Matrices and Determinants

Matrix
An ordered rectangular arrangement of numbers or functions is called a matrix

Square matrix
A matrix in which the number rows are equal to the number of columns is called a square matrix

Trace of a square matrix

Trace of a square matrix A is the sum of all the diagonal elements of A and is denoted by tr(A)

For matrices A, B and C

 AB = AC ⇏ B = C
 AB = BA is need not be true in general
 AB = O ⇏ A = O or B = O
 AI = IA = A

Determinant of a square matrix

Every square matrix A is associated with some real or complex number called determinant of A and
is denoted by |A| or det(A) or ∆
 If A = [a] then |A| = a
a b
 If A = [ ] then |A| = ad − bc
c d
a b c
 If A = [ x y z] then |A| = a(yr − qz) − b(xr − pz) + c(xq − py)
p q r
x1 y1 1
1
 The area of triangle with vertices (x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ) is 2 |x2 y2 1|
x3 y3 1
x1 y1 1
 The equation of line joining the points (x1 , y1 ) , and (x2 , y2 ) is |x2 y2 1| = 0
x y 1
Properties
 The value of a determinant is unaltered if its rows and columns are interchanged
 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged then sign of the determinant
changes
 If in a determinant two rows (or columns) are identical then the value of the determinant is zero
 If the elements of any row (or column) are multiplied by k then the value of the determinant is
multiplied by k
 If corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are then the value of the
determinant is zero
 If each element in any row (or column) of a determinant is a sum of two terms then the
determinant can be expressed as a sum of two determinants
 If to the elements of any row (or column) of a determinant the same multiples of the corresponding
elements of the other rows (or columns) of the determinant are added then the value of the
determinant is unaltered
Transpose of a matrix
A matrix obtained from interchanging the rows and columns of a matrix
If A is the matrix then transpose of A is denoted by A′ or AT
Am×n then A′ n×m

Properties
 (A ± B)′ = A′ ± B′
 (A′)′ = A
 (AB)′ = B′A′
 (kA)′ = kA′ ,k ∈ R
 (An )′ = (A′ )n

Symmetric matrix
A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A′ = A
(aij = aji for i ≠ j)

Skew-symmetric matrix
A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A′ = −A
(aij = −aji for i ≠ j and aij = 0 for i = j)
 Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix of odd order is zero and of even order is a non-zero
perfect square

If 𝐀 is a square matrix
 A + A′ is a symmetric matrix
 A − A′ is a skew-symmetric matrix
 AA′ & A′A is a symmetric matrix
 Every square matrix A can be expressed sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix
1 1
i.e. A = 2 (A + A′ ) + 2 (A − A′ )
 A square matrix which is both symmetric and skew-symmetric is zero matrix
 If A & B are symmetric matrices then AB is symmetric if and only if AB = BA

Minors and Cofactors of elements of a determinant

 The minor of an element aij is the value of the determinant obtained by deleting ith row and jth
column of the matrix. The minor of the element aij is denoted by Mij
 The cofactor of an element aij of a matrix is denoted and defined by Aij = (−1)i+j Mij
 The cofactor matrix of a square matrix A is the matrix obtained by replacing the elements of A
by its corresponding cofactors
 The sum of product of elements of a row (or column) of a determinant with its corresponding
cofactors is value of the determinant
 The sum of product of elements of a row (or column) of a determinant with the cofactors of other
row (or column) is zero
Adjoint of a matrix
The adjoint of the matrix A is the transpose of the cofactor matrix A and it is denoted by adjA
a b d −b
 If A = [ ] then adjA = [ ]
c d −c a
If 𝐀 is a square matrix of order n
 |adj A| = |A|n−1  adj(kA) = k n−1 adj(A)
 |adj (adj(. . . (adj A)))| = |A|(n−1)
r
 adj(adjA)= |A|n−2 A
 adj(A′ ) = (adjA)′
 |kadj A| = k n |A|n−1 , K∈ R
 adj(An ) = (adjA)n
 A(adjA) = (adjA)A = |A|I
 |kA| = k n |A| , k∈ R
 adj(AB) = (adjB)(adjA)
 |AB| = |A||B|
 |A| = |A′ |  |An | = |A|n

Invertible matrix
A square matrix A of order n is said to be invertible if there exist another square matrix B of same
order such that AB = BA = I where B is called inverse of A and is denoted by A−1
So we have AA−1 = A−1 A = I
 If |A| = 0 then A is called singular matrix
 If |A| ≠ 0 then A is called non-singular matrix
 If A , B and C are square matrices and A is non-singular then AB = AC ⟹ B = C
 A square matrix of order n is invertible iff A is non-singular and inverse of A is given by
1
A−1 = (adjA)
|A|
 If |A| = 0 then A−1 does not exist
 A is non-singular then (An )−1 = (A−1 )n
1
 |A−1 | =
|A|
−1 | 1
 |kA = k n |A| , where n is order of A
1 n 1
 |(kA)−1 | = ( ) , where n is order of A
k |A|
 (A−1 )−1 = A
 If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order then (AB)−1 = B−1 A−1
 (A ± B)−1 = A−1 ± B −1 is need not be true

Diagonal matrix
A square matrix A is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non-diagonal elements are zero
(aij = 0 for i ≠ j)
a 0 0 an 0 0
n
 If A = [ 0 b 0] then A = [ 0 bn 0]
0 0 c 0 0 cn

1
a 0 0 a
0 0
 If A = [0 b 0] then A−1 = [0 1 0]
0 0 c b 1
0 0 c
 The determinant of diagonal matrix is the product of the diagonal elements

Scalar matrix
A square matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if all its diagonal elements are same and non-diagonal
elements are zero
(aij = k for i = j and aij = 0 for i ≠ j)

Identity matrix
A square matrix is said to be a identity matrix if all its diagonal elements are one and non-diagonal
elements are zero and it is denoted by In
(aij = 1 for i = j and aij = 0 for i ≠ j)
 I = [1]
1 0
I=[ ]
0 1
1 0 0
 I = [0 1 0]
0 0 1

Zero matrix
A matrix is said to be a zero matrix if all its elements are zero
It is denoted by O

Upper triangular matrix

A square matrix is said to be an upper triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i > j

Lower triangular matrix

A square matrix is said to be a lower triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i < j
 The value of a determinant of upper triangular matrix or lower triangular matrix is equal to
product of the diagonal elements

Orthogonal matrix
A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA′ = A′ A = I
 |A| = ± 1
 A−1 = A′
 In an orthogonal matrix the sum of squares of all the elements in each row (or column) is one and
the sum of product of corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) is zero
cosϑ −sinϑ cosnϑ −sinnϑ
 If A = [ ] then An = [ ] , n∈ N
sinϑ cosϑ sinnϑ cosnϑ

cosϑ −sinϑ 0 cosnϑ −sinnϑ 0

 If A = [ sinϑ cosϑ 0] then An = [ sinnϑ cosnϑ 0] , n∈ N
0 0 1 0 0 1

Idempotent matrix
A square matrix A is said to be idempotent if A2 = A
 An = A , n ∈ N
 |A| = 0 or 1
 If AB = B and BA = A then A2 = A and B2 = B

Involutory matrix
A square matrix A is said to be involutory if A2 = I
 An = I if n is even
 An = A if n is odd
 |A| = 1 or − 1
 A−1 = A

Nilpotent matrix
A square matrix A is said to nilpotent if An = 0 for some positive integer n
 An = 0 then An+1 = 0 , n ∈N
 |A| = 0 so A−1 does not exist

System of linear equations

Consistent system
A system is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution
Inconsistent system
A system is said to be inconsistent if it has no solution

Solution of system of linear equations

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2 and a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3

Cramer’s Rule
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
If ∆= | 2 b2
a c2 | , ∆x = |d2 b2 c2 | , ∆y = |a2 d2 c2 | and ∆z = |a2 b2 d2 | then
a 3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
∆x ∆y ∆z
 If ∆ ≠ 0 and solution then it has unique solution and is given by x = ,y= and z =
∆ ∆ ∆
 If ∆ = 0 and ∆x or ∆y or ∆z ≠ 0 then it has no solution
 If ∆ = ∆x = ∆y = ∆z = 0 then it has infinitely many solutions

Matrix Method
a1 b1 c1 x d1
If A = [a2 b2 c2 ] , X = [y] and B = [d2 ] then
a3 b3 c2 z d3
 If |A| ≠ 0, then it has unique solution and is given by X = A−1 B
 If |A| = 0 and (adj A)B = 0 then it has infinitely many solution
 If |A| = 0 and (adj A)B ≠ 0 then it has no solution

Characteristic equation of a square matrix

 If A is a square matrix of order 2 × 2 then characteristic equation is given by
A2 − tr(A) A + |A|I = O
 If A is a square matrix of order 3 × 3 then characteristic equation is given by
A3 − tr(A)A2 + tr (adj(A)) A − |A|I = O
 Limits, Continuity and Differentiability

Limit of a function
For a function f(x) and x = a be any real number
LHL = lim− f(x) = lim f(a − h) and RHL = lim+ f(x) = lim f(a + h)
x→a h→0 x→a h→0
If LHL = RHL then lim f(x) exists
x→a

Properties
If lim f(x) = m and lim g(x) = n then
x→a x→a
 lim[f(x) ± g(x)] = m ± n
x→a
 lim[f(x) g(x)] = mn
x→a
f(x) m
 lim =
x→a g(x) n
 lim[cf(x)] = c lim f(x) where c∈ R
x→a x→a
 lim[f(x)]g(x) = mn
x→a

Results
xn −an ax −1
 lim = nan−1  lim
x
= log e a
x→a x−a x→0
sinx x
a −1
 lim = 1 where x is in radian  lim = log b a
x→0 x x→0 bx −1
tanx ax −bx a
 lim = 1 where θ is in radian  lim = log e
x→0 x x→0 x b
sinx° π ex −1
 lim =  lim =1
x→0 x 180 x→0 x
tanx° π loge (1+x)
 lim =  lim =1
x→0 x 180 x→0 x
sin−1 x  lim f(g(x)) = f(lim g(x))
 lim =1 x→a x→a
x→0 x
tan−1 x if f is continuous at x = lim g(x)
 lim =1 x→a
x→0 x n
 lim x = 0 if −1 < x < 1
1 x→0
 lim(1 + x) = e x 1
x→0  lim f(x) = lim f ( )
x→∞ x→0 x
1 x
 lim (1 + ) = e
x→∞ x

Indeterminate forms
0 ∞
The forms , , 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞, 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ are called indeterminate forms
0 ∞

0 ∞
 If or
0 ∞
Laplace-Hospital’s Rule
f(x) f′ (x) f′′ (x)
lim = lim = lim continue the process till the indeterminate form vanishes
x→a g(x) x→a g′ (x) x→a g′′ (x)

 If 0 × ∞ or ∞ − ∞
 0 ∞
Simplify and convert into the form or
0 ∞

 If 00 or ∞0
Evaluate the limit by applying log on both the sides

 If 1∞
lim
lim(f(x))g(x) = ex→a(f(x)−1)g(x)
x→a

Continuity of a function
For a function f(x) and x = a be a point in the domain of f
If lim− f(x) = lim+ f(x) = f(a) then f(x) is continuous at x = a
x→a x→a
Otherwise f(x) is discontinuous at x = a

Results
 If f(x) and g(x) are the two continuous functions at x = a then (f + g)(x), (f − g)(x), (fg)(x) and
f
(g) (x), g(a) ≠ 0 is continuous at x = a
 If f(x) and g(x) are the two functions such that (fog)(x) is defined at x = a. If g(x) is continuous at
x = a & f(x) is continuous at x = g(a) then (fog)(x) is continuous at x = a

Differentiability of a function
For a function f(x) and x = a be a point in the domain of f
f(x)− f(a) f(x)− f(a)
LHD = lim− RHD = lim+
x→a x−a x→a x−a
If LHD = RHD then f(x) is differentiable at x = a

Results
 Every differentiable function is continuous
The converse of the above statement need not be true i.e. Every continuous function need not be
differentiable
Example: f(x) = |x| is a continuous function but it is not differentiable at x = 0
 Every discontinuous function is non-differentiable

Properties
If u and v are two differentiable functions
d d d
 (u ± v) = (u ) ± (v)
dx dx dx
d d
 (kf(x) = k f(x)
dx dx
d d d
 (uv) = u (v) + v (u )
dx dx dx
d d
d u v (u)− u (v)
 ( )= dx dx
dx v v2
 Results
d d
 (x n ) = nx n−1  (cos x) = − sin x
dx dx
d d
 (constant) = 0  (tan x) = sec 2 x
dx dx
d 1 −n d
 ( ) = xn+1  (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx xn dx
d 1 d
 (√x) =  (cosec x) = −cosec x cot x
dx 2√x dx
d 1 d
 (log x) =  (cot x) = − cosec 2 x
dx x dx
d 1 d 1
 (log a x) = (a > 0)  (sin−1 x) =
dx xloga dx √1−x2
d x d −1
 a = ax log a (a > 0)  (cos −1 x) =
dx dx √1−x2
d x d 1
 e = ex  (tan−1 x) =
dx dx 1 +x2
d d −1
 (sin x) = cos x  (cot −1 x) =
dx dx 1 +x2
d −1 d 1
 (cosec −1 x) =  (sec −1 x) =
dx x√x2 − 1 dx x√x2 − 1

Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions by substitution

Expression Substitution

√ a2 − x 2 x = a sin  or x = a cos 

√a2 + x 2 x = a tan  or x = a cot 

√x 2 − a2 x = a sec  or x = a cosec 

a−x a+x x = a tan 

or
a+x a−x
x = a cos 2 or x = a cos 
a−x a+x
√ or √
a+x a−x

Differentiation of parametric functions

dy
dy dt f′ (t)
If x = g(t) , y = f(t) are the parametric equations then = dx =
dx g′ (t)
dt

Differentiation of a function with respect to another function

du du/dx f′ (x)
To find derivative of f(x) with respect to g(x) . Let u = f(x) and v = g(x) then = =
dv dv/dx g′ (x)
Logarithmic Differentiation
g(x)
 y = (f(x))
f(x)g(x)h (x) . . .
 y=
p(x)q(x)r(x) . . .
 y = f(x)g(x)h(x) . . .
In the above mentioned cases first apply log on both sides, simplify and then differentiate

Results
 𝑦 = |f(x)| is not differentiable at the point x for which f(x)= 0

 If y = |x| , x ≠ 0 then
dy dy
= −1 if x < 0 and = 1 if x > 0
dx dx

 If y = [x] then
dy dy
= 0 if x ∉ Z and does not exist if x ∈ Z
dx dx

|x| x
 If y = or y =
x |x|
dy dy
= 0 if x ∉ R − {0} and does not exist if x = 0
dx dx

 If y = {x} = x − [x] then

dy dy
= 1 if x ∉ Z and does not exist if x ∈ Z
dx dx

d
 f(x)f(x) = f(x)f(x) ([1 + log f(x)]f ′ (x))
dx

dy −fx
 If f(x, y) = 0 then =
dx fy
where −fx is derivative of f wrt x keeping y as constant
and fy is derivative of f wrt y keeping x as constant

dy y
 If x m y n = (x + y)m+n then =
dx x
dy
 If ax + ay = ax+y then = −ay−x
dx
d2 y
 If ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 then =0
d2 x

a b
af(x)+b dy f′ (x)| |
c d
 If y =
cf(x)+d
then = (cf(x)+d)2
dx
 dy f′ (x)
 If y = √f(x) + √f(x) + √f(x) + . . . ∞ then =
dx 2y−1

dy
 If y = √f(x)√f(x)√f(x) . . . ∞ then = f ′ (x)
dx

f(x) . . . ∞ dy y2 f′ (x)
 If y = f(x)f(x) then =
dx f(x)(1−ylog(f(x))

1 dy yf′ (x)
 If y = f(x) + 1 then =
f(x)+
f(x)+ . . . ∞
dx 2y−f(x)

 If f(x + y) = f(x)f(y), f(x) ≠ 0, f(a) = k , f ′ (0) = m then f ′ (a) = k m

acos f(x)+b sin f(x) dy

 If y = tan−1 ( ) then = f ′ (x)
bcos f(x)−a sin f(x) dx

acos f(x)−b sin f(x) dy

 If y = tan−1 ( ) then = −f′(x)
bcos f(x)+a sin f(x) dx

f(x) g(x) h(x)

 If y = |u(x) v(x) w(x)| then
p(x) q(x) r(x)
f′(x) g′(x) h′(x) f(x) g(x) h(x) f(x) g(x) h(x)
dy
= |u(x) v(x) w(x) | + |u′(x) v′(x) w′(x)| + | u(x) v(x) w(x) |
dx
p(x) q(x) r(x) p(x) q(x) r(x) p′(x) q′(x) r′(x)

dy
 If f(x + y) =k then = −1
dx
dy −y
 If f(xy)=k then =
dx x
x y dy y
 If f( )=k or f( ) = k then =
y x dx x
x2 x3
 ex = 1 + x + + + . . .
2! 3!
x3 x5
 sin x = x − + + . . .
3! 5!
x2 x4
 cos x = 1 − + − . . .
2! 4!
1
 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . for |x| < 1
1−x
1
 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + . . . for |x| < 1
1+x
x2 x3
 log(1 + x) = x − + − . . . for |x| < 1
2 3
x2 x3
 log(1 − x) = −x − − − . . . for |x| < 1
2 3
 Application of Derivatives

Rate Measure
If y = f(x) is the relation between x and y then the rate of change of y wrt x at a point a is given by
dy
( ) or f ′ (a)
dx x=a

Circle
Diameter = 2r, Area = πr 2 and Circumference = 2πr where r is the radius of the circle.
Square
Area = l2 , Perimeter = 4l , where l is the side of the square
Rectangle
Area = lb , Perimeter = 2(l + b) , where l is the length and b is the breath of the rectangle.
Equilateral triangle
√3 2
Area = A = x , where x is the side of the triangle
4
Cube
Surface area = 6l2 , Volume = l3 , where l is the side of the cube
Sphere
4
Surface area = 4πr 2 , Volume = πr 3 , where r is the radius of the sphere
3
Cone
Lateral surface area = πrl, Total surface area = πr(r + l)
1
Volume = πr 2 h, where r is the radius, h is the height and l is the slant height of the cone
3
Cylinder
Lateral surface area = 2πrh, Total surface area = 2πr(r + h)
Volume = πr 2 h, where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder

Increasing and Decreasing functions

 If a function f(x) is said to be increasing function if f ′ (x) ≥ 0
 If a function f(x) is said to be decreasing function if f ′ (x) ≤ 0
 If a function f(x) is said to be strictly increasing function if f ′ (x) > 0
 If a function f(x) is said to be strictly decreasing function if f ′ (x) < 0

Minima and Maxima

The point x at which f ′ (x) = 0 is called as the critical point of f

First Derivative test for maxima or minima

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let f be continuous at a critical point c in I
 If f′(x) changes its sign from positive to negative then f(x) has maximum at x = c
 If f′(x) changes its sign from negative to positive then f(x) has minimum at x = c
 If f′(x) does not changes its sign then f(x) has neither maximum nor minimum at x = c.
In this case point x=c is called point of inflection
Second derivative test for maxima or minima
Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let f be continuous at a critical point c in I
 A function f(x) has a maximum at x = c, if f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0
 A function f(x) has a minimum at x = c, if f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0
 If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) = 0 in this case we go back to the first derivative test.
 If f ′ (c) = 0, f ′′ (c) = 0 and f ′′′ (c) ≠ 0 then point x=c is called point of inflection

To find absolute maxima or absolute minima

 Find all the critical points of f in the interval, i. e., find points x such that f ′ (x) = 0
 Take the end points of the interval.
 At all these points calculate the value of the function.
 The maximum (greatest) value will be the absolute maximum value of f(x) and minimum (least) value
will be the absolute minimum value of f(x)

Results
 If f(x) = acosx + bsinx the maximum value is √a2 + b 2 and the minimum value is −√a2 + b 2
 If f(x) = acosx + bsinx + c the maximum value is c + √a2 + b 2 and the minimum value is
c − √a2 + b 2
3
2 2 2
 If f(x) = asecx + bcosecx the minimum value is (a + b ) 3 3

 If f(x) = acot x + b tan x then the minimum value is 2√ab

 If f(x) = acos 2 x + bsin2 x the maximum value is max { a2 , b2 } and the minimum value is
min { a2 , b2 }
1
 If f(x)= cos4 x + sin4 x the maximum value is 1 and the minimum value is
2
 The maximum rectangle that can be inscribed in a circle of radius r is a square and its area 2r 2
 The triangle of maximum area that can be inscribed in a circle of radius r is an equilateral triangle. Its
3√3r2
side is √3r and area is
4
4r
 A cone of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a sphere of a given radius r is of height
3
 The area of a sector of a circle of a given perimeter is maximum when the radius of the circle is one-
fourth of the perimeter
2r
 A right circular cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius r is of height
√3
𝑥2 𝑦2
 The sides of the greatest rectangle that can be inscribed in the ellipse + = 1 are a√2, b√2
𝑎2 𝑏2
 The semi vertical angle of right circular cone of maximum volume and of a given slant height is tan−1 √2
𝑝2
 The maximum area of rectangle with perimeter p is
16
 The least perimeter of rectangle having area a is 4√𝑎
𝑥2 𝑦2
 Area of the greatest rectangle that can be inscribed in ellipse 2
+ = 1 is 2ab
𝑎 𝑏2
 Area of the greatest rectangle that can be inscribed in ellipse is 2ab
 Vector Algebra

Scalars
The physical quantities that have only magnitude is called scalars

Vectors
The physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction is called vectors

Types of vectors
Null vector
A vector whose magnitude is zero

Unit vectors
A vector whose magnitude is one
⃗
a
 A unit vector along the direction of a⃗ is denoted by â and a
̂= where|a⃗| is magnitude of a⃗
|a
⃗|

Equal vectors
Two vectors are said to be equal vectors if their magnitude and direction are same

Negative vectors
A vector having the same magnitude as that of the vector a⃗ and the direction opposite to that of a⃗ is called
negative vector and it is denoted by −a
⃗

Co-initial vectors
Two or more vectors are said to be co-initial vectors if they have same initial point

Collinear (Parallel) vectors

Two or more vectors are said to be collinear vectors if they are parallel to the same line irrespective of their
magnitude and direction
 Two vectors a⃗ and b ⃗ are collinear(parallel) iff a⃗ = λb
⃗ for some λ ∈ R

Position vector of a point

Let O be the fixed point and P be any point in space then the position vector of P w.r.t O is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP

Triangle law of vector addition

C
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC

A B

Parallelogram law of vector addition

 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AD = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BD 𝑪 𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = AC
 AD ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + CD
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐀 𝐁
Vector joining two points
Let O be the fixed point and A, B be any two points in space with the position vectors w.r.t O are ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB
respectively then the vector joining the points A and B is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA

Component form of a vector

OP = r = xî + yĵ + zk̂ where î , ĵ & k̂ are the unit
The position vector of a point P(x, y, z) in space is given by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
vectors along the direction of x , y and z axis respectively is called its component form
its magnitude is given by |r| = √x 2 + y 2 + z 2

Dot Product (Scalar Product) of two vectors

⃗ be any two non-zero vectors then scalar product is defined as ⃗a ∙ b
Let a⃗ and b ⃗ | cos 
⃗ = |a⃗||b
where  is the angle between a⃗ and ⃗b and 0 ≤  ≤ π

Geometrical interpretation of dot product of two vectors

 The projection of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||cos  |and the projection vector is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |AB
AB on the line l is |AP AB cos 
AP = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Angle (𝛉) Projection
Vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁
θ=0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB
π ⃗0
θ=
2 𝜽
𝒍
θ=π ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ or ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−AB BA A P

3π ⃗0
θ=
2

⃗
⃗a∙b ⃗a∙b ⃗
 The projection of vector a⃗ on the vector ⃗b is ⃗|
and the projection vector of ̂
a⃗ on ⃗b is ( ⃗ ) b
|b |b|

Properties
 |a⃗|2 = a⃗ ∙ a⃗
⃗ ± c) = ⃗a ∙ ⃗b ± a⃗ ∙ c
 a⃗ ∙ (b
⃗ ) = k(a⃗ ∙ ⃗b), k ∈ R
 a⃗ ∙ (kb
 a⃗ is perpendicular to ⃗b iff a⃗ ∙ ⃗b = 0
 a⃗ ∙ ⃗b = ⃗b ∙ a⃗
 î ∙ î = ĵ∙ ĵ = k̂ ∙ k̂ = 1
 î∙ ĵ = ĵ∙ k̂ = k̂ ∙ î = 0
⃗
⃗a∙b ⃗
⃗a∙b
 The angle between the vectors a⃗ and ⃗b is given by cos  = ⃗|
i. e.  = cos −1 (|a⃗||b⃗ )
|a
⃗ ||b |

 If a⃗⃗ = a⃗1 î + a⃗2 ĵ + a⃗3 k̂ and ⃗b =b

⃗ 1 î + ⃗b2 ĵ + ⃗b3 k̂ are two non-zero vectors then
a⃗ ∙ ⃗b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
Cross vector (Vector product) of two vectors
⃗ | sin  n̂
Let a⃗ and ⃗b be any two non-zero vectors then cross product is defined as a⃗ × ⃗b = |a⃗||b
where  is the angle between a⃗ & ⃗b and 0 ≤  ≤ π and
n̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a⃗ and ⃗b

Geometrical interpretation of cross product of two vectors

1
⃗ | sin  = 1 |a⃗ × ⃗b|
 Area of a triangle with adjacent sides represented by vectors a⃗ and ⃗b is 2 |a⃗||b 2
⃗ | sin  = |a⃗ × ⃗b|
 Area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides represented by vectors a⃗ and ⃗b is |a⃗||b
1
 Area of a parallelogram with diagonals represented by vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d1 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d2 is 2 |d d2 |

Properties
 a⃗ × ⃗b = −b ⃗ × a⃗
⃗ ± c) = (a⃗ × ⃗b) ± (a⃗ × c)
 a⃗ × (b
 a⃗ × (kb⃗ ) = k(a⃗ × ⃗b) , k ∈ R
 If a⃗ is parallel to ⃗b then a⃗ × ⃗b = ⃗0
| ⃗a ×b ⃗| ⃗|
| ⃗a ×b
⃗ is given by sin  =
 The angle between the vectors a⃗ and b i. e.  = sin−1 ( |a⃗||b⃗ )
|a ⃗
⃗ ||b| |

 If a⃗ is perpendicular to to ⃗b then |a⃗ × ⃗b| = |a⃗||b

⃗|
 î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = ⃗0
 î × ĵ = k̂ ĵ × k̂ = î k̂ × î = ĵ
 ĵ × î = −k̂ k̂ × ĵ = −î î × k̂ = −ĵ
⃗ × ⃗b
a
⃗ is n
 The unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors a⃗ and b ̂=
⃗ × ⃗b|
|a

 a⃗ × a⃗ = ⃗0
 If a⃗⃗ = a⃗1 î + a⃗2 ĵ + a⃗3 k̂ and ⃗b =b
⃗ 1 î + ⃗b2 ĵ + ⃗b3 k̂ are two non-zero vectors then
î ĵ k̂
a⃗⃗ × b⃗⃗⃗ = |a1 a2 a3 |
b1 b2 b3
2 2 2
⃗ ∙ ⃗b| + |a⃗ × ⃗b| = |a⃗|2 |b
 Relation between dot and cross product of vectors |a ⃗|

Section Formula
 If P and Q are any two points with position vectors a⃗ and ⃗b. Let R be any point with position vector ⃗r
which divides PQ in the ration m:n
m ⃗b+ na
⃗
 Internally r =
m+n
m ⃗b−na
⃗
 Externally r =
m−n
⃗ + ⃗b
a
 Midpoint formula r =
2
Centroid of a triangle
The position vector of the centroid of a triangle PQR with a⃗, ⃗b and c as the position vectors of the vertices P,
⃗ + ⃗b+ c
a ⃗
Q and R respectively is
3

Results
 |a⃗ ∙ ⃗b| ≤ ⃗|
|a⃗||b
 |a⃗ ± ⃗b| ≤ ⃗|
|a⃗| + |b
 |a⃗ ± ⃗b| ≥ |a⃗| − |b
⃗|
2 2
⃗⃗ | = |a⃗⃗ |2 + |b
 |a⃗⃗ + b ⃗⃗ | + 2 (a⃗⃗ ∙ b
⃗⃗ )
2 2
 |a⃗⃗ − ⃗b⃗ | = |a⃗⃗ |2 + |b
⃗⃗ | − 2 ( a⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
b)
2 2 2
⃗⃗ | + |a⃗⃗ − b
 |a⃗⃗ + b ⃗⃗ | = 2 (|a⃗⃗ |2 + |b
⃗⃗ | )
2 2
 |a⃗⃗ + ⃗b⃗ | − |a⃗⃗ − ⃗b⃗ | = 4 ( a⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗b⃗ )
 |a⃗ + ⃗b + c|2 = |a⃗|2 + |b ⃗ |2 + |c|2 + 2(a⃗ ∙ ⃗b + ⃗b ∙ c + c ∙ a⃗)
−3
⃗ and c are unit vectors and a⃗ + b
 If a⃗, b ⃗ + c = ⃗0 then a ⃗ + b
⃗ ∙b ⃗ ∙ c + c ∙ a⃗ =
2
⃗ and c are any three vectors such that each vector is perpendicular to the sum of the other two
 If a⃗, b
vectors then a⃗ ∙ b⃗ + b
⃗ ∙ c + c ∙ a⃗ = 0
−1
⃗ ∙ ⃗b = ⃗b ∙ c = c ∙ a⃗ =
 If a⃗, ⃗b and c are unit vectors and a⃗ + ⃗b + c = ⃗0 then a
2
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ = cosθ, |a+b| = cos θ , |a−b| = sin θ
⃗ are unit vectors then a⃗ ∙ b
 If a⃗ and b
2 2 2 2
 If a⃗ and ⃗b are adjacent sides and ⃗d1 and ⃗d2 are diagonals of a parallelogram then
⃗d1 = a⃗ + b⃗ and ⃗d2 = b⃗ − a⃗
⃗d1 −d
⃗2 ⃗d1 +d
⃗2
a⃗ = and ⃗b =
2 2
 Three Dimensional Geometry

 The distance between the points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is

PQ = √(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2
 The coordinate of the point R which divides the line segment joining two points
mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1
P (x1 , y1 z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) internally in the ratio m: n are ( , , )
m+n m+n m+n
 The coordinate of the point R which divides the line segment joining two points
mx2 − nx1 my2 − ny1 mz2 − nz1
P (x1 , y1 z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) externally in the ratio m: n are ( , m−n , m−n )
m−n
 Coordinates of centroid of the triangle whose vertices are (x1 , y1 , z1 ),(x2 , y2 , z2 ) and (x3 , y3 , z3 ) is
x1 + x2 +x3 y1 + y2 +y3 z1 + z2 +z3
( , , )
3 3 3
 The ratio in which the line segment PQ, joining P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is divided by
co-ordinate planes
x1 y1 z1
i) By yz plane is − ii) By zx plane is − iii) By xy plane is −
x2 y2 z2

Direction cosines of a line

Let l be the line which is passing through the origin and inclined at angles ,  and  with x, y and z axes
respectively are called the direction angles and cosines of these cos, cos and cos are called the direction
cosines and these are denoted by l, m and n respectively

Direction ratios of a line

Any three numbers which are proportional to the direction cosines are called direction ratios and these are
denoted by a, b and c

Results
 a2 + b2 + c 2 ≠ 1
 l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 i. e. cos 2  + cos 2  + cos 2  = 1
 sin2  + sin2  + sin2  = 2
 cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 = −1
⃗⃗ = aî + bĵ + ck̂ then a, b and c are direction ratios of a⃗⃗
 If a
 Direction cosines of x − axis are 1, 0, 0
 Direction cosines of y − axis are 0, 1, 0
 Direction cosines of z − axis are 0, 0, 1
 Direction ratios of line joining two points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are
x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 or x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 , z1 − z2
x2 −x1 y2 −y1 z2 −z1
 Direction ratios of line joining two points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are , ,
PQ PQ PQ
The relationship between direction ratios and direction cosines of a line
a
 l = cos  = √a2
+ b2 + c2
b
 m = cos  = √a2
+ b2 + c2
c
 n = cos  =
√a2 + b2 + c2
Equation of the line passing through the point 𝐀(𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐲𝟏 , 𝐳𝟏 ) & parallel to vector 𝐛

Vector form
⃗ , where a⃗ is the PV of the point A and r is the PV of any point P
r = a⃗ + λb

Cartesian form
x−x1 y−y1 z−z1
= = , where a, b, c are the direction ratios of ⃗b
a b c

Angle between two lines

Vector form
⃗⃗⃗⃗
b1 ∙b⃗⃗⃗⃗2
If θ angle between two lines r = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 and r = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
a1 + λb ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 then cos θ =
a2 + μb ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ||b
|b ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |

Cartesian form
x−x1 y−y1 z−z1 x−x2 y−y2 z−z2
If θ angle between two lines = = and = = then
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
a1 a2 +b1 b2 +c1 c2
cos θ =
√a1 2 +b1 2 +c1 2 √a2 2 +b2 2 +c2 2

Results
 If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are the direction cosines of the two lines and θ is the angle between
two lines then cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
 If the lines r = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 and r = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
a1 + λb ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 are perpendicular ⟺ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
a2 + μb b1 ∙ b⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = 0
x−x1 y−y1 z−z1 x−x2 y−y2 z−z2
 If the lines = = and = = are perpendicular then
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0
x−x1 y−y1 z−z1 x−x2 y−y2 z−z2 a1 b1 c1
 If two lines = = and = = are parallel then = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
1
 The angle between two diagonals of the cube is cos −1 ( )
3

Skew Lines
In space the lines which are neither intersecting nor parallel are called skew lines

The Shortest distance between two skew lines

Vector form
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ×b
(b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 )∙(a ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −a
The shortest distance between the skew lines r = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 and r = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
a1 + λb ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 is d = |
a2 + μb |
|b⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ×b
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |
Cartesian form
x−x1 y−y1 z−z1 x−x2 y−y2 z−z2
The shortest distance between the skew lines = = and = = is
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
| a1 b1 c1 |
| a2 b2 c2 |
|√(b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2 + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 |

The distance between two parallel lines

Vector form
⃗
The distance between two parallel lines r = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ and r = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
a1 + λb ⃗ is d = |b×(a⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −a⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )|
a2 + μb ⃗ |b|
Cartesian form
x−x1 y−y1 z−z1 x−x2 y−y2 z−z2
The distance between two parallel lines = = and = = is
a b c a b c
î ĵ k̂
| a b c ||
|
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
d=
√a2 + b 2 + c 2
| |
 Integrals

Indefinite Integrals
d
If dx (F(x) + c) = f(x) then the set {F(x) + c, c ∈ R} represents anti derivative or integral of f(x)

Results
 ∫[f(x) ± g(x)]dx = ∫ f(x)dx ± ∫ g(x)dx
 ∫ k f(x)dk ∫ f(x)dx , where k is a constant
 ∫ k dx = kx + c
xn+1
 ∫ x n dx (n ≠ −1) = +c
n+1
1
 ∫ x dx = log |x| + c
1 −(n−1)
 ∫ n dx = +c
x xn−1
1
 ∫ x dx = 2√x + c
√
2 3
 ∫ √x dx = x 2 + c
3
ax
 ∫ ax dx = +c
log a
 ∫ ex dx = ex + c
 ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c
 ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
 ∫ tan x dx = log|secx| + c
 ∫ cot x dx = log|sin x| + c
 𝑥
 ∫ sec x dx = log|sec x + tan x| + c =log tan ( + ) + 𝑐
4 2
𝑥
 ∫ cosecx dx = log|cosecx − cot x| + c = log tan ( )+c
2
 ∫ sec 2 x dx = tan x + c
 ∫ cosec 2 x dx = − cot x + c
 ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x
 ∫ cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + c
1
 ∫
√1−x2
dx = sin−1 x + c or − cos −1 x + c
1
 ∫ dx = tan−1 x + c or − cot −1 x + c
1+ x2
1
 ∫ 2 dx = sec −1 x + c or − cosec −1 x + c
x√x −1
1 x
 ∫ 2 2 dx = sin−1 + c
√a −x a
1
 ∫ 2 2 dx = log|x + √x 2 − a2 | + c
√x −a
1
 ∫ 2 2 dx = log|x + √x 2 + a2 | + c
√x +a
1 1 x
 ∫ 2 2 dx = tan−1 + c
a +x a a
1 1 a+x
 ∫ 2 2 dx = log | |+c
a −x 2a a−x
1 1 x−a
 ∫ 2 2 dx = log | |+c
x −a 2a x+a
1
 ∫|x|dx = 2 x |x| + c
 1
 ∫ f(ax + b)dx = a F(ax + b) + c, a ≠ 0 where F is anti derivative of f
fn+1 (x)
 ∫[f(x)]n f ′ (x)dx = +c
n+1
f′x
 ∫ f(x) dx = log|f(x)| + c
f′ x
 ∫ dx = 2√f(x) + c
√f(x)
1 1
 ∫ sin2 x = [x − 2 sin 2x] + c
2
1 1
 ∫ cos2 x = [x + 2 sin 2x] + c
2
 ∫ tan2 x = tan x − x + c
 ∫ cot 2 x dx = − cot x − x + c
dx dx dx
 For integrals of the form ∫ or ∫ or ∫
a+bcosx a+bcosx acosx+bsinx
x 2dt 1 − t2 2t
put t = tan , then dx = 2
, cos x = 2
, sin x =
2 1+t 1+t 1 + t2

Integration by parts
du
∫ uv dx = u ∫ v dx − ∫ (dx v dx) dx
Choose u and v based on the order of ILATE

Results
 ∫ log x dx = x log x − x + c
 ∫ sin−1 x dx = x sin−1 x + √1 − x 2 + c
 ∫ cos−1 x dx = x cos−1 x − √1 − x 2 + c
1
 ∫ tan−1 x dx = x tan−1 x − 2 log(1 + x 2 ) + c
1
 ∫ cot −1 x dx = x cot −1 x + 2 log(1 + x 2 ) + c
 ∫ sec −1 x dx = x sec −1 x − log(x + √x 2 − 1) + c
 ∫ cosec −1 x dx = x cosec −1 x + log(x + √x 2 − 1) + c
eax
 ∫ eax cos bx dx = a2 +b2 [a cos bx + b sin bx] + c
eax
 ∫ eax sin bx dx = a2 +b2 [a sin bx − b cos bx] + c
x a2 x
 ∫ √a2 − x 2 dx = 2 √a2 − x 2 + sin−1 a + c
2
x a2
 ∫ √a2 + x 2 dx = 2 √a2 + x 2 + log(x + √a2 + x 2 ) + c
2
x a2
 ∫ √x 2 − a2 dx = 2 √x 2 − a2 − log(x + √x 2 − a2 ) + c
2
 ∫ ex (f(x) + f ′ (x)) dx = ex f(x) + c
 ∫ e−x (f(x) − f ′ (x)) dx = −e−x f(x) + c
 ∫(f(x) + xf ′ (x)) dx = xf(x) + c
 If In = ∫(log x)n dx then In + nIn−1 = x(log x)n + c
Definite Integrals

Fundamental theorem of integral calculus

If f(x) is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b] and F(x) is the anti derivative of f(x) then
b
∫a f(x)dx = (F(x))ba = F(b) − F(a)

Properties
b b
 ∫a f(x)dx= ∫a f(t)dt
b a
 ∫a f(x)dx = − ∫b f(x)dx
b c b
 ∫a f(x)dx = ∫a f(x)dx(x) + ∫c f(x)dx, where a < c < b
a a
 ∫0 f (x)dx = ∫0 (a − x) dx
b b
 ∫a f (x)dx = ∫a (a + b − x) dx
a
2a 2 ∫0 f(x)dx if f(2a − x ) = f(x)
 ∫0 f(x)dx ={
0 if f(2a – x) = − f(x)
a
a 2 ∫ f(x)dx if f (x)is even i. e. f(− x ) = f(x)
 ∫−a f (x) dx = { 0
0 if f (x)is odd i. e. f(− x ) = − f(x)

Results
π π
n−1 n−3 n−5 π
 ∫02 sinn x dx = ∫02 cos n x dx = . . . . .× (1 or ) according as n is odd or even
n n−2 n−4 2
π
(m−1)(m−3). . .(2 or 1)(n−1)(n−3). . .(2 or 1) π
 ∫0 sinm x cos n x 𝑑𝑥 =
2 × (1 or ) according as
(m+n)(m+n−2). . .(2 or 1) 2
at least one among m, n is odd or both m and n are even
π dx π
 ∫0 = when a > b
a+bcosx √a2 −b2
π π
n 1 1
 In = ∫0 tan x dx then In + In−2 =
4 ⇒ ∫0 tann x + tann−2 x dx =
4
n−1 n−1
1 1 1 1
 In = ∫0 x n e−x dx then In − nIn−1 = ⇒ ∫0 e−x (x n − nx n−1 )dx = −
e e
a a−x
 ∫−a √ dx = aπ
a+x

a a+x
 ∫−a √ dx = aπ
a−x

dx π
 ∫0 2 =
a2 cos2 x+ b2 sin2 x 2ab
 dx π
 ∫0 a2 cos2 x+ b2 sin2 x = ab
b f(x) b−a
 ∫a f(x)+f(a+b−x) = 2
π⁄2 cosn x dx π
 ∫0 =
sinnx+ cosn x 4
π⁄2 sinn x dx π
 ∫0 =
cosn x+ sinnx 4
π⁄2 tan𝑛 x dx π
 ∫0 1+ tannx = 4
π⁄2 cot𝑛 x dx π
 ∫0 1+ cotnx = 4
 π⁄2 dx π
 ∫0 =
1+ tann x
4
π⁄2 dx π
 ∫0 1+ cotnx = 4
π⁄2 secn x dx π
 ∫0 secnx+ cosecnx =
4
π⁄2 𝑐𝑜secn x dx π
 ∫0 𝑐𝑜secnx+ secnx =
4
⁄2 asin x+bcos xdx π
 ∫0 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)
sin x+cos x 4
⁄2 atan x+bcot xdx π
 ∫0 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)
tan x+cot x 4
⁄2 asec x+bcosec xdx π
 ∫0 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)
sec x+cosec x 4
⁄2 dx 1 √2+ 1
 ∫0 = log ( )
sin x+cos x √2 √2− 1


 ∫04 log ( 1 + tan x)dx = log 2
8
1 log(1+x) 
 ∫0 dx = log 2
1+x2 8
 x 2
 ∫0 dx =
1+sin2 x 2√2
/2  1
 ∫0 log sin x dx = log
2 2

 1
 ∫02 log cos x dx = log
2 2
/2
 ∫0 log tan x dx = 0
n
 ∫−n|x| dx= n2
n n(n−1)
 ∫0 [x] dx= 2
n n n
 ∫0 {x} dx=∫0 (x − [x]) dx =
2

Leibnitz’s Rule for Differentiation under integral sign

If f(t) is continuous function and h(x) and g(x) are differentiable functions in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] then
𝑑 ℎ(𝑥)
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑 = 𝑓(ℎ(𝑥))ℎ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

Summation of series by Definite Integral

𝑟 1
Replace by x and by dx
𝑛 𝑛
𝑏 𝑟𝑛 1 𝑟
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑𝑟=𝑟 1𝑛
𝑓( )
𝑛
𝑛→∞
𝑟1 𝑟𝑛
Where 𝑎 = lim and b= lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
 Application of Integrals

The definite integral represents the area under the curve between two fixed limits

b
 The area bounded by the curve y = f(x), x – axis and the lines x = a and x = b is given by ∫a f(x)dx
b
 The area bounded by the curve x = f(y), y – axis and the lines y = a & y = b is given by ∫a f(y)dy
8a2
 The area of the region bounded by the curve y 2 = 4ax & y = mx is given by sq units
3m3
8a2
 Area of the region bounded by the curve x 2 = 4ay and x = my is given by sq units
3m3
8a2
 The area of the region bounded by y 2 = 4ax and its latus rectum is sq units
3
8a2
 The area of the region bounded by x 2 = 4ay and its latus rectum is sq units
3
x2 y2
 The area enclosed by the ellipse 2
+ = 1 is πab sq units
a b2
 The area of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a2 is πa2 sq units
 Differential Equations

Differential Equation
An equation containing differential coefficients

Order of a differential equation

The order of highest order derivative involved in the given differential equation

Degree of a differential equation

The highest power of the highest order derivative involved in the given differential equation provided
the given differential equation is a polynomial equation in derivatives
 The order and degree of a differential equation are always positive integers
 The order of a differential equation is always defined but the degree of a differential equation need
not be defined always

Solution of a differential equation

A function which satisfies given differential equation

General solution of a differential equation

A solution which contains arbitrary constants

Particular solution of a differential equation

A solution which is obtained from general solution by giving particular values to the arbitrary
constants

Note
The number of linearly independent arbitrary constants present in the solution of a differential
equation is equal to the order of the differential equation

Methods of solving differential equations

Differential equations with variable separable

dy
 A differential equation of the form dx = F(x, y) is said to be a differential equation with variable
separable
if F(x, y) = h(x) g(y)
 To solve such differential equations first separate the variables involved and then integrate
Homogeneous differential equations

Homogeneous function
y x
 A function F(x, y) is said to be a homogeneous function of degree n if F(x, y) = x n g ( ) or y n f ( )
x y
dy
 A differential equation of the form = F(x, y) is said to be a homogeneous differential equation
dx
if F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree zero
y y x
 To solve such differential equations if F(x, y) = x n g ( ) put v = and if F(x, y) = y n f ( )
x x y
x
put v = ,simplify and convert it into differential equations with variable separable
y

Linear differential equations

dy
 A differential equation of the form + Py = Q , where P and Q are functions of x only is called a
dx
linear differential equation
Integrating Factor
I.F.= e∫ P dx
The general solution is given by y (I. F) = ∫ Q (I. F. ) dx + c

dx
 For the linear differential equation of the form + Px = Q , where P and Q are functions of y only
dy
Integrating Factor
I.F.= e∫ P dx
The general solution is given by x (I. F) = ∫ Q (I. F. ) dy + c

Standard Forms
 𝑑(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑦2 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦−2𝑦 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
 𝑑 ( 2) =
𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑥4
 𝑑( ) = 𝑥𝑑𝑦+𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑦2  𝑑(log(𝑥𝑦)) =
𝑥𝑦
𝑥2 2𝑦𝑥𝑑𝑥−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
 𝑑( ) = 𝑦 𝑥𝑑𝑦−𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑦2  𝑑 (log ( )) =
𝑦2 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦−𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥𝑦
 𝑑( ) =
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑥 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥−2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦  𝑑 (log ( )) =
𝑦 𝑥𝑦
 𝑑 ( 2) =
𝑦 𝑦4
𝑑𝑥+𝑑𝑦
𝑦 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦−2𝑦𝑥𝑑𝑥  𝑑(log(𝑥 + 𝑦)) =
 𝑑 ( 2) = 𝑥+𝑦
𝑥 𝑥4 𝑑𝑥−𝑑𝑦
𝑥2 2𝑦 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥−2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦  𝑑(log(𝑥 − 𝑦)) =
 𝑑 ( 2) = 𝑥−𝑦
𝑦 𝑦4
 Probability

Random experiment
An experiment in which outcome cannot be predicted is called random experiment

Sample space
The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space. It is denoted by S
 The elements of the sample space are called sample points

Event
Every subset of a sample space is an event

Simple event
An event containing only one sample point is called an elementary or simple event

Compound events
An event containing more than one sample point is called a compound event

Equally likely events

Events are said to be equally likely if they have same chance of occurrence

Mutually exclusive events

Two events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive events if A ∩ B = ∅
 If events A and B are mutually exclusive events then P(A ∩ B) = 0

Exhaustive Events
Two events A and B are said to be exhaustive if A ∪ B = S
 If events A and B are mutually exclusive events then P(A ∪ B) = 1

Probability
 Let S be a finite sample space of a random experiment consisting of n out comes.
 If m of these are favorable to the occurrence of an event A then we define probability of A as
n(A) m
P(A) = =
n(S) n
 If A is any event then 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1

If 𝐀 , 𝐁and 𝐂 are any events in a sample space 𝐒

 If A be an event and A′ be its complementary event then P(A) + P(A′) = 1 so P(A′) = 1 − P(A)
 P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B) (Probability of at least one of A and B)
 P(A ∪ B) − P(A ∩ B) = P(A) + P(B) − 2P(A ∩ B) = P(A ∩ B′ ) + P(B ∩ A′)
(Probability of exactly one of A and B)
 P(A ∩ B′) = P(A) − P(A ∩ B) (Probability of A but not B)
 P(A′ ∩ B′) = 1 − P(A ∪ B) (Probability of neither A nor B)
  P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − P(A ∩ B) − P(B ∩ C) − P(C ∩ A) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(Probability of at least one of A, B and C)
 P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A ∩ B) + P(B ∩ C) + P(C ∩ A) − 3P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(Probability of exactly two of A, B and C)
 P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A ∩ B) + P(B ∩ C) + P(C ∩ A) − 2P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(Probability of at least two of A, B and C)
 P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − 2P(A ∩ B) − 2P(B ∩ C) − 2P(C ∩ A) + 3P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(Probability of exactly one of A, B and C)

Conditional probability
The conditional probability of an event E, given the occurrence of the event F is given by
P(E ∩ F)
P(E|F) = , P(F) ≠ 0
P(F)

If 𝐄 & 𝐅 are any events in a sample space S

 P(F|F) = P(S|F) = 1
 P(E ′ |F) = 1 − P(E|F)
 P((E ∪ F)|G) = P(E|G) + P(F|G) − P((E ∩ F)|G)

Multiplication theorem of probability

 P(E ∩ F) = P(E)P(F|E) , where P(E) ≠ 0
 P(E ∩ F) = P(F)P(E|F) , where P(F) ≠ 0
 If E and F are independent, then
 P(E ∩ F) = P(E)P(F) , where P(E) ≠ 0 & P(F) ≠ 0
 E and F' , E ′ and F , E ′ and F ′ are also independent
 P(E|F) = P(E) , where P(F) ≠ 0
 P(F|E) = P(F) , where P(E) ≠ 0

Theorem of total probability

Let {E1 , E2 , . . . , En } be a partition of a sample space and suppose that each of
E1 , E2 , … , En has nonzero probability. Let A be any event associated with S, then
P(A) = P(E1 )P(A|E1 )P(E2 )P(A|E2 )+ . . . +P(En )P(A|En )

Bayes' theorem
If E1 , E2 , … , En are events which constitute a partition of sample space S, i.e. E1 , E2 , … , En are
pairwise disjoint and E1 ∪ E2 ∪ . . . ∪ En = S and A be any event with nonzero
P(Ei )P(A|Ei )
probability then P(Ei |A) = ∑n
j=1 P(Ej )P(A|Ej )
 Trigonometric Functions

Function Domain Range

y = sin x R [−1, 1]
𝑦 = cos x R [−1, 1]
π
y = tan x R − {(2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} R
2
y = cot x R − {nπ , n ∈ Z} R
π
y = sec x R − {(2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} R − (−1, 1)
2
y = cosec x R − {nπ , n ∈ Z} R − (−1, 1)

Degree and Radian measure

π
 1° = radians = 0.0175 radians
180
180
 1c = degrees = 57°16′22′′
π
 1° = 60′
 1′ = 60′′
Relation between length of the arc ‘l’ ,radius of circle ‘r’ and angle θ subtended at the centre of
the circle is l = rθ , where θ is in radians

Allied Angles
nπ
 T( ± x) = C(x), where n is odd
2
nπ
 T( ± x) = T(x), where n is even Y
2
 sin(−x) = −sinx
 cosec(−x) = −cosecx
s A
𝐗 ′ X
 cos(−x) = cosx
 sec(−x) = secx
T C
 tan(−x) = −tanx
𝐘′
 cot(−x) = −cotx

Properties
 sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 sinx = √1 − cos2 x cosx = √1 − sin2 x
 1 + tan2 x = sec 2 x secx = √1 + tan2 x tanx = √sec 2 x − 1
 1 + cot 2 x = cosec 2 x cosecx = √1 + cot 2 x cotx = √cosec 2 x − 1
1 1
 = cosecx = sinx sinx cosecx = 1
sinx cosecx
1 1
 = secx = cosx cosx secx = 1
cosx secx
1 1
 = cotx = tanx tanx cotx = 1
tanx cotx
 sin2x = 2sinx cosx 1+cos2x
2tanx  cosx = √
 sin2x = 2
1+tan2 x
 cos2x = 2cos2 x − 1  tanx = √
1−cos2x

 cos2x = 1 − 2sin2 x 1+cos2x

2tanx
 cos2x = cos2 x − sin2 x  tan2x =
1−tan2 x
1−tan2 x
 cos2x = cot2 x−1
1+tan2 x  cot2x =
2 2cotx
 1 + cos2x = 2cos x
1
 sin3x = 3sinx − 4sin3 x
 cos2 x = (1 + cos2x)
2
 1 − cos2x = 2sin2 x 3sinx−sin3x
1
 sin3 x =
 sin2 x = (1 − cos2x) 4
2 3
 cos3x = 4cos x − 3cosx
 1 + sin2x = (sinx + cosx)2
 1 − sin2x = (sinx − cosx)2 3cosx+cos3x
 cos 3 x =
1−cos2x 4
 sinx = √
2 3tanx−tan3 x
 tan3x =
1−3tan2 x
tanx+tany cotx coty+1
 tan(x + y) =  cot(x − y) =
1−tanx tany coty−cotx
tanx−tany π 1+tanx
 tan(x − y) =  tan ( + x) =
1+tanx tany 4 1−tanx
cotx coty−1 π 1−tanx
 cot(x + y) =
coty+cotx
 tan ( − x) =
4 1+tanx
 sin(x + y) = sinx cosy + cosx siny
 sin(x − y) = sinx cosy − cosx siny
 cos(x + y) = cosx cosy − sinx siny
 cos(x − y) = cosx cosy + sinx siny
 sin(x + y) sin(x − y) = sin2 x − sin2 y = cos2 y − cos2 x
 cos(x + y) cos(x − y) = cos2 x − sin2 y = cos 2 y − sin2 x
1
 sinx cosy = [sin(x + y) + sin(x + y)]
2
1
 cosx siny = [sin(x + y) − sin(x + y)]
2
1
 sinx siny = − [cos(x + y) − cos(x + y)]
2
1
 cosx cosy = [cos(x + y) + cos(x + y)]
2
x+y x−y
 sinx + siny = 2sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
x+y x−y
 sinx − siny = 2cos ( ) sin ( )
2 2
x+y x−y
 cosx + cosy = 2cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2
x+y x−y
 cosx − cosy = −2sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2
 If x + y = 90° then tanx tany = 1 and cotx coty = 1
 sin3x = 4 sinx sin(60° − x) sin(60° + x)
  cos3x = 4 cosx cos(60° − x) cos (60° + x)
 tan3x = tanx tan (60° − x) tan(60° + x)

Standard Values

0° 30° 45° 60°

15° 75° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 270° 360°
x 0 ππ π π 5π π 2π 3π 5π π 3π 2π
126 4 3 12 2 3 4 6 2
sinx 0 √3 − 1 1 1 √3 √3 + 1 1 √3 1 1 0 −1 0
2√2 2 √2 2 2√2 2 √2 2
cosx 1 √3 + 1 √3 1 1 √3 − 1 0 1 1 √3 −1 0 1
− − −
2√2 2 √2 2 2√2 2 √2 2
tanx 0 2 − √3 1 1 √3 2 + √3 ∞ −√3 −1 − 1 0 ∞ 0
√3 √3
cotx ∞ 2 + √3 √3 1 1 2 − √3 0 1 −1 −√3 ∞ 0 ∞
−
√3 √3
secx 1 2√2 2 √2 2 2√2 ∞ −2 −√2 2 −1 ∞ 1
−
√3 + 1 √3 √3 − 1 √3
cosecx ∞ 2√2 2 √2 2 2√2 1 2 √2 2 ∞ −1 ∞
√3 − 1 √3 √3 + 1 √3
 Inverse Trigonometric functions

Function Domain Range

−π π
[−1, 1] [ , ]
y = sin−1 x 2 2

[−1, 1] [0, π]
y = cos −1 x
−π π
R ( , )
y = tan−1 x 2 2
π
R − (−1, 1) [0, π] − { }
y = sec −1 x 2
−π π
R − (−1, 1) [ , ] − {0}
y = cosec −1 x 2 2

R (0, π)
y = cot −1 x

Properties
π π
 sin(sin−1 x) = x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and sin−1 (sinx) = x, − ≤ x ≤
2 2
 cos(cos−1 x) = x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and cos −1 (cosx) = x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
π π
 tan(tan−1 x) = x, −∞ < x < ∞ and tan−1 (tanx) = x, − < x, <
2 2
−1 ( −1
 sin −x) = −sin x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 cos −1 (−x) = π − cos −1 x , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 tan−1 (−x) = −tan−1 x , −∞ < x < ∞
 sec −1 (−x) = π − sec −1 x, x ≤ −1, x ≥ 1
 cosec −1 (−x) = −cosec −1 x, x ≤ −1, x ≥ 1
 cot −1 (−x) = π − cot −1 x, −∞ < x < ∞
1
 sin−1 x = cosec −1 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 & x ≠ 0
x
−1 −1 1
 cos x= sec , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 & x ≠0
x
1
 sec −1 x = cos −1 , x ≤ −1, x ≥ 1
x
−1 1
 cosec −1 x = sin , x ≤ −1, x ≥ 1
x
1 1
 tan−1 x = cot −1 , if x > 0 and tan−1 x = cot −1 ( ) −  , if x < 0
x x
−1 1 1
−1
 cot x = tan , if x > 0 and cot x =  + tan−1 ( ) , if x < 0
−1
x x
π
 sin−1 x + cos −1 x = , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
π
 sec −1 x + cosec −1 x = , x ≤ −1, x ≥ 1
2
 π
 tan−1 x + cot −1 x = , −∞ < x < ∞
2
x+y
 tan−1 x + tan−1 y = tan−1 ( ) if x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 and xy < 1
1−xy
x+y
 tan−1 x + tan−1 y = π + tan−1 ( ) if x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1
1−xy
x−y
 tan−1 x − tan−1 y = tan−1 ( ) if x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, xy > −1
1+xy
x−y
 tan−1 x − tan−1 y = π + tan−1 ( ) if x > 0, y < 0, xy > −1
1+xy
2x
 2tan−1 x = tan−1 ( ) if −1 < x < 1 .
1−x2
2x
 2tan−1 x = sin−1 ( ) if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
1+x2
1−x2
 2tan−1 x = cos −1 ( 2 ) if x ≥ 0
1+x
2x
 2tan−1 x = π + tan−1 ( ) if |x| > 1.
1−x2
−1 1
 2 sin−1 x = sin−1 (2x√1 − x 2 ) if ≤x≤
√2 √2
1
 2 cos −1 x = sin−1 (2x√1 − x 2 ) if ≤x≤1
√2
−1 1
 3 sin−1 x = sin−1 (3x − 4x 3 ) if ≤x≤
2 2
1
 3 cos −1 x = cos −1 (4x 3 − 3x) if ≤x≤1
2
 2 cos −1 x = cos −1 (2x 2 − 1) if 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
 2 sin−1 x = cos −1 (1 − 2x 2 ) if 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
 sin−1 x + sin−1 y = cos −1 (√1 − x 2 √1 − y 2 − xy) if x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
 cos −1 x + cos −1 y = cos −1 (xy − √1 − x 2 √1 − y 2 ) if x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
 sin−1 x + cos −1 y = cos −1 (y√1 − x 2 − x√1 − y 2 ) if x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
 sin−1 x − sin−1 y = sin−1 (x√1 − y 2 − y√1 − x 2 ) if x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
 cos −1 x − cos −1 y = sin−1 (y√1 − x 2 − x√1 − y 2 ) if x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
 sin−1 x − cos −1 y = sin−1 (xy − √1 − x 2 √1 − y 2 ) if x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
π
 If tan−1 x + tan−1 y = then x + y + xy = 1
4
π
 If tan−1 x + tan−1 y = then xy = 1
2
 If tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = π then x + y + z = xyz
π
 If tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = then xy + yz + zx = 1
2
xy yz zx π
 If x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 , then tan−1 + tan−1 + tan−1 =
zr xr yr 2
π
 If sin−1 x + sin−1 y = then x 2 + y 2 = 1
2
 If cos −1 x + cos −1 y + cos −1 z = π then x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
π
 If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = then x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
2
 If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = π then x√1 − y 2 + y√1 − x 2 = z
 If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = π, then x√1 − x 2 + y√1 − y 2 + z√1 − z 2 =2xyz
 If cos −1 x + cos −1 y + cos −1 z = 3 then x = y = z = −1
3
 If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = then x = y = z = 1
2
π
 cos −1 √x + cos −1 √1 − x = , 0<x<1
2
π
 sin−1 √x + sin−1 √1 − x = , 0<x<1
2
1 1 √n−√n−1
 sin−1 − sin−1 = sin−1
√n √n+1 √n(n+1)
 Sets, Relations and Functions

Set
A well defined distinct collection of objects

Subset
A is said to be B if every element of A is an element of B

Proper subset
A is said to be a proper subset of B if A ⊂ B and A≠ B

Results
 A ⊆ A, ∅ ⊆ A
 (A′ )′ = A
 U′ = ∅
 ∅′ = U
 A and B are disjoint sets iff A ∩ B = ∅
 A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) ∩ (A − C)
 A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C)
 A − B = A ∩ B′ = A − (A ∩ B)
 B − A = B ∩ A′ = B − (A ∩ B)
 A∆B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A) = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B)
 (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′
 (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
 n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) (at least one of A and B)
 n(A′ ∩ B′ ) = n(A ∪ B) − n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) − 2n(A ∩ B) (exactly one of A and B)
 n(A′ ∩ B′ ) = n(A ∪ B)′ = n(U) − n(A ∪ B) (neither A nor B)
 n(A ∩ B′ ) = n(A) − n(A ∩ B) (A but not B)
 n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) − n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(at least one of A, B and C)
 n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(C ∩ A) − 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(exactly two of A, B and C)
 n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(C ∩ A) − 2n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(at least two of A, B and C)
 n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − 2n(A ∩ B) − 2n(B ∩ C) − 2n(C ∩ A) + 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(exactly one of A, B and C)
 min{ n(A ∪ B)} = max{n(A), n(B)}
 max{n(A ∪ B)} = n(A) + n(B)
 min{n(A ∩ B)} = 0
 max{n(A ∩ B)} = min{n(A), n(B)}
Cartesian product
Given any two non empty sets A and B the cartesian product of A and B is
A × B = {(a, b)| a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Results
 A × B = B × A is need not true in general
A × B = B × A if and only if A = B
 A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
 A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
 A × (B − C) = (A × B) − (A × C)

Relation
Given any two non-empty sets A and B a relation R from A to B is defined as sub set of A × B i. e. R ⊆ A ×
B
i.e. R = {(x, y)| x ∈ A and y ∈ B}

Domain and Range of a relation

Let R be a relation from A to B i.e. R = {(a, b)| a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Domain of R= {a: (a, b) ∈ R}
Range of R = {b: (a, b) ∈ R}

Inverse of a relation
The inverse of the relation R is R−1 = {(b, a): (a, b) ∈ R}

Types of Relations

Empty Relation
A relation R from A to B is said to be an empty relation if no element A is related to any element of B
i. e. R = ϕ ⊆ A × B

Universal Relation
A relation R on set A is said to be a universal relation if each element of A is related to every element of B
i.e. R = A × B ⊆ A × B

Reflexive relation
A relation R on set A is said to be reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A

Symmetric relation
A relation R on set A is said to be symmetric if (a, b) ∈ R ⟹ (b, a) ∈ R for a, b ∈ A

Transitive relation
A relation R on set A is said to be transitive if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⟹ (a, c) ∈ R for all a, b and c ∈ R

Equivalence relation
A relation R on set A is said to be equivalence if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive
Function
Given two non empty sets A and B a relation f: X → Y is said to be a function if every element of A has
unique image in B

Types of Functions

One-one function (Injective function)

A function f: X → Y is said to be one-one if different elements of A have different images in B under f i.e.
for all x1 , x2 ∈ X , f(x1 ) = f(x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2
 A function which is not one-one is a called many-one function
 Every strictly increasing or strictly decreasing function is one-one function

Onto function (Surjective function)

A function f: X → Y is said to be onto if every element of B has at least one preimage in A under f
i.e. for all y ∈ Y there exist x ∈ X such that f(x) = y
 A function which is not onto is a called into function
 A function is onto iff Range of f=Codomain of f

Bijective function
A function which is both one-one and onto is called bijective function

Even Function
A function f(x) is said to be an even function iff f(−x) = f(x)
 Every even function is symmetric about y − axis

Odd Function
A function f(x) is said to be an odd function iff f(−x) = −f(x)
 Every odd function is symmetric about origin

Note
Every function f(x) can be expressed as a sum of an even and odd function
1 1
i.e. f(x) = 2 (f(x) + f(−x)) + 2 (f(x) − f(−x))
A function which is both even and odd is zero function

Composite function
If f: X → Y and g: Y → Z be any two functions then the composition of f and g i.e. gof is a function
gof: X → Z is defined as gof(x) = g(f(x)) for all x ∈ X

If f: X → Y and g: Z → X be any two functions then the composition of f and g i.e. fog is a function
fog: Z → Y is defined as fog(x) = f(g(x)) for all x ∈ Z
Results
 fog = gof need not be true in general
 If f and g are bijective (one − one and onto) then gof is also bijective (one − one and onto)
 If gof is one − one then f is one − one and g need not be one − one
 If gof is onto then g is onto and f need not be onto
 If gof is bijective(one − one and onto) then f is one − one and g is onto
Similarly the above results can be applicable for fog

Invertible function
A function f: X → Y is said to be invertible if there exists a function g: Y → X such that fog = gof = I, then
g is called inverse of f and it is denoted by f −1

Results
 A function f is invertible iff if it is bijective (i.e. one-one and onto)
 If f and g are invertible functions then (fog)−1 = g −1 of −1
 If f is invertible function then (f −1 )−1 = f

Algebra of Functions
 (kf)(x) = k(f(x)), k∈ R
 (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x)
 (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x)
f f(x)
 (g) (x) = g(x) , where g(x) ≠ 0

If 𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) is a function
 Domain= {x ∶ f(x) is well defined}
 Range= {y ∶ y = f(x), x ∈ Domain}

If 𝐃𝟏 and 𝐃𝟐 are the domain of 𝐟(𝐱) and 𝐠(𝐱) then domain of

 f(x) ± g(x) or f(x)g(x) or fog(x) or gof(x) is D1 ∩ D2
f(x)
 is D1 ∩ D2 − {g(x) = 0}
g(x)

 If y = √f(x) then Domain= {x ∶ f(x) ≥ 0}

1
 If y = f(x) then Domain= {x ∶ f(x) ≠ 0}
1
 If y = then Domain= {x ∶ f(x) > 0}
√f(x)
 If y = log g(x) ( f(x)) then Domain= {x ∶ f(x) > 0 , g(x) > 0 and g(x) ≠ 1}
 If y = f(x), express x = g(y) then Range of f = Domain of g
 If y = f(x), construct quadratic equation in x i. e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0 then Range= {y ∶ b2 − 4ac ≥ 0}
−D
(−∞, ], if a < 0
4a
 If y = ax 2 + bx + c then Domain = R and Range = { −D
[ 4a , ∞) , if a > 0
where D = b2 − 4ac
Results
 If n(A) = n then the number of subsets on A are 2n
 If n(A) = n then the number of non-empty subsets on A are 2n − 1
 If n(A) = n then the number of proper subsets on A are 2n − 1
 If n(A) = n then the number of subsets containing r elements are n Cr
n
Cr = n Cn−r , n C0 = 1 , n C1 = n , n Cn = 1 , n Cr + n Cr−1 = n+1
Cr
 If n(A) = m and n(B) = n then n(A × B) = mn
 If the sets A and B have ‘n’ elements common then the number of elements common to both
A × B and B × A is n2
i.e. If n(A ∩ B) = n then n((A × B) ∩ (B × A)) = n2
 If n(A) = m and n(B) = n then the number of relations from A to B are 2mn
 If n(A) = m and n(B) = n then the number of functions from A to B are nm

 If n(A) = m and n(B) = n then the number of one-one functions from A to B are
n
Pm
if m ≤ n
{
0 if m > n
 If n(A) = m and n(B) = n then the number of onto functions from A to B are
∑nr=1(−1)n−r n Cr r m if n ≤ m
{
0 if n > m
 If n(A) = n ≥ 2 and n(B) = 2 then the number of onto functions from A to B are 2n − 2
n! if m = n
 If n(A) = m and n(B) = n then the number of bijective functions are {
0 if m ≠ n
n2 −n
 If n(A) = n then the number of reflexive relations on A are 2
n2 +n
 If n(A) = n then the number of symmetric relations on A are 2 2

 If n(A) = n then the number of equivalence relations on A are P(n + 1) = ∑nk=0 n Ck Pk

where P0 = 1, P1 = 1, P2 = 2, P3 = 5, P4 = 15, P5 = 52
1 1
 If f(x) is a polynomial function such that f(x)f ( ) = f(x) + f ( ) then f(x) = 1 ± x n
x x
 If f(x) is a function such that f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) then f(x) = kx
 If f(x) is a function such that f(x + y) = f(x)f(y) then f(x) = k x
 If f(x) is a function such that f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) then f(x) = klog a x
ax +a−x
 If f(x) is a function such that f(x + y) + f(x − y) = 2f(x)f(y) then f(x) =
2
ax+b
 If f(x) = then (fof)(x) = x i.e. Inverse of f(x) is itself
cx−a
Domain and Range of some standard functions
Functions Domain Range
Polynomial Function
R R
f(x) = an x n +. . . +a1 x + a0
Identity Function ( Ix = x ) R R
Constant Function (f(x) = k) R {k }
1
Reciprocal function (f(x) = ) R − {0} R − {0}
x
Singnum Function
1 if x > 0 |x| {−1,0,1}
R
f(x) = { 0 if x = 0 = { x if x ≠ 0
−1 if x < 0 0 if x = 0
Modulus function
x if x ≥ 0 R R+ ∪ {0}
f(x) = |x| = {
−x if x < 0
Greatest Integer Function f(x) = [x] R Z
Fraction part function f(x) = {x} = x −
R [0,1)
[x]
Exponential Function f(x) = ax R R+
f(x) = log x R+ R
f(x) = sin x R [−1, 1]
f(x) = cos x R [−1, 1]
π
R − {(2n + 1) n
f(x) = tan x 2 R
∈ Z}

f(x) = cot x R − {nπ n ∈ Z} R

π
R − {(2n + 1) n
f(x) = sec x 2 R − (−1, 1)
∈ Z}

f(x) = cosec x R − {nπ n ∈ Z} R − (−1, 1)

−π π
f(x) = sin−1 x [−1, 1] [ , ]
2 2
f(x) = cos −1 x [−1, 1] [0, π]
−π π
f(x) = tan−1 x R ( , )
2 2
f(x) = cot −1 x R (0, π)
π
f(x) = sec −1 x R − (−1, 1) [0, π] − { }
2
−π π
f(x) = cosec −1 x R − (−1, 1) [ , ] − {0}
2 2