Reading and Wrting

Persuasion
-describes an issue and your position or opinion on the subject
-a process in which changing a person attitude or behavior toward some event,
idea or objects
-it is a process to convince someone about something by giving logics and reasons
to make your point trustable and believable and to make a choice or on your point
of view
Transitional Words
For instance, for example, as an illustration, especially, in addition, such as, and
etc.
Example:
The United States is an example of a democratic country, where citizens elect their
representatives through regular election and have the power to vote on important
matters
Definition of example:
Democracy is a system of Government un which power is vested in the people,
who exercise it directly through elected representatives

Problem and solution

-it is a pattern of development where information in a pass age is expressed as a
dilemma or concerning issue (a problem) and something that was, can be, or
should be done to remedy this issue
Transitional words:
Of course, clearly, evidently, surely, indeed, undoubtedly, decidedly, for their
reason, besides, again, on the other hand, for this reason

Cause and Effect

-explains why something happens or what results a particular event produces
Transitional Words
Because, therefore, so, as a result, consequently, due to, because of, thus, hemce,
since, owing to, for

Comparison and Contrast

-organizes ideas based on how events, places, people, things and concepts are
similar to or different from one another
Transitional Words
COMPARING
Also, as, both, equally, likewise, in similar, in the same way, despite this, like
CONTRASTING
Although, and, yet, but, conversely, instead, however, nevertheless, while,
alternatively, on the contrary

Classification
-sorting or arranging subjects intro groups or categories according to their
common shared characteristics
To determine:
Is categorized by, this type of, several kinds of, classified according to, and etc.

Definition
-explains a concept, term or subject
To determine:
The starting point for a definition paragraph is a simple definition, which becomes
the topic sentence of the paragraph
Transitional words:
Another definition, to define, another meaning, as these examples show, and etc.
Terms, class, differentia:
Ex. A computer is an electronic device for or used for storing device

Exemplification
-giving an extended example or a series of detailed examples to prove a point
To determine:
Exemplification provides solid support and strong evidence to prove the writer’s
main statement
Transitional words:
A problem is, a solution is, if…, then…, so that, the cause is, the results are, one
problem is, the question is, the answer is, one solution is, and etc.

What is Writing?
-it is a method of representing language in a visual or tactile form
-it is a system of graphic symbols that can be used to convey meaning
What is reading?
Defined according to two types (Lapp and Flood, 1978)
1. A decoding process (breaking down of written codes)
2. A comprehension processes

Writing and Paragraph

-an effective paragraph shows the unity of the sentences used in developing the
main idea. A paragraph is made up of the TOPIC SENTENCE which contains the
main idea, the SUPPORTING DETAILS and the conclusion or the CLINCHING
SENTENCE at the end.
-a PARAGRAPH is a collection of related sentences with one central idea.
-as an independent unit, it is complete in itself. It has its beginning, middle and
end.
-as a related unit, it is part of a composition that is combined with other
paragraphs to make
Methods or Techniques in Paragraph Development
(Text Types/Structures)
-Narration
-Description
-Definition
-Classification
-Comparison and Contrast
-Cause and Effect
-Problem-Solution
-Persuasion

TYPES OF WRITING
1. Narration
-it gives a written account of an event or story, or simply, storytelling. The
sequence of events is told in chronological order
-it is the most common type of paragraph development. It has the following
elements:
 Settings
 Characters
 Plot
  Point of View
2. Description
-it gives information of what a person, an object, a place or situation is like.
-a DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH has a concrete and specific details, which are
carefully chosen by a writer to paint a picture in the mind of the reader. It
appeals to the reader’s senses.
SIGNAL WORDS FOR DESCRIPTION
 Sight
 Sound
 Smell
 Touch
 Taste
3. Definition
-It explains a concept, term or subject. Its main purpose is to tell what
something is
 The topic sentence, which states the main idea of the paragraph.
 The body, which consists of supporting sentences that extend upon the
main idea.
 The conclusion, which summarizes the ideas that have been presented
4. Classification
- In a CLASSIFICATIOB PARAGRAPH, separate items are grouped into categories
according to shared characteristics. Depending on the subject, you may be
asked to classify people, organisms, things, or ideas. Topic sentence identifies
what is to be classified and the categories used.
5. Comparison and Contrast
- A comparison and contrast paragraph are a type of paragraph that explains
the similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
 COMPARISON
-Shows similarities between and among people, things, ideas
 CONTRAST
-Shows the differences
-The word “comparison” includes both kinds of analysis
-simple comparisons can be between two things, ideas, etc.
-complex comparison can examine similarities and differences among many
subjects.
6. Cause and Effect
-CAUSE & EFFECT PARAGRAPHS are organized in such a way that they explain why
something happened or the impacts of something.
-Cause-and-effect text structures are commonly employed in expository and
persuasive writing. They help readers understand complex ideas by breaking them
down into simpler pieces. In general, causes lead to effects.
7. Problem-Solution
- A PROBLEM_SOLUTION PARAGRAPH is a type of paragraph that identifies a
problem and recommends a plausible solution. It has three main parts:
 The topic sentence introduces the solution to a problem.
 The body sentences explain the problem and solution.
 The ending sentence calls readers to action.
-In a problem-solution essay, you start with a captivating introduction that
presents the problem, then write three body paragraphs, each discussing a
single solution, and wrap everything up with a strong conclusion that
reiterates the solutions and emphasizes why they are the best
8. Persuasion
-A persuasive paragraph is a sentence or paragraph that aims to influence the
reader to follow the author’s will. It can be in the form of an invitation,
persuasion, appeal, or seduction.
-In general, a persuasive paragraph attempts to get readers to accept a point of
view or the writer’s position on a topic.
-It usually consists of a topic sentence, body sentences, and a closing
sentence.
-The topic sentence includes the writer’s opinion, and the body sentences
support that opinion. The closing sentence restates the writer’s opinion.
-A persuasive paragraph can be a standalone assignment or part of an essay.

-As a writer you should help the readers see how these two ideas are similar or
different by showing them its advantages and disadvantages so they are able to
weigh the pros and cons before they make judgements or decision. Take a look at
this example
CAUSE AND EFFECTS
 Prevents why something happens
 A relationship for an action and a reaction
 Cue words for cause- a cause of, because of, for due to, as, and since
 Cue words for effect- therefore, consequently, so, so that, this, accordingly
CLASSIFICATION
  Classifies items or things into their parts, types, kinds, or categories
 Signal words: a part of, a kind of, a group of, a way of, a class of, an example
of, types of, divided into, and comprised of
 Is used when a writer needs to sort out or arrange subjects to groups or
categories based on this common and shared characteristic
EXEMPLIFICATION (or illustration)
-most common and effective patterns to explain an idea or point. In developing
this kind of paragraph, the writer develops a general statement-the topic
sentence, with one or more examples to support it
COMPARISON and CONTRAST
 Comparison involves identification of similarities of at least two things or
concepts
Signal words: similarly, in like manner, and in the same way
 Contrast identifies the differences between or among two subject or topics
Signal words: on the contrary, the opposite, compared to, in contrast,
although, however, unless
-Comparison is writing discusses elements that are similar while contrast in
writing discusses elements or ideas that are different. A compare-and-contrast
essay, then analyzes two subjects comparing them, contrasting them, or both.
However, its purpose is not to simply state the obvious but rather to illustrate
subtle differences or unexpected similarities between two subjects
-each item gives you hind about certain category
Properties of a well written text

Organization
- It is also known as arrangement and is achieved when ideas are logically
and accurately arranged with focus on the arrangement of ideas, incidents,
evidence, or details in a definite order in a paragraph, essay, or speech
Physical Format
- It is seen how the text physically appears like headings and subheadings,
bullet points, or font emphasis
Signal Words
- There are textual words/cues that readers can use to follow a text. They can
“signal” the transition form one point to another
Structure
- The structure provides the framework upon which the text is organized. It
consists of the following
Beginning: Introduction, thesis statement, hook
Middle: supporting details
End: conclusion, summary, final message

Paragraph arrangements
1. Chronological Order
-first, second, later, before, next, as soon as, after, then, finally, meanwhile
following, last, during, on, on, until
2. Order of Importance
-less, more, primary, next, last, most important, primarily, secondarily
3. Spatial Order
-above, below, besides, next to, in front of, behind, inside, outside,
opposite, within, nearby
4. Definition Order
-is, refers to, can be defined as, means, consists of, involves, is a term that,
is called
5. Classification
-classified as, comprises, is composed of, several, varieties of, different
stages of, different groups that
6. Process
-firs, next, then, following, after that, last, finally
7. Cause and Effect
 -Causes: before, for, since, one causes is, one reason is, leads to, causes,
yields, due to, breeds, for this reason
-Effects: consequently, results in, one result is, therefore, thus, as a result,
hence
8. Comparison and Contrast
-Similarities: both, also, similarly, like, likewise, too, as well as, resembles,
correspondingly, in the same way, to compare, in comparison, share
-Differences: unlike, differ from, is contrast, on the other hand, instead,
despite, nevertheless, however, in spite of, whereas, as opposed to
9. Listing
-the following, several, for example, for instance, one another, also, too, in
other words, first, second, numerable (1, 2, 3…), letters (a, b, c…).
10. Classification
-in fact, in other words, dearly
11. Summary
-in summary, in conclusion, is brief to, summarize, to sum up, in short, on
the
12. Example
-for example, for instance, to illustrate
13. Addition
-furthermore, additionally, also, besides, further, in addition, moreover,
again
Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence
-the relationship of ideas between sentences
-the quality or state of cohering; such as: Systematic or logical connection or
consistency
-relates to the macro level features of a text, which help it to make a sense as a
whole
-relates to the organization and progression of ideas in the text
-refers to how clear or easy the ideas one to understand
-Coherent (adj.)
 Logically ordered and connected
 Clear and consistent
 Understandable

Cohesion
-the connection of ideas to the concept of a text
-cohesion means sticking together. If your group of friend’s heads to the
lunchroom as a team and site all together, your demonstration strong cohesion
unlocking difficulties
-relates to the micro level of the text, ensuring that the words and sentences your
use join or stick togethers
-cohesive (adj.)
 United and working together
 Fitting together well

Cohesion without Coherence

-a text with cohesion has a central concept or “glue” that holds all the different
ideas together. Although without coherence, there 6 no apparent logic to the way
these ideas are presented
-the writer appears to move on to another related idea without a proper
transition from the previous idea

Transitional Devices
Time Contrast Result Additional
Example
After furthermore In contrast Therefore And
Before then Instead Because Also
 During later However, Then Beside
Earlier since Yet Thus For examples
Final units On the contrary So For instance,
First meanwhile On the other Hence In addition,
hand,
Afterward Nevertheless As a result, Such as

Organization
-refers to the largest parts of the piece of writing, although it also refers to how
paragraph and sentences are written. The flow of a piece of writing affects how
readers interpret