Name: Sajal

Course: history honours

Year: 1st

Roll no: 210450

Q.1 Critically analyse the significance of the literary and archaeology

sources in the reconstruction of the ancient India history.

ASSIGNMENT 1
HISTORY OF INDIA

The purpose of the history is to throw light on the past. This is done through discovery and
study of historical sources. It is rather easy to find sources for writing the history of the
recent past, because there is plenty of hand written and printed material on and about
modern state and society. There is also enough material in respect of medieval times.
But the real difficulty arises for writing ancient history. It is mentioned in the great Indian
epic Mahabharata that “history is that ancient description which contains instructions of
virtue, wealth, desire and salvation. In other words, India’s ancient seers led greater
emphasis on those events which carried higher ideals rather than actual happenings.
These sources are divided into two main groups. They are archaeological sources can again
be divided into three groups namely archaeological remains and monuments, encryptions
and coins. The literary sources can also be divided into three groups namely religious
literature, secular literature, and accounts of foreigner literature. A brief account of these
sources is given below.
It is a subject that gives the facts and perspective of past events. In its given premises, it
includes a wide range of topics such as geographical conditions and human settlements;
society and cultures; type of governance and administrative system; trade and economic
policy; interest relationships; wars and battles, etc. in the time frame of Ancient, medieval,
and modern.
History is one of the essential disciplines of social science to know the past and design the
future accordingly.

Important feature of history:

The important aspect of the study (of history) is-
 To know how did agriculture or other means of existence begin.
 When did our primitives begin the use of mental and how did they develop spinning,
weaving, mental working, etc.?
 How did the development of literature, urban life, science, and architecture evolve,
etc.
 History does not mean only description of the dates and events related to the kings
or dynasties, but rather it also means to study various aspects that shaped the
overall personality of the society and the people.
 Therefore, the study of history is the study of the entire human past, which goes
back to millions of years.
 Throughout the period (starting from ancient, medieval, and modern), every society
has developed over a long period of time; however, they differ they followed and the
processes they underwent.
 The primitives experienced stone-age, hunter-gatherers and they all practiced
agriculture. Over a period of time, the primitives began to use metal at one time or
the other. In spite of so much similar activities, still they differ in their cultural, social,
political, and religious identity.
 The study of history helps in understanding the people, societies, and nations and
finally, the whole humanity gets a sense of identity and belonging.
 It may be a very superficial view to ask-

 Why should study history?

 Does it contribute anything economically to our society?

 Does it solve the problem of poverty and unemployment?

 Of course, history does not answer this question, but history helps us in knowing the
past people, their culture, their religious, and their social systems, and suggests us
how to make future better.

 History, further, makes us learn lessons from the past for the present and future. It
reminds us not repeat the mistakes, which led to various manmade calamities and
disasters like wars (in the past).

 Ashoka (the king of ancient pataliputra), in his rock edict xii, insisted on the following
measures and practises to maintain harmony, peace and prosperity in the society/

 Promotion of the common ground or route of all religion.

Types of sources of Indian history:

 Archaeological sources
 Literary sources
 Foreign accounts
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES:
 Archaeological remains and monuments
 Paintings
 Paleontology
 Epigraphy
 Paleography
 Inscription
 Numismatics
 Potteries
 sculpture

1.Archaeological remains and monuments:

Monuments play a vital role in understanding our history. Monuments tell us about the
ancient art and culture of the periods. They help us to understand about their rulers and the
architecture of various civilizations. The first person to realise the significance of these
sources was lord Curzon. He founded ancient archaeological department. In this department
that many excavations were carried out and valuable information is discovered. The
monuments don’t tell us story directly but it has a hidden message. Temples (shrines) stupas
and monasteries (viharas) clearly describe the artistic achievement describe the artistic
achievement and religious devotion of people and rulers alike.
Shrines, devoted to Siva (shiva), on the deiring plateau (java), and the vast view of bas-
reliefs on the walls in the colossal temples at Boro-Bodur, prambanan (central java) and also
the remarkable rivers at Angkor Vat and Angkor Thom (Kambuja) show the hands of Indians
and show that they had migrated to the far east and East and spread the power and culture
there. The beauty of the Gupta period was seen by the excavation of the temples of
“Deograh”. Excavation of Harappa and Mohen-Jo-Daro give a lot of information about Indus
valley civilisation.it showed us that there were civilisations earlier than Aryans. The
scriptures found from the excavation of Taxila give us an idea Gandhara school of arts.
The knowledge regarding the Mauryas is found from the excavations of the old sides
pataliputra. This who have ancient ruins and monuments recovered as a result of excavation
and exploration are archaeological sources of history. The archaeological remains are
subjected to scientific examination of radiocarbon method for its dates.
Archaeological sources give us some knowledge of the life of ancient people. Indian is rich
with ancient ruins, remains, and monuments. Many historical places are lying buried under
the earth. But excavation is being carried out to bring some such places to light. the material
remains discovered from excavation and ruins speak a good deal of the past. For example,
the excavation at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa brought to the knowledge of the world the
existence of Indus valley civilization.
Excavation have been conducted at Taxila, pataliputra, Rajgir, Nalanda, Sanchi, Barhut, Surat
and Mathura. they are being done at many other places too. By digging the old sites and
mounds, and discovering the material remains, historians try to understand the past.
Archaeology is the science and method to explore and understand the ancient ruins and
remains.
All over India there are countless historical monuments like, temples, stupas monasteries,
forts, palaces, and the like, which speak of their time. Similarly, tools, implements, weapons
and pottery etc. throw light on the living conditions of the people. For historians, these are
sources of information. In the opinion of sone eminent scholars, the history of India before
the third century B.C. was mainly the result of archaeological research. Information
gathered from literature and oral tradition can be taken as historical account only if
archaeological evidences are available as supporting material. there were three styles of
architecture in india:

 Nagar style in north

 Dravid style in the west
 And in deccan i.e., in central part of india, a new style developed which came to be
known as baser style.
There are few temples of india deity in south-east Asia and central Asia for example=
Borobudur temple in java, Ankara temple in Cambodia.

Painting:
The painting tells us about the culture and religious beliefs of the people of ancient india.
The progress of the art and culture can be Mathura school of art. The paintings found in the
caves of Ajanta and Ellora highlight the craftmanship and creative inhabitant of the ancient
Indian people.
Paleontology:
The study of the remains of dead organism over a large period of time is called
“Paleontology”. To understand hominid evolution, DNA studies and molecular biology is
used.
The faunal analysis gives information about the animal’s people hunted and domesticated. It
also shows us about features of the environment such as climate, nature, and the seasons
during which a site was occupied. Archaeological sources reveal the features of everyday
life. It tells about the history of human settlements and can give us more precise data
including the crop they plant, the tools they used, and the animals they domestic.
Epigraphy:
The study of inscription is called is called Epigraphy. An inscription is any writing that is
engraved on stones, wood, metal, ivory, plaques, bronze statues, bricks, clay, shells, pottery,
etc.
In epigraphy, the texts of the inscriptions are translated and data given in these inscriptions
are analysed.
Paleography:
The study of ancient writing is called Paleography. The oldest inscription of our Indian
subcontinent is the undeciphered Harappa script and the oldest deciphered inscription is
the Ashokan inscriptions which belong to the late 4th century BCE.

2.Inscriptions:
Inscriptions supply valuable historical facts. The inscription is the most reliable sources of
Indian history. they are present documents that are free from changes because it is
impossible to make changes later because they were engraved.
The study of inscription is called epigraphy. the study of written on ancient inscription and
records is called palaeography. Inscription are seen on rocks, pillars, stones, slabs, walls of
building, and body of temples. They also found on steal and cooper plates have various
types of inscriptions. Some convey monarchical order regarding administrative, religious and
major decisions to Others the public in general.
The problem with the manuscript was, they are made from soft material and they became
fragile. they are required to be copied on a new page and at the time of copying, changes
are made and some errors tend to creep in.
These are called royal proclamations and commandments are records of the followers of
major religions. These followers convey their devotion on temples walls, pillars, stupas and
monasteries. The achievement of kings and conquers are recorded in prasastis, i.e.,
eulogies. These are written by their defects. Finally, we have many donatives i.e., grants for
religious purpose.
India’s earliest inscription are seen on the seal of Harappa, belonging to the Indus valley
civilisation. the most famous inscriptions of India are the huge inscription of Ashoka. As the
emperor himself proclaimed, he got his edicts engraved on stones so that they might last
long. The Hatigumpha inscription of Kharavela, the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudra
Gupta, and many other rock and pillars inscription contain most valuable historical accounts.
Political, administrative and religious matters are gathered from such sources.
Earliest inscription, namely, the seals of Harappa, dated about 2500 BC, have not been
deciphered so far by any epigraphist. The later inscription was engraved in the Prakrit
language in the third century B.C. Ashoka inscription were written in the bhrami script from
left to right. some were also engraved in the Kharosthi script from right to left. Sanskrit was
used as an epigraphic medium in the second century A.D. inscriptions were also engraved in
regional languages in the ninth and tenth centuries.
For a study of Indus valley civilization or the Harapan culture, archaeological evidences,
collected from other parts of India, give a picture of the most ancient civilization of India. To
understand the pre-historic India the historians must have to depend primarily on
archaeology. The archaeological evidence also provides the most authentic information for
writing the history of another subsequent period.
Copper plates were more widely used for writing inscriptions. They are called Tamprapta or
tamrapatra or tamrasasana. They were used of buddha. many copper plates contained land-
grants. They were also used to carry administrative orders. the inscriptions are of many
types. They were used for several purposes. For historians they carry enough interest.

Numismatic:
The study of coins is known as numismatics. Coins from other sources of historical
information. Coins are most reliable sources of history after inscriptions. Coins found in the
systematic excavation are less in numbers but are less in number but are more reliable.
These are very valuable as their chronology and culture meaning can be fixed accurately.
Coins gives us information about the language and script of history. It shows that levels of
the economic prosperity of ancient states.
The coins can be divided into two broad categories- cast coins and punched marked coins
The punched marked coins are the most initial coins. They are made of either silver or
copper. Gold punch-marked coins are also found but found but their authenticity is
doubtful. Ancient coins were mostly made of gold, silver, copper or lead. Coin moulds of
Kushan period made of burnt clay have been also discovered. some of the coins contain
religious and legendary symbols which throw the light on the culture of that time. Coin also
contains the figure of kings and gods. Some contains name and dates of the rulers.
Coins also throw significant light on economic light of ancient people. They indicate
regarding trade and commerce and help to reconstruct the history of several ruling
dynasties. Coins have been the primary source of our information regarding the various
Indian states during the same period.
The coins of khushana and Gupta period gives interesting accounts of those days. The throw
light on religious, political, economic and commercial conditions. Every coin of the past has
some story to convey.
Potteries:
Potteries are one of the important parts of archaeological sources. These potteries help us
to know about the spread of the culture and civilization. These potteries are available right
from pre-historic period. For ex-in rig Veda period BRW, OCP, PGW potteries were used. In
later Vedic period BW, RW, BRW and PGW potteries were used during the period of
Buddhism NBPW culture was formed. thus, it signifies those potteries play a vital role in
reformation of history.

Sculpture:
Sculpture is the important element of ancient Indian history. The statues made of that time
provides us information about the religious condition of the time. There were three styles of
sculptures.
Gandhar style

 Mathura style
 Amravati style


Literary sources:
literary sources can be broadly divided into:

 Religious sources.
 Non- religious sources.

Religious sources
 Vedic texts(four Vedas)
 Epics
 Puranas
 Smriti texts
 Buddhist text
 Jain texts
India is rich in literary sources. Sanskrit literature is the oldest of all the literature and it is
the same time most vast compared to other ancient language such as Greek and roman.
That is why we have to our disposal an innumerable number of religious texts and classics
which serve as a prolific literary source of ancient Indian history.
History is not a record of only the rulers.it is mostly an account of the people’s life and
living. The literature of every time is like a mirror of that time. Mental and social condition
of the people are known from literary sources.
The religious literature of India is too vast.it include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the great
epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the puranas of the Hindus. These are loke
mines of information about religious beliefs, customs, political institute, and condition of
culture.
the religious writing of the Jains and the Buddhists are also enormous. They include the
jatakas and while dealing with religious subjects, they are writing also write about historical
person and political events. Contemporary Economic and social conditions are vividly
knowing from these sources.
The religious writing of the Jains and the Buddhists are also enormous. They include the
jatakas and the Angas etc. While dealing with religious subjects, they also write about
historical persons and political events. Contemporary are vividly known from these sources.

BRAHMIN LITERATURE:
Vedas: the most ancient literature available on the soil of the country is the Vedas. There
are four in number and their antiquity goes as far as to 1000B.C. of the four, rig Veda is the
most important and most ancient. it is of course, the record of the religious life of the
people having a little philosophy that’s was later developed into what is known as vedantic
philosophy.
It is record of their civilization, religion household life and day-to-day political and social
working of the race. Certain points of philosophy like those of Atma and parmatma have
also been discussed in great details. The great historian, Vincent smith is the view that this
source is especially of great importance for the period between 650B.C. and 326B.C.
Talking about Vedas, their number is four-
1.Rigveda
2.Samaveda
3.Yajurveda
4.Atharvaveda
Of this, the Rigveda is the oldest Veda, which provides information about the political
system and history of the Aryans.

Brahman, Aranyaka and Upanishads

Vedic shlokas and Samhita tikaye (commentaries) are found in Brahman these
commentaries are in porse.
In the Aranyaka and Upanishads, there is a collection of philosophical ideas regarding the
soul, the divine, and the world.

VEDANGS:
Apart from this, there are six vedangs-
1.Shiksha(education)
2.Jyotish(astrology)
3.Kalpa
4.Vyakaran(grammar)
5.Nirukta
6.Chhand(verses)

MAHAKAVYA(EPIC):
The Ramayana and Maharashtra are named after the Vedas in the great poems of Sanskrit
literature. Fewer people understood the Vedas but these epics were interesting to all. These
epics provide knowledge of the social, political, and economic condition of the people of
that era.in that era, Aryans established their very small kingdoms along the bank of the
Ganga – Yamuna and their tributaries. Forests also contribute significantly to the creation of
these states.
Aryans was a war loving caste. The power of states was increasing, but no huge states could
be established yet. The administration was run with the consent of minister and councillors.
The tyrannical and non-dutiful king removed. Sometimes kings were also given the death
penalty for their crimes.

Puranas(mythology):
Name of the 18 available puranas

 Agni
 Brahma
 Bragmavarta
 Kurma
 Narada
 Shiva
 Vamana
 Bhagvata
 Garuda
 Linga
 Matasya
 Padma
 Skanda
 Varaha
 Vishnu

The seems that the first Puranas. It seems that the first puranas came into existence as far
back as 1st century of the Christian era. According to Mr.N.N. Gosh, it is probable the entire
puranas received their final shape ion 5th or 6th century A.D. For neither later dynasties nor
later famous rulers other than Guptas, such as Harsha, occurs in the list of kings.
Sutras:
Sutras because the word or hymns were placed beautifully like pearls in thread. These
sutras give us information about the Vedic period

Smriti texts:
After sutras, smriti were formed. Manusmriti is the oldest Smriti text, which was formed
between 200B.C.-200A.D. (400 years). Yagyavalkaya smriti was another smriti text compiled
between 100A.D to 300A.D. these two smriti texts throw smriti throws light on post
Mauryan period.
Narada smriti (300A.D-400A.D) and parashara smriti (300A.D.-500A.D.), throw light on the
social and religious conditions of the Guptas. Besides these Brihaspati smriti (300A.D.-
500A.D) and katyayan smriti(400A.D.-600A.D.) was also the text of Gupta time.
Dramas:
There are three important dramas of kalidasa-
Malavikagnimitram, vikramorashiyam, and abhigyan shakuntalam.
Abhigyan shakuntkam already translated into more than 60 European languages, through a
literary work depicts the social life of the people, the dress of the time and the approach
towards different social and especially the family problems.
Grammarians:
The focus grammarians, panini and the renowned literature, Patanjali are celebrated for
their, mastery over literature. Nothing directly connected with history is to be traced in their
work, but vey in tensive study has helped historians to extract certain valuable information
of historical information from them as well.
As already asserted in the very beginning, they are the sources of semi or total religious
nature but information regarding the social life and the economic conditions of the country
can be traced in them. In the absence of any very reliable historical book, they are of great
importance of our purpose of reconstructing the history of those far-off days.
Epics:
The two epics – the Ramayana and Mahabharata are great importance from the view-point
of collecting historical information about the past. The heroic and the unjust nature
of the people, the weapons that were used during a battle, the cause of the just as
proclaimed by the rival groups, and of course, much that is of religious importance,
recorded in them. It would be wrong to believe that history is the name of the record
of the various kings and their dynasties, their conquests and achievements. A true
history is the records of the rise and fall of the people, their social and religious life,
the development of art and industry, the commercial and, of course, the political
 condition of the day. taking this border view of the history it can be safely concluded
that these books are of great importance.

The genealogies given in the puranas are extremely helpful for historians and archaeologists
in the creation of political history. Only through the puranas we can study every aspect of
Hinduism, its mythology, idolatry theism and sarveshwaraism, bhagavatvatsalya, philosophy
superstition, festivals, practices and policies.
Some western scholars believes that purana have come into existence only in the last
hundred years in Sanskrit literature, but this opinion is no longer considered. puranas are
religious and sacred books in the eyes of Shankaracharya and ramanujacharya.Al. Al-biruni
had enough information about puranas.
Al-biruni has also listed eighteen puranas of eighteen.
If you see in Buddhism the books of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism written in the 1 st
Cen A.D. are very similar to the puranas. substantial similarities are also found in puranas
and lalitvistar. The number of puranas is eighteen but not all are of equal importance as far
as the history sources are concerned:

 Vishnu purana
 Vaayu purana
 Matsya purana
 Brahma purana
 Bhavishya purana is important only
The puranas begin with those kings who relate their lineage to the Sun and the Moon.
The geography of ancient India can also be studies by taking the puranas as the basis.

Poets:
As we come to later ages, there are court poets and writers write about their masters.
Reliance cannot be given to these court poets as they are mostly hyperbolic in their
expression and liberal in praising their masters. The chronological order of their
description is not usually very trustworthy but they cannot be altogether rejected. The
most important books of secular nature is the Arthashastra by Kautilya, the chancellor of
Chandragupta administrative machinery of the time.
Next came to the great poet Bana Bhatta who has written Harsha Charita, a book that
Harsha Charita, a book that has been compared in utility of Akbar Nama by Abul Fazal.
Smith is of the view that all that has been exaggerated can be eliminated and even then,
what remains is of great historical importance of our information. The history of Kashmir
written by Kalhana, the Kashmir Pandit under the caption Raja Tarangini in the 12 th
century A.D. is a book of purely historical nature and has no parallel in the annals of the
 ancient literature of the country. R.C. Majumdar thinks that is really an authentic
historical ground.
Though in verse, has been written cautiously to give a real historical touch to the
description. His approach is historical in nature because the author himself remarks: “I
have examined all work of former scholars which contain the chronicles of kings” this
is really a research work of great importance for us. Raj Tarangini has its echoes in other
parts of the country and court-poets and writers restored to the same style of the praise
of their masters.
Rasmala of Someshwar. Chintamani by Maru Tunga, Prabandha Kosha by Raj Shekhar
and Vasant Vilas of Bala Chandra are some of the books that were written on the style of
Raj Tarangini in the different parts of the country. They appear to be like a strong telling
but much of historical value can be sorted out. The biographies of Kumar Pala can lead
us to reconstructed the history of Gujarat.
There are certain books have been traced out but whose origin can be confirmed
through certain Persian or Arabic translation. Chachnama, a Persian work, has been
translated from Arabic which was base on some books that were traces in sidh and
taken away by the muslin invaders. Some nepalic literature has also been borrowed
from the indigenous sources but nothing very reliable can be out forward.

Non-Brahmin Literature as Literary Sources:

It includes Buddhist literature and Jain literature. Literary sources of ancient Indian history
belonging to non-brahmin literature are as follows:
Buddhist literature
The tripitakan is the most important in the Buddhist text. After mahaparinivana of
buddha, his teaching has been complied and divided into three parts, this is called
tripitaka.
1.Vinayapitaka (it explains the rulers of the union and the teachings of ethics).
2.Sutpitaka (it contains religious doctrine or religious teachings).
3.Abhidhammapitaka (philosophical principles are states in it).
The greatest feature of the Tripitakas is that they give a complete description of the
organization of Buddhist Sanghas. Jataka contain the story of Buddha’s former birth. The
main text of Hinayana is Kathavastu, in which the life of mahatma buddha is describe
with many stories.
The texts of Mahayana sect are lalitvistara and Divyavadaan. In which lalitvistar present
a miraculous description of Buddha’s life and his works, considering him as a deity.
While divyavandan tell us about Ahsoka’s successor to pushyamitra Sunga.
Ashwaghosh’s name tops in Sanskrit Buddhist writers. Where the brahmin texts do not
light, we get to know fact from Buddhist text.
 JAIN LITERATURE:
Jain literature is called Agam or Siddhanta. The approach of Jain literature is also as
religious as Buddhist literature.
In Jain texts-

 Parishistparvan
 Bhadrabahucharit
 Acharangasutra
 Bhhagvatisutra
 Kalila Purana, etc are important
Parishisth and Bhadrabahucharit provides details of the ethnics and rulers of Jain monks. An
interesting account of Mahavira’s life and is work are found in the Bhagavatisutra. Many
historical events reported from these Jain texts. The early history of Jainism is known from
kalpasutra, which was written by bhadrabahu. Puranas also have an important place in Jain
literature, also known as charit. The Jain puranas are believed to date from the sixth to the
16th-17th centuries.

Cosmic Literature as Literary Sources:

In cosmic literature – historical texts and semi-historical texts and semi- historical. Historical
text can be specially mentioned. There are two types of cosmic literature that plays an
important part of literary sources of ancient Indian history.
Historical Works:

 Among the historical work, Kautilya’s Arthashastra is mentioned first.

 The most important of the historical work is the Rajatarangini composed by the
Kashmir poet kalhan. This is the first attempt to write a history in order to historian
events in Sanskrit literature.
 Like Kashmir, many historical texts have also been found in Gujarat,
 Like Kashmir, many historical texts have also been found in Gujarat,
 Rasamala and kirtikoumudi by somewhere
 Prabandhkosh by rajshekhar

Semi Historical work:

 Astadhyayi of panini,
 Katyayan’s vartik and gargi Samhita,
 Mudrarakshas of visakhadatta,
 Malavikagnimitram of Kalidas etc. is particular notable.
Vyakaran grant hog panin and katyayan throw light on the earlier history of mauryans and
the political situation in maurya. gargi singhhita is an astrological text (jyotish granth). There
is a history of Shungas in Mahabhashya. Information about Chandragupta Maurya is
received from Mudrarakshas. The political circumstance of Sunga are describe in
Malavikagnimitram.

2. Secular literature:
There are many kinds of secular or non-religious literature. The law-book of ancient India
known as dharma sutras and smritis belong to this group. They contain code of duties for
kings, administrators, and people. They also contain rulers regarding property, and prescribe
punishments for murder, theft and other crimes.
Kautilya’s Arthasastra is a famous work. It not only speaks of the state and polity, but also of
socio-economics system. Authors like patajali and panini, though they wrote Sanskrit
grammar, also describe some political events. The dramas of kalidasa, vishakhadatta, and
bhasa give us useful information about the people and society. The were some historical
writings too. Bana wrote harshacharita or the life of harsha. Bilhana wrote about
vikramaditya. kalhana’s Rajatarangini was a historical text of great value. Its account of
history of Kashmir.
History tries to find correct material for history from all such literary sources.

3. Account of Foreigners:
From very ancient times, foreigners visited India. Some of them left valuable account of
their travel or visits. Ancient Greek and roman historians also wrote about India from their
knowledge and information. All these foreign accounts prove useful for writing history.
We know of Chandragupta Maurya’s victory over the Greeks from the Greek account. They
mentioned him as Sandrokottas in their writings. The Greek ambassador magasthenes
stayes in the court of Chandragupta maurya and wrote him famous work Indika.
Unfortunately, this work was lost. Bit fragment from it were preserved in the quotations by
other Greek writers. But even those brief accounts are regarded most precious to know
Mauryan polity and society.
From works such as Ptolemy’s geography we know of India’s port and harbours. From Pliny’s
work we know of trade relations between Rome and India. These writers wrote in early
centuries of the Christian era. The Chinese traveller fa-Hien left valuable accounts on the
time of the imperial Guptas. Hieuen Tsang, who is described about the india of the aged of
harsha. Another Chinese, itsing, visited india in 7th century A.D. his accounts contain the
socio-religious condition of those days.
Travellers from the Islamic world also visited India. Al Biruni who came at the time of
Mahmud of Ghazani studied Sanskrit himself. His writing on ‘Hind’ gives useful
information. History demands devotion to truth. Historians construct history from
various sources to present the truth of the past the men of today and the future.

Greek writers:
India has been very fortunate in having its relation from times immemorial with different
foreign countries through invaders and conquerors, foreign scholars and students, travellers
and sometimes simply visitors. The earliest ever recorded india information in a foreign
literature is that of Herodotus in Greece. His description relates to two wild tribes inhabiting
the Indo-Iranian border but it can be of relevance so far as the description of the border
region of the country is concerned. Many other Greek and roman writers have recorded
invasion of Alexander the great, through it has been omitted, quite surprisingly, by all the
ancient Indian writers.
His invasion is important from different angles as it brought two important civilisations in
contact with each other but the wounds were headed up very soon and the invasion was
forgotten altogether. The far-reaching effects can be assessed from the fact that india
borrowed the art of idol and statue-making from these foreigners while it imported to them
the knowledge of astronomy and astrology and, of course, mathematics. Next come
Magasthenes, the ambassador of Selukus, in the court of Chandragupta maurya. His
memoirs, indica though not available in its original form, have been quoted by many
different writers of Greece and Rome. The extracts are of real historical nature as they were
a record of Indian events by a foreign visitor.
Bedion calls Megasthenese “a deliberate Lier” but we cannot subscribe to his view as a
foreigner has no axe to grind against the Indian ruler or the masses. Other Greek writers like
Nearchus and Aristobulus has personal contacts with india and have written with great
justification. Petrokils, governor of provisions between Caspian Sea and Indus, has been
quotes by Strabo. His accounts are of importance as he wrote with personal knowledge.
Chinese travellers:
The Chinese travellers and pilgrims came to india mostly to pay their homage to the sacred
land of buddha, their saviour. The very purpose of their visits was religious but the records
have been of great value to us from the view-point of history as well. Fa Hien visited the
country in 5th century A.D. during the ruins of Chandragupta Vikramaditya . His accounts of
the social and religious life are very detailed and informative. He was follows by Huan
Chwang during the days of Harshvardhan. He remained in india for about 15 years and
during his sojourn he travelled extensively and met people of every rank. His record of the
Indian people, their religion, the condition of law and order, the theory of administration as
adopted by Harshvardhan, the congregational bathing ceremonies at the Sangam in Prayag
and many other factors of the social life are very vivid. The last Chinese traveller of any
importance is It-Sing.
Conclusions:
To sum up I believe that, Indian history, like any another nation’s history, was reconstrued
with the help of archaeological, epigraphical and literary sources available at hand.
Contemporary travel accounts of foreigners were also taken into account, in this process.
Events mentioned on stones or any other medium in one place were cross-checked with
mentions about the same events in another place and the veracity level of the of the local
account was ascertained.
Foreign rulers of india like the Mughals and the British and the other western countries,
appear to be keen observes of men and matters and, therefore, of history. Their court
records served as a valuable source for reconstructing the Indian history with the attendant
chronology.as far as the history of the Tamil-speakers are concerned, the native literary
works, and the discovery of more than 60,000 inscriptions in the Tamil language and the
Tamil scripts of various time periods were rich sources. Archaeology plays a good role in this
field.
An archaeological excavation at the ore-iron age (before 1200BCE) adichanallur site in
south Tamil nadu held exciting pieces of material evidence for the reconstruction of the
history of Tamil nadu with scientific dates allotted to it. unfortunately, this feat conducted in
1904, by a British, alexander Rea, was not completed and the country, to berlin.
After a lapse of 100 years, the archaeological survey of india, Chennai circle, again came out
with ground-shaking material evidence to prove the antiquity of the Tamil land, but,
unfortunately, it was left to rot for another one and a half decade, for reasons best known
to the centre.
On the intervention of the madras high court’s Madurai beach, at the instance of a plea
made by a couple of concerned Tamils, the work has again been taken up and a few finds
carbon-dated to the 10th century BCE. Still a vast area earmarked for excavation there
remains to be dug.
Thus, the lack of recorded history has been very well compensated by the availability of a
host of archaeological sources. A patient and intelligent survey, a comparative and critical
deciphering of the mute resources have helped us to add to our information. The so-called
pictorial-writings of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro when read would revolutionize the sources
of our information and much would be added to our existing store of knowledge .
References:
https://www.historydiscussion.net/articles/sources-of-ancient-indian-history-
archaeological-and-literary-sources/2336
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/ancient_indian_history/
sources_of_ancient_indian_history.htm
https://historyflame.com/literary-sources-of-ancient-indian-history/
https://historyflame.com/archeological-sources-of-ancient-indian-history/
https://www.gktoday.in/topic/fact-sheet-of-indian-history_25/