienced performers may, however, benefit from a less explicit approach that
encourages the player to find solutions to the identified errors. This is where the role of reflexion,
as discussed within the elite context in Module 7, comes into play. So the coach may ask the
player “how can you improve the control on your net shots“, thereby encouraging them to take
more ownership of their own learning and develop their own ways to correct an error.
153
The more skilled coach, however, may be able to enhance the learning of all players by the use of
appropriate questioning, as per below:
MOTOR LEARNING
Coach: “When you played the shot, where did you intercept the shuttle?”
Player: “Hmmm – close to the net, quite high up the net.”
Coach: “Do you think you could take it even higher?”
Player: “Possibly…”
Coach: “What would be the advantage of doing this?”
Player: “It would give my opponent less time to deal with my shot.”
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Coach: “Good thinking – so when you practice again, what are you going to do to give
your opponent less time?”
Player: “Intercept the shuttle as early as possible.”
THE TIMING OF THE VERBAL FEEDBACK
COACHES’ MANUAL
The effectiveness of verbal feedback (in fact any type of feedback) should be judged by the ability
of the player to perform a particular skill once that feedback source has been removed. One
danger is that, if timed inappropriately, feedback becomes an integral part of the skill – i.e., that
skill cannot be performed effectively without the associated feedback being present. For example,
a coach may shout out the word “reach” just prior to the player striking a forehand overhead in
order to encourage them to take the shuttle early.
However, once that

coach input is removed,
the player may still strike
the shuttle from a low
position, because the
trigger to perform the skill
(the coaching shouting
out the word “reach”) is
no longer present.
Increased reliance on
verbal feedback to
perform a particular skill
can occur if the feedback
is:
• delivered whilst
that skill is being
performed
• delivered too
frequently
• delivered immediately
after performance of
the skill
Some of the above issues can be addressed by:
• reducing the amount of feedback

• delaying delivery of the feedback until after a number of practice attempts
• only giving feedback to the player when they request it
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13. MOTOR LEARNING AND ATTENTIONAL FOCUS

MOTOR LEARNING
The Level 2 Coaches’ Manual introduced coaches to a model of attentional focus by Nideffer (1976).
This model was presented in the context of where athletes can direct their concentration and is
repeated below.
Internal
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Broad-Internal Style Narrow-Internal Style
You need this style of concentration to take You need this style of concentration to rehearse a
information from around you, analyse that routine or to control your body’s internal state.
information by comparing it to your previous
experiences, and then form a plan. This migh Example:
occur between strokes, rallies and games. • Develop a routine in preparation to serve.
• Use deep breathing to help relax and control
COACHES’ MANUAL
arousal.
Example:
Practices where players are encouraged to
develop plans (e.g., in breaks during or between
sets) can help develop this type of concentration.
Broad Narrow
Broad-External Style Narrow-External Style

You need this style of concentration to be aware You need this style to actually perform a skill, such
of things happening around you, enabling you to as striking the shuttle.
then react automatically to this information. This
could be your opponent striking the shuttle. Example:
The best example of how a coach can help with
Example: this type of concentration in the middle of a
Training where the coach encourages the player’s game is simply to remind the player to watch the
observational skills, for example by identifying shuttle.
differences in an opponent’s hitting action when
performing a dropshot or clear.
External
The aim of this section is to examine how using different types of attentional focus may reduce or
increase the effectiveness of motor learning.
INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL FOCUS?
There is now a considerable body of evidence that motor learning and performance is more effective
when participants use, or are encouraged to use, an external rather than internal focus (Wulf, 2007).
Examples of studies that support the use of adopting an external focus when learning or performing
motor skill are listed in the table below and are split into research that focuses on:
• the outcomes of adopting an internal or external focus

• physiological responses when adopting an internal or external focus
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STUDIES SUPPORTING THE USE OF AN EXTERNAL RATHER THAN INTERNAL FOCUS WHEN
PERFORMING MOTOR SKILLS
TYPE OF EVIDENCE MEASUREMENT AUTHOR
MOTOR LEARNING
Wulf and Dufek (2009); Wulf,
Dufek, Lozano and Pettigrew,
Vertical Jump Height
2010; Wulf, Zachry, Granados and
Dufek (2007)
Porter, Ostrowski, Nolan, and Wu
Broad Jump Length
(2010)
Maximum force production during Marchant, Greig and Scott (2009)
elbow flexion
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Ford, Hodges, Huys and Williams
Kicking a football (accuracy)
(2009)
Support for adopting an external
focus using the outcome of Zachry, Wulf, Mercer and Bezodis
Basketball free throw (accuracy)
motor skill performance (2005)
Dart throwing (accuracy) Lohse, Sherwood and Healy (2010)
COACHES’ MANUAL
Riding a pedalo (speed) Totsika and Wulf (2003)
Porter, Nolan, Ostrowski and Wulf
Agility run (speed)
(2010)
Freudenheim, Wulf, Madureira,
Swimming performance (speed) Pasetto and Correa (2010), Stoate
and Wulf (2011)
Marchant, Greig, Bullough and
Muscle endurance
Hitchen (2011)

Vance, Wulf, Tollner, McNevin and
Mercer (2004); Marchant, Greig
Support for adopting an external Electromyography (EMG) to and Scott (2008); Zachry, Wulf,
focus using physiological measure muscular activity when Mercer and Bezodis (2005); Lohse,
measures performing sports skills Sherwood and Healy (2010); Lohse
(2012); Marchant, Greig and Scott
(2009)
The reasons behind this observed behaviour have been explained using the constrained action
hypothesis (Wulf, McNevin and Shea, 2001). This hypothesis proposes that adopting an internal focus
produces a level of conscious control that inhibits potentially more efficient automatic motor control
mechanisms. Put simple, the mind starts to interfere with skills that the body can achieve on its own
if left alone. In support of this, the studies using EMG indicate that an internal focus appears to be
linked to additional (unnecessary) neuromuscular activity. In comparison, adopting an external focus
allows the body’s automatic, unconscious motor control system to operate in an uninhibited manner,
with the desired outcome being achieved almost as a bonus to this automatic process. Further
development of the constrained action hypothesis by Wulf and Lewthwaite (2010) have indicated how
instructions which focus internally on the body (e.g., bend your wrist, turn your body more, etc.) can
easily invoke a more self-conscious state and choking during performance of that skill.
APPLYING AN EXTERNAL FOCUS APPROACH TO BADMINTON COACHING
If the research outcomes previously described are transferable to badminton coaching, then this may
require coaches to think differently about how they coach skills to players.
For example, a coach may ask a player to push their hand forwards and bend the wrist back in order
to prepare for a forehand lift. The previous research would suggest that this may not be the best
approach to support motor learning is it encourages the player to adopt an internal focus, thereby
inviting the problems identified within the constrained action hypothesis.
In this situation, reaching over a barrier and dropping the racket head would provide an alternative,
external focus that theory would suggest is more conducive to learning.
Of course, this approach assumes that we all learn in the same way and there are certain variations to
this approach that are worth considering. These variations include:
• How “external” should the focus be?

• How might the complexity of the skill change the coaching approach?
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HOW EXTERNAL SHOULD THE FOCUS BE?

MOTOR LEARNING
There is some evidence to support the idea that expert performers can successfully adopt a more
“distant” external focus, both in terms of time and distance (Bell and Hardy, 2009). For example, an
expert performer may focus on:
• performing a high serve which achieves a particular depth and height. This focus is well away
from the player’s body in terms of distance.
• anticipating their opponent’s probable replies to the high serve. This focus is well away from the
server’s body in terms of time.
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In contrast, a beginner might benefit from adopting an external focus, but one that is closer to their
body (Wulf, McNevin, Fuchs, Ritter and Toole, 2000). For example, the beginner may be encouraged
to point the racket directly upwards at the start of the backswing for the forehand high serve.
HOW MIGHT THE COMPLEXITY OF THE SKILL CHANGE THE COACHING APPROACH?
COACHES’ MANUAL
There is some support for the notion that the more complex the movement, the more relevant it is
to adopt an external focus for optimal skill learning and performance (Marchant, Greig, Bullough and
Hitchen, 2011; Wulf, Tollner and Shea, 2007).
14. SKILL ACQUISITION AND IMPLICIT/EXPLICIT LEARNING

IMPLICIT LEARNING DEFINED
Implicit learning can be defined as “the acquisition, modification or reinforcement of knowledge,

behaviours, skills, values or preferences in an incidental manner, without awareness of what has
been acquired”. Possibly the most quoted example of implicit learning would be riding a bike, where
success is achieved without reference to conscious application of concepts such as centre of gravity,
base of support etc. If questioned, people who have learnt implicitly would have difficultly explaining
how they achieved the task successfully.
EXPLICIT LEARNING DEFINED
In contrast, explicit learning can be defined as “acquisition of skills and/or knowledge actively and
with awareness”. If questioned, people who have learnt explicitly would be able to explain in detail
the key characteristics of what they are doing.
PRACTICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LEARNING
There are several differences between implicit and explicit learning, including:
• Performers who have learnt a task implicitly are often less able to describe knowledge they have
acquired about that task.
• Implicit learning is not as restricted as explicit learning, with the latter being limited by the
information-processing capacity of the brain (Marois and Ivanoff, 2005).
• Tasks learnt implicitly are more robust, meaning they are less affected by other factors (e.g., time
pressure, anxiety, etc.) than tasks learnt in an explicit manner (Reber, 1993; Dienes and Berry,
1997).
The latter point (i.e., robustness) is possibly of most relevance to the coaching of badminton, as
it would mean that skills learnt implicitly in practice are more likely to withstand the pressures of
competition.
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IMPLICIT, EXPLICIT OR BOTH?
MOTOR LEARNING
Researchers, in an attempt to study implicit learning, often used a dual-task approach where the
conscious attention of the participants is taken up by one task, “forcing” the other task to be learnt
implicitly. An example might be to perform a task whilst reciting the alphabet. The problem with this
type of approach is that motor learning is slowed considerably.
In an attempt to rectify this, it may be worth trying to gently push the learning process towards the
implicit end of the continuum, rather that forcing it completely to that end.
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In reality, learning is unlikely to be purely implicit or explicit in nature, but rather a combination of both.
In other words, most learning experience will lie on a continuum somewhere between purely implicit
and purely explicit learning (see the diagram below).
IMPLICIT LEARNING EXPLICIT LEARNING
COACHES’ MANUAL
UNCONSCIOUS CONSCIOUS
REFERENCES

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Bulletin & Review 4: 3.
Ford, P., Hodges, N.J., Huys, R. and Williams, A.M. (2009). Evidence for end-point trajectory planning
during a kicking action. Motor Control, 13, 1-24.
Freudenheim, A.M., Wulf, G., Madureira, F., Pasetto, S.C. and Correa, U.C. (2010). An external focus
of attention results in greater swimming speed. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching,
5, 533-542.
Gallwey, W. Timothy (1974). The Inner Game of Tennis (1st ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN
0-394-49154-8.
Lohse, K.R. (2012). The influence of attention on learning and performance: Pre-movement time and
accuracy in an isometric force production task. Human Movement Science, 31, 12-25.
Lohse, K.R., Sherwood, D.E., and Healy, A.F. (2010). How changing the focus of attention affects
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555.
Magill, R. A. and Anderson, D. I. (2012) The roles and uses of augmented feedback in motor skill
acquisition. In Hodges, N. J. and Williams, M.A. (Eds.) Skill acquisition in Sport: research, theory and
practice. Routledge, London and New York
Marchant, D.C., Greig, M., Bullough J. and Hitchen, D. (2011). Instructions to adopt and external focus
to enhance muscle endurance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82, 466-473.
Marchant, D.C., Greig, M. and Scott, C. (2008) Attentional focusing strategies influence bicep
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MOTOR LEARNING
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MODULE 13
to focus attention. Frontiers in Psychology, doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00216
Porter, J. M., Ostrowski, E.J., Nolan, R.P., and Wu, W.F.W. (2010). Standing long jump performance
is enhanced when using an external focus of attention. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research, 24, 1746-1750.
COACHES’ MANUAL
Reber, A.S. (1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious.
New York: Oxford University Press.
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Zachary, T., Wulf, G., Mercer, J. and Bezodis, N. (2005). Increased movement accuracy and reduced
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eISBN 978-967-2788-80-5 BADMINTON WORLD FEDERATION
Unit 1, Level 29
10 Persiaran KLCC
50088 Kuala Lumpur
Tel +603 2381 9188

Fax +603 2303 9688
9 789672 788805 www.bwf.sport

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ATION

© Badminton World Federation

ISBN National Centre – National Library of Malaysia

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed,

• Badminton Africa www.badmintonafrica.com

BADMINTON WORLD FEDERATION

Tel +603 2381 9188

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Photo credit: BWF/BadmintonPhoto

BADMINTON WORLD FEDERATION

Tel +603 2381 9188

01. BWF COACH EDUCATION FRAMEWORK

BWF COACH EDUCATION FRAMEWORK AND PHILOSOPHY

COURSE / AWARD TARGET GROUP FORMAT CONTENT OUTCOMES / ASSESSMENT

BADMINTON COACH EDUCATION LEVEL 3

COACH Highly experienced University-level study Advanced-level long-term Demonstration of long-term

02. PROGRESSION FROM LEVEL 1 THROUGH LEVEL 3

At the same time, however, Level 3 also

social, and psychological development through

Finally, building on the Level 2 examination of

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03. LINKING INTO NATIONAL/REGIONAL SYSTEMS

BWF COACH EDUCATION FRAMEWORK AND PHILOSOPHY

BADMINTON COACH EDUCATION LEVEL 3

• Module 2 will look at how players

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BADMINTON WORLD FEDERATION

Tel +603 2381 9188

TALENT DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION

• create a feeling of national pride

• lack of clarity over whether badminton champions are “born” or “made”

BADMINTON COACH EDUCATION LEVEL 3

By the end of this module, coaches will be able to:

• define terminology used within talent detection and identification

02. KEY TERMINOLOGY

• there is an ideal size for a successful badminton player

Ability was defined in the Level 2 Coaches’ Manual as:

1. Perceptual abilities, which are concerned with an individual’s interpretation of an event.

Photo credit: James Varghese

TALENT DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION

BADMINTON COACH EDUCATION LEVEL 3

• Social - exhibited through behaviours such as leadership and team cohesion

Applied in a sporting context, the term “giftedness” can be defined as:

“the capacity to display high levels of competence in generic sporting abilities”.

• Technical • Physical • Lifestyle

TALENT DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION

Photo credit: BWF/ BadmintonPhoto

Talent can be defined as:

A VOLLEYBALL SPIKE A BADMINTON SMASH

• detecting talent from outside badminton and transferring it into badminton

• implementing a process to develop players’ talent optimally

• determining that talented players, as the result of an assessment, are:

03. ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION

TALENT DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION

ARE WE MEASURING THE RIGHT THINGS?

Traditional methods of talent identification in badminton often involve the following:

Criticisms of this approach include the arguments below:

BADMINTON COACH EDUCATION LEVEL 3

TRAINED TALENT SPOTTERS: WHAT SKILLS DO THEY NEED?

• success in coaching, most notably in developing talent

WHAT KIND OF PREPARATION SHOULD OCCUR PRIOR TO TALENT DETECTION?

Travelling Movements, Object-Control Movements, Balance and Coordination,

badminton. For example: