Hassett et al.

(monkey
toy preferences)
Asim Masood
[email protected]
+923002626209
 BACKGROUND
 Hassett noted that prenatal hormonal exposure of human infants can affect
their toy preferences as children

 Prenatal hormonal exposure refers to the hormones that the infants are
exposed to within the womb

 Some girls have a genetic condition which causes an increased amount of

androgens (male sex hormone such as testosterone) in them during the fetal
development stage which made them prefer ‘boys’ toys compared to ‘female
appropriate’ toys and activities
 This was compared to girls with lower levels of androgens, and even with an
increased level of socialisation, there was clearly a difference in their playing
behaviour

 It is difficult to test these hormonal differences in children through experiments due

to practical and ethical reasons, such as adding or removing key factors from a child’s
environment to control their experience

 However, higher primates, closely related to humans genetically, with some similar
behaviours, can be used as an alternative to understand these differences

 There may be certain activities that show gender differences in primates similar to
those shown by children

 For example, males may engage more in rough and tumble games (such as climbing,
wrestling, rolling around etc.) and less in other activities than females such as peer
preferences
 By looking at primate models of human behaviour, it may be possible to see whether gender
differences in behaviour could be caused by biological rather than social differences

 Similar to young children, young primates also have different levels of hormones depending on
their sex, for example, male primates will have higher levels of testosterone

 Similarly, female primates, like human female children, are likely to have higher levels of
oestrogen than males

 A previous study by Alexander and Hines looked at nonhuman primates’ (vervet monkeys)
interactions with human toys, however, in this study, the primates were not presented the
masculine and feminine toys simultaneously, but instead, individually, and the interaction
time spent with each toy for male and female primates was recorded

 In their study, male vervets preferred masculine toys more than female vervets, but at the
same time, the males preferred all toys more than female vervets, which does not make it
conclusive that there are sex differences that lead to toy preferences
 PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED
 Socialisation: the process of learning to behave in socially acceptable ways and may
differ between genders and among different cultures. Many factors are involved in
the way a child experiences the social world and these add up to form the process of
socialisation

 Gender stereotype: a bias or belief that all members of one gender share the same
characteristics, and that these are different from the other gender, for example,
toys can be classified as being ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ according to gender
stereotypes

 Play: behaviour done for the purpose of fun, rather than any useful purpose,
typically observed in childhood, and can be solitary or social, and may even involve
interaction with an object (toys)
 AIM
 To investigate if sex differences in children’s toy preferences result from
biological factors rather than through socialisation

 To investigate if male and female rhesus monkeys have similar toy

preferences to human infants, despite no socialisation experience with
human toys
 METHOD AND DESIGN
 Research Method Technique:

 Experimental: conducted in an outdoor housing area where the monkeys were

free to interact with the toys or not to test if a naturally occurring IV affected an
operationalized DV

 Observation: through two video cameras. It was a structured observation

through the use of a behavioural checklist

 Correlation: to test for a relationship between individual monkeys’ ranks within

the social hierarchy and the frequency or duration of activities with each type of
toy

 Comparative Psychology: This is a technique whereby researchers aim to explain

human behaviour by comparing them to animal models. Animals are less complex
and their environment can be controlled in order to investigate the origins of
human behaviour
 Independent Variable: Gender of the monkey – male or female

 Dependent Variable: toy preference – operationalized by recording the mean

frequency and duration of interactions with wheeled and plush toys

 Experimental Design: Independent measures design

 Sampling Method: Opportunity Sample

 APPARATUS
 One set of toys were categorized as “wheeled” and these are similar to masculine vehicle
toys

 There were 6 wheeled toys: a wagon, a truck, a car, a construction vehicle, a shopping cart,
and a dump truck

 The other set of toys were categorized as “plush” and were comparable to feminine doll and
stuffed animal toys

 There were 7 plush toys: Winnie-the-pooh, Raggedy Ann, a koala bear hand puppet, an
armadillo, a teddy bear, Scooby-Doo, and a turtle

 The sizes of the wheeled toys ranged from 16cm to 46cm and the plush toys ranged from
14cm to 73cm. The toys also varied in colour and shape
 SAMPLE

 21 male and 61 female rhesus monkeys

 Living in natal (birth) social groups as part of a wider group of 135 animals at the
Yerkes Primate Research Station in the USA that lived together for 25 years

 From the 135, 14 adults were not studied as they received hormone treatments as
they had previously participated in research and 39 young infants (<3 months) were
excluded as they could not be reliably identified (difficult to tell their sex)

 The subjects were housed in 25m x 25m outdoor compounds with attached
temperature controlled indoor quarters
 Water was continuously available

 They were fed monkey chow twice a day

 They were provided fruits and vegetables once a day

 The study was approved by Emory’s Institutional Animal Care and Use
Committee

 The final number of participants used for analysis were 11 males and 23
females (explained later in procedure)
 PROCEDURE
 7 trials were conducted, each lasting 25 minutes

 Two video cameras were used to observe the behaviour of the monkeys

 The trial began with the group of monkeys being placed indoors, while one wheeled
toy and one plush toy, 10m apart, were placed in the outdoor living area

 Different pairs of plush and wheeled toys were used in each trial, for e.g, the wagon
and Winnie-the-Pooh were used in one trial, the truck and Raggedy Ann in another

 The positioning of the toys (left or right) was counterbalanced each trial
 The monkeys were then released into the outdoor area

 Each toy and any animal interacting with it was video recorded using separate
cameras for each toy

 After each trial, the toys were removed from the outdoor area, and two
observers analysed the videotapes on both identity and behaviour of the
monkeys (two observers = inter-observer reliability)

 Time Sampling was used to record the observation through a device called
Palm Pilots equipped with an app named Handobs
 Each specific activity was coded and directed towards the toys using a
behavioural checklist

 On one particular trial, the procedure ended 7 minutes early, as a plush toy
was torn into multiple pieces

 The data was collected by converting the records for each behaviour for each
participant into an overall average frequency and duration

 This was done as each animal could have participated in a different number of
activities in different trials
 However, only animals that had a minimum of 5 recorded total behaviours
would be included in analyses of results

 The reason for this is, not every monkey interacted with the toys

 14 such males and 3 females were therefore excluded and the final number of
participants used for analysis were 11 males and 23 females

 Rank of the participants had also been assessed through extensive behavioural
observations focusing on aspects such as grooming, dominance and submission
behaviour (the monkey doing the grooming has a lower rank)
 CONTROLS
 All monkeys were placed in the same enclosure of 25 x 25 m with a temperature-controlled
indoor space and outdoor area

 All the plush and wheeled toys were the same for the monkeys in every trial

 The duration of the trials were fixed at 25 minutes

 There were 7 trials in total with the toys always separated by a 10 m distance

 A standardized behavioural checklist was used to record the behaviours of the monkeys

 There were two video cameras that were placed, one recording the masculine toys and one
recording the feminine toys
 RESULTS

 The results were compared for the frequency and duration of interactions
with plush and wheeled toys between males and females to understand their
preference for each category of toy
 Male monkeys appear to prefer wheeled toys (mean frequency 9.77)
compared to plush toys (mean frequency 2.06)

 Females did not show any significant preference for plush toys (mean
frequency 7.97) over wheeled toys (mean frequency 6.96)

 Based on these results, females appear to interact with plush toys more than
males, however, there was no significant sex difference for wheeled toys

 Males interacted for a longer time with wheeled toys (mean duration 4.76
mins) than with plush toys (0.53 mins)
 Females, however, played for a similar duration of time between wheeled toys (mean
duration 1.27 mins) and plush toys (mean duration 1.49 mins)

 Although males spent more time playing with wheeled toys than plush toys, when
comparing the overall times spent on both toys, there was no significant difference
between the two sexes

 ‘Magnitude of preference’ was also examined, which refers to how much males
preferred masculine toys and how much females preferred feminine toys

 This was calculated using the following formula:

Males = total frequency of wheeled toy interaction – total frequency of plush toy
interaction
Females = total frequency of plush toy interaction – total frequency of wheeled toy
interaction
 The same type of comparison was done for duration scores

 Results showed that male monkeys had a higher preference for

masculine/wheeled toys than female monkeys had for feminine/plush toys

 73% males preferred wheeled toys, with only 9% males preferring plush toys.
18% males showed no significant preference between the two

 39% females preferred wheeled toys, 30% preferred plush toys, and 30%
showed no significant preference
 Differences between sexes were still evident when the data was re-examined taking
into account social ranks of the monkeys

 A positive correlation was seen between rank and total frequency of interactions for
males and females combined for both categories of toys

 However, using just data for males, neither frequency nor duration correlated with
rank

 For females, there was a positive correlation between rank and frequency of
interaction for both sets of toys, however, rank only correlated with duration for
plush toys, and not wheeled toys

 This suggests that rank may be correlated to toy interactions in females rather than
males, however, it does not suggest that rank is responsible for sex differences in
overall toy preferences
 The data of the study was also compared to similar behaviour of children for
frequency and duration of interactions with different toy types

 The data for this was collected from a study conducted by Berenbaum and
Hines

 The results of the comparison show that both rhesus monkeys and human
children showed gender differences, with males preferring masculine toys,
and females preferring feminine toys and this preference was far greater for
males than for females for both monkeys and human children
 CONCLUSION
 Males monkeys have a strong preference for masculine toys, similar to male human
children

 Female monkeys are variable in their toy preferences, similar to female human
children

 Male monkeys preferred wheeled toys more than female monkeys preferred plush
toys

 These preferences develop in the absence of socialisation because hormonal

differences can be responsible for differences in their development, and not social
ones
 NATURE VS NURTURE DEBATE

 The study supports the nature side of the debate

 The results can be supported by biological factors such as hormonal

differences that play a role in the development of male and female monkeys

 These differences are what shape their preference for masculine or feminine
toys, and socialisation in this particular study, unlike in humans, has little or
no role to play in the development of these preferences

 However, correlational data showed that there was a relation between social
rank and toy preference as the higher ranked females spent more time with
both toys. This could favour the nurture side of the debate
 INDIVIDUAL VS SITUATIONAL DEBATE

 The study supports the individual explanation as the reasons behind the
preferences of masculine or feminine toys differed on the basis of gender

 Therefore, it was the trait of the monkey’s gender that was the determining
factor for whether the individual preferred the wheeled toys over the plush
toys, or not

 All monkeys were exposed to the same situation with both sets of toys in
each trial, and therefore, the main explanation for the difference in
preferences comes down to the gender rather than the situation itself
 APPLICATION TO EVERYDAY LIFE
 As the toy preferences of the monkeys were similar to those of human children, the
study is useful in gaining insights into the potential biological factors such as genes
or hormones that shape the basis of certain behaviours in humans from a very early
age

 The findings of the study also help raise awareness of gender stereotypes and their
possible biological and social origins. This awareness can encourage more thoughtful
and progressive approaches to how toys are marketed, designed, and given to
children

 By understanding these gender stereotypes, it could help to stress the need for
gender neutral socialisation to encourage and allow individuals to avail all
opportunities, and not just those that are commonly associated with one particular
gender
 USE OF ANIMALS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
 Through the technique of comparative psychology, the study was able to
explore the causes of gender differences in children

 The use of animals allowed the researchers to do this in a more practical

manner than actually having to use human children as participants, because
it is easier to control the environment of non-humans in order to observe
their behaviour

 However, it can be argued that controlling the environment of rhesus

monkeys may be unethical as it may cause them psychological or emotional
distress
EVALUATION
 RELIABILITY

 Strength: The study has high levels of controls, for example, the number of
trials were the same (seven), and for the same duration (25 minutes) for all
the monkeys, furthermore the toys in each trial were always the same, which
makes the procedure standardized and easy to replicate to test for reliability

 Strength: There were two observers who analysed the videotapes of the trials
for consensus on the interactions with the toys. As both observers were
observing and analysing the same behaviours, they are testing for inter-
observer reliability
 RELIABILITY

 Strength: The study used a behavioural checklist which was standardized with
a fixed set of interactions or behaviours to be observed within a certain time
limit. This checklist can be replicated by other researchers for similar studies
to test for reliability

 Weakness: Although not a major weakness, one way the study may lack
reliability is due to the fact that the behaviour of the monkeys may not be
standardized as each monkey may interact differently with each toy in terms
of frequency and duration. One particular trial had to end 7 minutes early as
one plush toy was torn into pieces
 VALIDITY
 Strength: The study did have controls over confounding variables which made the
researcher more confident of the IV of the gender of the monkeys being the only
factor that affected the DV of the preference of toys. One such confounding variable
was the fact that the toys were of various shapes, sizes and colours, ensuring that
the monkeys were not preferring one toy over the other due to any of these
variables

 Strength: The positioning of the toys were counterbalanced to ensure that it was not
the location of where the toys were placed (left or right of the monkey) that
influenced whether the monkeys chose to play with that particular toy or not. This
also reduces practice effects, because if the monkeys always went the same
direction to play with the toy, it would not be a preference based on the type of toy,
but rather, how near or far it is to them
 VALIDITY
 Strength: As the monkeys were observed by video cameras, rather than the
experimenters close to them, this would have allowed them to behave
naturally. If the experimenters had been observing from close by, perhaps the
monkeys would have been distracted and not shown their natural behaviour
with regards to preferences

 Weakness: There is a possibility of observer bias as the observers knew the

monkeys from before, and this could affect their interpretation of their
behaviour

 Weakness: As it was an experiment, it would be difficult to control some

confounding variables, for example, certain behaviours such as tearing the
plush toys into pieces which ended one trial 7 minutes early
 GENERALISABILITY
 Strength: The sample was drawn from a large group of 135 monkeys, from
which 21 males and 61 females were selected, which makes the sample size
relatively generalizable

 Strength: The sample was varied in terms of age and rank, including juvenile,
sub adult, adult, and elderly monkeys

 Weakness: The sample has a larger number for female monkeys than males,
and therefore is not as representative of male monkeys.
 GENERALISABILITY
 Weakness: All monkeys were from the same natal group at the Yerkes primate
research station in the USA and therefore, may have certain similar traits,
which does not allow the findings to be applied to monkeys outside this
group, or to those in the wild

 Weakness: The sample only represents rhesus monkeys, and therefore, the
findings cannot be applied to other species of monkeys who may show
differences in preferences

 Weakness: Although the sample comprised of 21 males and 61 females, the

results analysed were eventually of only 11 males and 23 females, which
lowers the generalisability considerably
 ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
 Strength: As the study was conducted in an outdoor housing area and the
animals were free to choose whether or not to interact with the toys, it has
ecological validity

 Weakness: Rhesus monkeys in their everyday lives are not exposed to such
toys which are commonly played with by human children, and therefore, it
can be argued that the study lacks mundane realism
 ETHICS
 Strength: The study was approved by the Emory University Ethical Committee
on animal care an use

 Strength: The monkeys were not deprived of any of their necessities such as
food and water as water was continuously available to them, and they were
fed monkey chow supplemented with fruits and vegetables

 Strength: Housing was maintained as the monkeys were housed in family

groups and were not kept isolated. They were kept in large enclosures with a
lot of space (25 x 25 m) with access to both a temperature-controlled indoor
and an outdoor area
 ETHICS
 Weakness: There may have been potential emotional or even physical pain or
distress caused to the monkeys as in one particular trial, a plush toy was torn
into pieces, but it is unclear if this was due to an act of distress or
aggression. This particular toy could potentially be considered as an aversive
stimuli

 Weakness: The study did not use the minimum number animals that could
have potentially been used to obtain valid and reliable results, as the sample
size was not considerably minimal
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 Strength: The study used an independent measures design as the two
conditions were split in terms of gender of the monkeys. A strength of
independent measures is that there are little or no order effects as the
participants are not being repeated in the task (which would not be possible
as the IV is naturally occurring of gender)

 Weakness: There can be individual differences that may affect the findings of
the study which can lower validity, for example, there may have been some
social factors at play that could have influenced the preference of the toys
rather than the gender of the monkeys, which were not taken into
consideration by the researchers
 OBSERVATION
 Strength: The study was a structured observation which used a behavioural
checklist which is highly standardized and can be replicated to test for
reliability

 Strength: Using a behavioural checklist allows for specific behaviours to be

recorded that the researcher intends on observing

 Weakness: Other important behaviours that are not on the checklist may be
missed out on that could provide important information about the behaviour
of the monkeys
 DATA
 Strength: The study collected quantitative data that is objective and
numerical and allows for comparisons to be made. The results of the female
monkeys’ preferences were compared to those of the male monkeys on the
basis of the frequency and duration of their interactions

 Strength: Through a behavioural checklist and time sampling, the researchers

were able to quantify the behaviours/interactions of the monkeys to
determine the frequency of their activities

 Weakness: The study lacks qualitative data which could potentially explain
the reasons behind the preference behaviours of the monkeys.