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Late Archaean structure and gold mineralization in the Kadoma

region of the Midlands greenstone belt, Zimbabwe
R. J. H E R R I N G T O N
Department of Mineralogy, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK

Abstract: Major Archaean greenstone gold deposits are located in distinctive structural settings,
and Zimbabwe is a good example with over 90% of its gold production being derived from
structurally controlled veisns, shear zones and probably epigenetic replacement BIF hosted
deposits.
The structural framework of the Zimbabwe craton is dominated by the evolution of the
c. 2700 Ma Limpopo belt. Strongly developed, major shear zones were initiated at this time.
These major shear zones focused strain, which in the Midlands greenstone belt, evolved from
pure N-S compression, to lateral extrusion of the main Rhodesdale gneiss block westwards.
The structural features seen in the gold deposits of the Midlands greenstone belt are consistent
with such a model of NNW-SSE compression linked to lateral extrusion of the Rhodesdale gneiss
block westwards. Initiation of structures during NNW-SSE compression resulted in early folding
such as the Kadoma anticline, together with initiation of the major mineralized shear systerms as
thrust faults. Simple shear evolved to transpressive shear with development of oblique dextral
and sinistral mineralized shear systems. Rotation of the principal stress direction clockwise to
an ENF_~WSWorientation led to evolution of dominantly dextral transpressive shear on the major
Lily, Munyati and Rhodesdale boundary shear systems, probably in response to the lateral
extrusion of the Rhodesdale gneiss block westwards. This even is linked to waning gold
mineralization and accounts for the major dextral offsets along the Lily fault and the Munyati
shear close to Battlefields.

The Archaean Midlands greenstone belt of series of veins, clearly structurally controlled.
Zimbabwe has been a significant gold producer on South of Kadoma, the Brompton deposit rather
the world scale, with at least eight deposits having unusually occurs within the Rhodesdale Gneiss
produced over 10 tonnes of gold and two (Cam & complex, and forms several parallel, moderately
Motor, Globe & Phoenix) having produced over dipping veins developed within thin felsic intrusive
100 tonnes of gold (Foster et al. 1986). Probably all bodies intrudeed along narrow shear zones
of these deposits are structurally controlled (Foster (Tomlinson 1982).
et al. 1986; Foster 1989) and most are hosted Farther south, the Indarama and Broomstock
within units of the Bulawayan Group (Fig. 1). deposits occur within mafic volcanics and BIF of
North of Kadoma, the Basaltic Unit of the the Bulawayan and are also structurally controlled
Bullawayan is host to a number of important gold (Nutt 1985; Nutt et al. 1988). The area immedi-
deposits, notably the major Dalny gold deposit ately around Kwekwe is one of the most productive
(>50 t Au produced) and the deposits around regions (Foster et al. 1986) with the Globe &
Golden Valley. The Dalny deposit is developed in Phoenix deposit having produced some 120 t of
a shear zone array within tholeiitic lavas which g o l d to date (Foster 1989). Mineralization is
contain minor intercalated black shales (Carter developed where altered and carbonated ultramafic
1991). The structurally controlled Patchway rocks are in contact with granitic gneisses of the
(20 t Au produced) and Golden Valley (c. 35 t Au Rhodesdale batholith. Veins are hosted in both
produced), together with the minor Erin and carbonate-rich ultramafiic rocks and granitic
Hamburg deposits, comprise dominantly discrete gneiss, pinching out into talc-schist units (Porter
veins and minor shear zone disseminations hosted & Foster 1991).
within iron-rich tholeiites of the Upperl Green- Recent aeromagnetic mapping (Anon 1984) and
stones (Herrington 1991). structural analyses of some of these deposits (e.g.
Close to Kadoma, the Cam & Motor gold Carter 1991; Herrington 1991; Porter & Foster
deposit, historically Zimbabwe's largest gold pro- 1991), together with new regional studies (e.g.
ducer (145 t Au), is located at the steeply dipping Pitfield & Campbell 1989) and older published
contact between basaltic flow units and a mixed studies (e.g. Bliss 1970; Robertson 1976; Catchpole
metasedimentary sequence (Collender 1964). The 1987; Nutt et al. 1988), provide good information
style is one of an anastomosing and branching which can be synthesized into a regional structural

From COWARD,M. E & RIES, A. C. (eds), 1995, Early Precambrian Processes, 173
Geological Society Special Publication No. 95, pp. 173-191.
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174 R.J. HERRINGTON

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Midlands greenstone belt, Zimbabwe with interpreted structural information from
aeromagnetic, air photographic and remote sensing data (compiled from Bliss 1970; Robertson 1976; Anon 1984;
Foster et al. 1986; Pitfield & Campbell 1990; Herrington 1991)
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STRUCTURES t~ Au MINERALIZATION,ZIMBABWE 175

chronology. Such a chronology can be placed in the complemented by acquisition of new aeromagnetic
broader craton-scale deformation models which data produced at 1 : 1 000 000 (Anon 1984). This
have been proposed. new data, together with recently published air-
This paper reports on detailed structural informa- photo interpretations of Pitfield & Campbell (1989)
tion collected by the author at the Patchway and and the author's own air-photo study of the area
Golden Valley deposits, a key area to the north of NW of Kadoma (Herrington 1991), allows more
Kadoma close to the major Lily fault, which shows interpretation of regional structure to be added
structural features consistent with the model for to the geological maps. This is presented as an
evolution of the greenstone belt as a whole when interpretive compilation which is shown on Fig. 1.
integrated with other deposit scale studies and the The strongest feature in the Patchway--Golden
author's own observations from other deposits. Valley area is the Lily fault, described by Bliss
(1970) as a major strike-slip structure (Fig. 1). In
Structural framework of the Zimbabwe the north the structure branches towards Dalny with
craton continuation north to form the boundary between
the Archaean and Proterozoic cover. Southwards,
It is clear that structural evolution of the Zimbabwe the South Lily shear follows the western margin of
craton was linked to that of the Limpopo belt and the Whitewaters tonalite body, joining the Munyati
Kaapvaal craton (Coward 1976). Strong compres- shear, west of Indarama. The fault is well defined in
sional tectonics were active across the Limpopo the northern part of the belt, specifically to the west
belt and structures well into the Zimbabwe craton of the Patchway--Golden Valley region where it
were influenced by this. Studies such as Coward forms the boundary between the Calc-alkaline and
et al. (1976) and Key & Hutton (1976) recognized Bimodal units of the greenstones. Towards the
the regional aspect to deformation pattems and north, a NE-SW-trending splay runs through the
the influence of the craton-bounding mobile belts. Chakari region with the development of parallel
This work, compiled and expanded by Coward N-S structures, accommodating movement around
(1980), outlined three broad structural domains in a large infold of Proterozoic rocks. In the south the
Zimbabwe: (1) craton, (2) Northem Marginal Zone Lily fault steps southeast to join the Munyati shear
(of the Limpopo belt), and (3) Central Zone (of the system in the south. A large dextral displacement
Limpopo belt). is recorded across the Lily fault (Bliss 1970),
Domain 1, the main craton in which all the areas apparently late in the structural evolution of the
discussed in this paper lie, forms a domain domi- belt.
nated by strongly arcuate foliation, often focused The Munyati shear clearly defines the contact
into restricted structural zones. In the southwest between the Bulawayan and Shamvaian Groups
portion of the area, which covers the Bulawayo, in the Battlefields area. Northwards the shear
Gwanda, Shangani and Mberengwa greenstone branches northwestwards to form the Kadoma
belts, a NW-SE-trending upright to inclined shear zone and eastwards to join the Rhodesdale
tectonic fabric is developed in granitic gneisses boundary shear. Southwards, the Munyati shear
and greenstones. Farther east this fabric is branches into the Munyati, Taba-Mali and
deflected to form steep NE-SW shear zones. Some Sherwood shear zones around Indarama. In the
of these shears show evidence of extensive strike- southern part of the Midlands the Munyati shear
slip motion (Stowe 1974). In the KweKwe area of forms the boundary between the Shamvaian and the
the Midlands greenstone belt, the fabric is mainly greenstones of the Bulawayan Group. In the north
steep and arcuate around the older gneiss complex it merges with the Rhodesdale shear in the
at its eastern margin. The northern greenstone belts Battlefields area. Again evidence for both early
of Mount Darwin and Harare are again dominated sinistral and later dextral components to shearing
by NE-SW structures. The eastern part of the on this structure are recorded (Pitfield & Campbell
craton is dominated by structures developed in 1990).
response to some form of NNW-SSE imposed The Rhodesdale boundary shear forms the
shortening across the craton, whilst structure in the eastern boundary of the Midlands greenstone belt
more western part indicate some lateral shortening merging with the Sherwood shear in the south and
in a WSW-ENE direction to the west of the main the Munyati system, south of Kadoma. The shear
Rhodesdale gneiss block (Treloar et al. 1992). zone forms the eastern margin of the greenstone
belt, trending roughly N-S in the KweKwe area,
Geological framework of the Midlands curAng around to NE-SW towards Chegutu. The
shear is marked by a zone of distinctly foliated
greenstone belt
granitic gneiss in the Rhodesdale gneiss unit which
The geological mapping of the greenstone belt contains zones of locally silicified and carbonatized
(Bliss 1970; Robertson 1976) has been recently rocks. Evidence for both early sinistral and later
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176 R.J. HERRINGTON

dextral strike-slip components to shearting are recorded, seen underground at Dalny (Carter 1991).
indicated (Stowe 1980). The package of flow rocks is accompanied by
Stowe (1980) had previously identified the Lily, numerous thin quartz porphyry intrusives (termed
Rhodesdale and Munyati structures as major strike- 'felsites' locally), probably high-level dykes or
slip shears with early sinistral and later dextral sills, which show variable age relationships but the
shear sense. In addition, the zone between the majority apparently intruded later than the original
major Lily and Munyati-Rhodesdale structures in mafic flow rocks. These intrusives are recorded at a
the Kadoma region shows some linear features in number of mines in the Kadoma region (Bliss
the magnetic data which are largely sub-parallel to, 1970), including the Golden Valley, Patchway and
or splays off, the major first order structures. One Erin mines. The intrusives are of tonalitic to
such magnetic feature extrapolates through the grandodioritic composition (Bliss 1970; Herrington
Cam & Motor region. A broad area of elevated 1991), making them similar in chemistry to the
magnetic response is indicated over the White- larger Sesombi suite to intrusives and the small
waters and Biri tonalite bodies. The relevance of stocks of Marizani, Chadshunt and Polperro near
this is not clearly understood, but it may be due to Chakan.
the presence of magnetite in these intrusives. The greenstone sequence is intruded by the
These observations show the focus of intense Sesombi tonalite suite (Bliss 1970). Recent Pb-Pb
deformation in the KweKwe to Battlefields area dates of .,.~tz.-tfl+154
. . . -173 Ma (Taylor et al. 1991) span
which to the north opens into more complex splay the previously quoted dates and are compatible
structures branching northwards to Datny and with the intrusives closely post-dating the Upper
northeastwards to Kadoma. Greenstones. Mapping suggests that the White-
waters complex intruded in two stages as an early
sodic phase which was deformed before a later
Geology of the Patchway-Golden Valley more potassic phase, possibly represented by the
Grandeur potassic granite, located at the southern
area tip of the Whitewaters body tonalite (Bliss 1970).
The gold deposits of the Golden Valley region are Clearly post-dating all these rocks are a series of
hosted within the Upper Bulawayan sequence of generally NE-SW-trending dolerite dykes.
rocks of the Midlands greenstone belt (Fig. 1). Recorded extensively in the belt (Bliss 1970), these
These rocks can be compared to similar rocks in the are seen to cut the Lion Hill stock and Whitewaters
Mberengwa area. The contrast of metamorphic tonalite bodies. Macgregor (1930) proposes an
grade between the Rhodesdale gneiss complex Upper Karoo age for these dykes, although the
(moderate) and the greenstones (low) suggests that undoubted deformation of some of the intrusives
the gneiss forms the basement sequence to the seen at Patchway (Herrington 1991) would appear
greenstone succession (Robertson 1976). Whole- to indicate that at least some of the intrusives are
rock Pb-Pb age dates corroborate this, with the much earlier than this, possibly part of the
gneiss dated at ",m~+121
~" ~"-132
Ma and the most reliable Proterozoic Plumtree swarm of 2.15 Ga (Wilson
Pb-Pb dates from the Upper Greenstone sequence et al. 1987).
indicating an age of 2659+398Ma (Taylor et al. Accurate dating of the gold mineralization itself
1991). More recently, SHRIMP U-Pb data derived has recently been attempted by Sm-Nd deter-
from zircons return precise dates of 2702 + 6 Ma mination of scheelite which is a ubiquitous acces-
for the Maliyami Formation and 2696 + 7 Ma for a sory of the veins in the Kadoma region (Bliss
rhyodacite of the Upper Bulawayan (Wilson et al. 1970). Scheelite from a number of gold deposits'
this volume). which included Patchway and Golden Valley
All the deposits studied in the Golden Valley area (S. D. G. Campbell pers. comm.), gave an isochron
are hosted in the Basaltic Unit of the Upper age of 2668 + 64 Ma.
Bulawayan which is the most important strati-
graphic unit for gold production in the craton
(Foster & Wilson 1984). The Basaltic Unit forms Description of gold-bearing structures in
the core of the major Kadoma anticline and extends the Golden Valley region
from Chegutu in the north to an area to the south-
west of Kadoma in the south. The unit is dominat- The gold deposits in the region northwest of
ed by flow rocks, mainly of basaltic and andesitic Kadoma are almost entirely hosted within vein
composition and often pillowed (Bliss 1970; Foster structures of two clearly defined orientations of
et al. 1979). These compositions have been con- strike closely approximating to 020 ~ and 070 ~ (see
firmed by the author's own analyses in the Golden Fig. 2a) which fits well with the bulk of linear
Valley region (Herrington 1991). Subordinate inter- features observed from the interpretation of aerial
flow sediments and volcano-sediments are also photos of the region (Fig. 2b).
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STRUCTURES & Au MINERALIZATION, ZIMBABWE 177

Fig. 2. (a) Rose diagram of strike orientation of gold-beating mineralized structures (in black, n = 50) and major
cross-cutting shear-zones (in grey, n = 5) in the Golden Valley-Patchway region (compiled from Bliss 1970).
(b) Summary of aerial photograph interpretation of the Golden Valley-Patchway region (Herrington 1991).
1, Patchway mine; 2, Golden Valley mine; 3, Erin mine; 4, Hamburg mine; 5, Lion Hill scheelite prospect; 6, Rouge
mine; 7, Lion Hill barren quartz vein. Geology modified from Bliss (1960).

Mineralization at Patchway is confined to a quartz veining is present. This is termed the

single complex vein within an envelope of sheared 'Central Shear Zone' (Herrington 1991) and it
mafic volcanics. Bifurcations and duplications are extends to Golden Valley, where it also represents
common, particularly where the vein-hosting shear a zone in the mine where only highly deformed
is also intruded by so-called 'felsites' (Bliss 1970). slivers of gold-quartz veining are present. The
The strike of the vein varies from 005 ~ in the south traces of the intercepts of this zone with the ore-
to 025 ~ in the northem part and dip is within the bodies are shown clearly as parallel, E-W-trending
range 25-30 ~ westwards. Golden Valley shows a lines on the plan of mined areas on Fig. 3, and a
very similar style of mineralization. Mineralization generally E-W-trending alignment of individual
at Patchway, Golden Valley and sub-parallel mining blocks is a strong feature of other areas of
structures are very similar texturally, all forming the mine forming a principal structural control to
classic veins of ribboned appearance (Herrington economic mineralization.
et al. 1993). At Patchway actual quartz vein widths In addition to the E - W trend, the Patchway
rarely exceed 2.5 m, whilst at Golden Valley 5 m northern orebody clearly shows a break between
widths are recorded. Where the mineralization mineralization on the upper and lower mine levels.
takes the form of multiple quartz veins at Patchway, A 100 m zone with an 030 ~ trend, where mineraliz-
common when felsite intrudes the hosting shear ation is again deformed and highly faulted, is
zone, an aggregate vein thickness of over 5 m is present. In other areas of the mine, minor sub-
known. At Golden Valley, mineralization is parallel faults cause disruption to mineralization
generally restricted to a single, complex vein and and the intercept of these faults and the orebody,
almost without exception at Golden Valley a felsite constitutes the second structural control to eco-
intrusive forms the immediate hanging wall to the nomic mineralization. Also apparent from the plan,
vein. particularly on the upper parts of the northern ore-
Mineralization at Patchway is divided into two body at Patcvhway, are a series of roughly N-S
orebodies, separated by a zone where no significant trending zones where mineralization is missing
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178 R.J. HERRINGTON

Patchway - G o l d e n Valley
Mining Plan
[projection to surface]

Mined Areas ~ Outcropof veins

Patchway \ (mean clip in degrees]

/i Golden Valley [] Mine shaft

/
//' ~} Other mines
/'

% Basil ~,
Vein

Patchway
Kabcrnga I ~rthOrebody.-.~
|
Area of
Figure 7.

~~ ~ SouthOrebo~y

#
1
Figure 6 a \
~en Valley
Vein

/
,/ /

/
/

/
/
/
/
/
/ 500 m
// i
/
/
Fig. 3. Mine plans projected to surface for the Pathway, Golden Valley and Rouge mines (compiled by the author).
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STRUCTURES ~ Au MINERALIZATION, ZIMBABWE 179

across normal faults, which simply displace the D2 deformation

mineralization. Many of these normal faults are
intruded by dolerite dykes. The Golden Valley ore- The next deformation event, here termed D2,
bodies show a very similar spatial pattern to those produced the structures which host the main
at Patchway. The Golden Valley mineralization has gold-quartz mineralization. The structures them-
further extensions to north and south of the two selves are represented by ductile to brittle-ductile
main orebodies, where limited mining has been zones which can be traced for over 1.5 m of strike.
carded out. The deeper levels of the Golden Valley Down-dip the structures are known to a depth of
mine have similar normal fault disruptions to 1 km which at 30 ~ dip means a true extent of at
mineralization to that seen at Patchway, which are least 2 km. Within these structures, ribboned
also associated with late dolerite dykes. The quartz-gold veins themselves form semi-con-
Golden Valley workings have reached one such tinuous elements of the structures, which at
structure named the 'Terminal Fault' at the level of Patchway measure up to 300 m along strike with a
deepest workings. The fault offset of the mineraliz- down dip extent of up to 250 m. At Golden Valley
ation has not been intersected below this point the continuous sections of vein may be over
although similar faults at Patchway show a variable 300 m in strike length with dip extensions of up to
normal throw suggesting thjat extension to the 500 m. The Basil vein (Fig. 3) is a similar sub-
Golden Valley mineralization may occur at an parallel structure partially investigated by
unspecified depth. underground workings at Patchway. Texturally the
At the northern end of both Golden Valley and vein shows identical textures to the Patchway main
Patchway, the Rouge mine is developed on a 070 ~ vein (Herrington 1991), although low gold grades
structural trend, dipping 55-60 ~ NNW. Mineraliz- do not currently support mining. In addition, the
ation style is clearly different to that of the Hamburg structure, which lies south of Patchway,
Patchway and Golden Valley veins, being described follows a similar structure, and is considered to
by Bliss (1970) as: 'schist impregnated with pyrite, have formed contemporaneously. From the broad
pyrrhotite and minor amounts of quartz in lenses relationships the veins would all appear to represent
and stringers. The zone is normally wide, varying a shear vein, parallel to the main failure of the zone.
from 44 inches to over 100 inches but the distri- Figure 4a shows a composite plot for poles to
bution of ore was irregular'. The description of gold-bearing veins in the Patchway, Basil, Golden
mineralization is somewhat similar to the style and Valley and Hamburg deposits. The great circle
trend of mineralization displayed at the nearby Erin plotted is drawn about the central point of the
mine, which is also developed on an 070 ~ structure. >30% contout plot of all the poles to veins. The
The other minor deposits, such as Basil (see data show a relatively small spread, consistent
Fig. 3), resemble the Patchway mineralization, the with all the deposits being developed on parallel,
vein having a typical ribboned appearance and a regionally significant, structures. In all cases there
similar strike (Bliss 1970). Finally, low-grade is strong development of a shear fabric marginal to
mineralization, known as the Kabanga vein system, the quartz veins and this has a generally consistent
has been investigated at the northwestern limit of relationship with the main vein. The angular
the mine (see Fig. 3) which has a roughly NE-SW relationship of this S-fabric versus the main failure
trend. plane, C is supportive of a reverse plus sinistral
strike-slip movement on the C failure plane
(Fig. 4b). Other macroscopic kinematic
Structural geology of the Patchway- indicators are rare, but there is a suggestion of
minor reverse thrusting in pillow lava flow tops on
Golden Valley deposits the mine's 10 level. Reverse plus strike-slip
Early folding movement accompanied the periodic hydrothermal
fluid flow through the main failure surface which
The earliest recorded deformation event in the led to formation of the ribbon quartz veins
greenstone belt as described earlier is the develop- (Herrington et al. 1993). Evidence for the
ment of large scale regional folding (Bliss 1970). broadly compressive nature of the stress field on
The folding has led to formation of the Kadoma the main mineralized structure is seen in the
anticline (Fig. 1) and the Patchway area would lie intense flattening of pillows in the shear zone
on the northwest limb of this feature. At Patchway and within the quartz vein itself where a variable
primary bedding features are rare, but there is indi- development of stylolitization of the veins and
cation of a generally shallow northwest dip to the wallrock septa is seen across the vein. However it is
package of flow rocks, with units being the right clear that for the main failure plane, the quartz
way up in agreement with other authors (Bliss veining is evidence for volume inflation across the
1970; Ward 1964). structure.
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180 R.J. HERRINGTON

(a) ~ M~3n
g,e<:lt~irole D3 effects on D2 mineralization
The D3 deformation is marked by a second fabric at
Patchway ($3) which is developed at variable
intensity throughout the deposit within the vein
hosting shear zone (Fig. 5a), but more importantly
in discrete cross-cutting zones which disrupt gold
mineralization (Herrington 1991).

......

D3 She~rFabric
/ / / / Q ~..\ ~ n Q ~ t c~.,

9 Patchway mine
= Golden Valley Mine _*

\ /.i/" 9 .._.

Gok:J-QuaazVe,n

/" / " ~ . ~ Man Shoot Fabric

Pi poles to D3 shear fabric

9 Patchway North Orebody
o P a t c h w a y " C e n t r a l Shear"
o Erin M i n e

9 Plungeof early boudinage and

minor folding of D2 veining

(b) I

Pi poles to D2 vein shear fabric

9 PatchwayNorth Orebody
Patchway South Orebody rc~
o Golden Valley

Fig. 4. (a) Pi plot of D2 gold--quartz veins from

Patchway, Golden Valley and Hamburg mines. Great
circle plotted about mean of data, n = 68. (b) Pi plot of
shear fabric related to D2 gold-quartz veining at /
Patchway and Golden Valley. Great circle plotted about
mean of data, n = 243.

D3 deformation
The second major structural event during the
Pi poles to Kabanga Veins
development of the gold deposits in the region
around Patchway is the development of a second Fig. 5. (a) Pi plot of D3 shear fabric at Patchway and
major trend of structures striking approximately Erin mines. Great circles plotted about data means. Also
070 ~ This trend is parallel to: (a) the 'Central shear plotted are plunges to boudinage crests and minor folds
zone' at Patchway and similar zones at Golden in D2 gold-quartz veins. (b) Pi plot of D3 Kabanga
Valley, (b) the 'Rouge shear' and associated Rouge veins measured at Patchway mine. Great circle plotted
orebody (see Fig. 3) and (c) the Erin orebody. about mean of 4 data.
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STRUCTURES d~ Au MINERALIZATION, ZIMBABWE 181

In general, D3 is characterized by boudinage and Good evidence for quite late deformation on the
thinning of the vein. The boudinage is indicative of D3 structures is provided from the literature. Bliss
volume loss across the structures, again indicative (1970) notes that the Rouge shear, host to the
of a compressive regime. Examination of both the Rouge gold deposit (Fig. 3), which has an identical
ribbon quartz vein and the felsite intrusive body, trend to the Patchway central shear and the Erin
also caught in the later deformation zone, indicates structure, in fact truncates the late dolerite dyke
a repetition of these units at the northern part of the intrusions which are ascribed to the D4 event (see
mine, consistent with a sinistral strike-slip compo- below). Although this cannot be seen at Patchway,
nent to shear (Fig. 6a). Parts of the vein shows a clearly more protracted period of deformation
minor folding, particularly in the more intensely post-dating mineralization is recorded on the D3
deformed areas. Plunges of the axial traces of these structures.
minor folds is parallel to the plunge of boudin
crests, consistent with formation during the same
deformation event (Fig. 5a). D4 deformation
In the region of the Central shear zone thin The latest major deformation event recorded at the
remnants of earlier D2 mineralization are present as Patchway mine is expressed as a major period of
boudinaged sections scattered throughout the zone, extension which was oriented in an almost E-W
sometimes only present as thin lenses. To the north direction across the region. The deformation
of the mine the D3 deformation is largely confined is largely manifest as a distinct event of normal
to discrete but intense cross-cutting zones which dip-slip on the main vein, leading to another
clearly disrupt mineralization, complicating mining period of stretching and boudinage of mineraliz-
operations. Again there is clear evidence of sinistral ation. Accompanying this normal faulting of the
strike-slip motion on these structures, which is mineralization is the intrusion of later dolerite
accompanied by the apparent rotation of the faulted dykes. This deformation event is responsible for the
segments of the quartz-gold veins to closer fault disruption and attenuation seen between the
parallelism with the strike of the D3 zones in this upper and lower sections of the mine at Patchway.
area (Fig. 6b). D4 is characterized by common asymmetric
boudinage with deformation later evolving to more
Erin mine structure brittle normal faulting. This seems to have been
closely accompanied by the intrusion of the dolerite
The main host structure for mineralization at Erin is dykes. Stereonet projection of data shows the late
parallel to the main D3 structures mapped at faults, veining and dyke intrusions (Fig. 7), which
Patchway (Fig. 5a). The deformation style of the is suggesative of a strong Riedel geometric control
Erin structure is quite different to that seen to the elements, with faults developed along 'R'
surrounding the main veins at Patchway and and 'T' planes, infilled with quartz and tourmaline,
Golden Valley. Alteration takes the form of intense and in the case of some the 'T' orientation much
carbonate flooding of opened shear foliation, later doleritic magma which in places cuts the
lending the mineralized zone a characteristic quartz-tourmaline veining (Herrington 1991)i
striped appearance. Minor folds in the mineralized Figure 8 is a perspective view of part of the
zone are common, strikingly open in form in some North Orebody at Patchway which demonstrates
places. Mapping at Erin in this structure indicates the combined effects of superimposed D3 and D4
that a similar sense of shear can be deduced from features. These features can be referred back to the
all the kinematic indicator elemensts, showing plan of mined areas (Fig. 3) where the westward
dominantly sinistral strike-slip motion (Fig. 6c). plunging terminated to mineralization caused by
Such a shear sense supports the view that the Erin D3 on the D2 vein and the roughly N-S- and
structure is a D3 structure, with similar sense to that NNW-SSE-trending termination to mineralization
at Patchway. caused by D4 on the D2 vein can be observed.
Complex ore blocks are thus defined by super-
imposition of these two deformation events.
Other minor veins
The so called Kabanga reef, intercepted at the
northwest end of Patchway mine, also appears to be
Very late regional features
located on D3 structures (Fig. 3). Figure 5b shows Veins hosted in the large tonalite bodies have
a stereonet projection of the data collected from this produced scheelite and are largely barren of gold
area indicating its association with the D3 trend. (Bliss 1970). These veins probably post-date the
The mineralized structures examined underground D2 gold veins, since the Sesombi tonalite is seen
show some strong similarities with the alteration to have a metamorphic aureole overprinting gold
style at Erin (Herrington 1991). mineralization in shear zones of ages presumed
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(a) : ; tC3 s....~ .....

/ QIz sulphide vein
o. 5 lo . / ~ ~ ~. oo..,~,
metres , , # ' ~
~ I ~ Eldy ($2) FIbrlc
/ / i I ~ Dip o4 Vein
~ f // /~ /~0 I l & LIIIIIr(S3) FIbI'~

9 50 40 ,, ~ x I,&>A\

k
",,,%,
'"~-\~, ~ A ~ "'~',,

10 Level North
0 r e b o d y Detail

(b), /

28 L e v e l North ~ ,, \V'::~~' ,
Orebody Oeto.il 60"k \ s0"~!i? I
(Underground workingsomitted forclarity) i}i~..

ER[N MINE \\. /

90 FATHOM LEVEL \~ /
Orebody
(C) Detail ~ ' \ \ " ~ . ' / "

: -- - ~ 6 0 /f ,' !/~ :', r

=~ - " ; L ~ ~ ~ 7 - - - = ' ~ - 4
. - "u. . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . " 7- 9" - . . ~ ~ - . . ~

) / / ~,'~ QtzSulphide Vein

/ ] / ~...: QlzPorphyr/Intrusive
0 5 !l / / ~ Main Fabric
= -m=e~-r=es / ~ Plungeofminorfoldaxis
........
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STRUCTURES & Au MINERALIZATION, ZIMBABWE 183

slip in linked ENE structures and was accompanied

by gold mineralization. During this event, the
NNE-SSW-trending structures are clearly more
favourably oriented for dilation and hence are the
best mineralized. The ENE structures continued
to focus deformation after cessation of gold
mineralization and are seen to deform the NNE
gold veins. Intrusion of the tonalities belonging to
the Sesombi suite probably occurred late in the
deformation-mineralization event. This deforma-
tion is consistent with initial shortening directed in
a roughly N-S direction, later modified to a
NNE-SSW-directed principal stress direction.
Much later E - W extension resulted in faulting and
dolerite dyke intrusion (Herrington 1991).

Dalny mine
Gold mineralization is largely confined to an array
of gold-bearing structures, related to a 10 km long
Pi p o l e s t o D4 f e a t u r e s NE--SW-trending shear zone hosted in tholeiites
9 Late extension veins with minor shales and BIFs. A complex history
., Late normal faults of deformation is indicated where drag folding is
Dolerite dykes indicative of sinistral strike-slip shear (Leigh 1964)
with shear fabrics supportive of dominantly reverse
Fig. 7. Pi plot of D4 features at Patchway mine. Great dip-slip on the main Dalny shear during mineraliz-
circles plotted about mean of data.
ation followed by later dextral strike-slip reacti-
vation (Carter & Foster 1990; Carter 1991).
Mineralization is then truncated by NNW-SSE-
to be contemporaneous with D2 (Robertson trending faults with fault offsets consistent with
1976). Finally, late faults trending NW-SE cut all either sinstral shear or normal faulting. These
lithologies in the region (Bliss 1970). These faults events are postdated by the intrusion of
host 'barren' quartz mineralization when striking NNE-SSW-oriented dolerite dykes.
150-160 ~ in the Patchway area. One such vein was
examined at Lion Hill (Fig. 2) and it is believed to
represent very late deformation since the faults Cam & Motor mine
would appear to cross-cut all regional geological The shear zone hosting the main mineralized vein
features. lies along the contact between greenstones and
metasediments which at lower levels takes the form
of a drag fold, the shape of which suggests a early
Structural summaries of the Midland sinistral strike-slip shear during folding (Collender
1964). The Motor vein and related Cam spur vein
gold deposits truncate the E-W-trending Cam veins at depth
Golden Valley-Patchway suggesting a complex linked vein system which
may have evolved during later ENE-WSW-
Figure 9 summarizes the Golden Valley-Patchway directed dextral strike-slip shearing (Fig. 10a). This
events, where early oblique sinistral reverse-slip on is compatible with the present orientation of
NNE-SSW-trending structures evolved to sinistral the vein system. It is suggested by Bliss (1970) that

Fig. 6. (a) Level plan of 10 Level North, Patchway mine (see Fig. 3 for location). Plan shows intense D3 deformation
to D2 quartz veining (in black) close to the northern margin of the ;Central Shear Zone'. (b) Level plan at 28 Level
North, Patchway mine (see Fig. 3 for location). Plan shows fault repetition of the D2 quartz veining anf felsite
intrusive close to the current northern margin of current mine workings. (c) Level plan of 90fm Level, Erin mine (see
Fig, 2). Plan shows deformed felsite intrusive and quartz veining. Minor structures are consistent with dominantly
sinistral strike-slip sheafing.
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184 R . J . HERRINGTON

Fig, 8. Partly schematic perspective view of part of the Patchway North Orebody (area shown on Fig. 3). Black areas
represent D2 gold-quartz veining which is cut by D3 (wavy lines) and D4 (cross hatched) structures. D3 leads to thin-
ning, boudinage and shear repetition of the D2 veining. D4 leads to boudinage and normal faulting of the D2 veining.

Fig. 9, Schematic plan of the deformation and mineralization events seen at Patchway. (a) D2 deformation focused
on 020 ~ trending structure in response to NNW-SSE applied stress. 1, Gold-quartz mineralization during oblique
sinistral plus reverse slip. 2, Cross structures, later important during D3, are unfavourably oriented during D2.
3, Sub-parallel veins, such as Basil, also form. (b) D3 deformation focused on 060-070 ~ structures during rotation
of principal stress direction clockwise. Rouge and Central shears focus much deformation with formation of minor
gold-bearing veining at Kabanga (4). D2 veining is fault repeated and boudinaged in this event (5). The main areas
of the mine see development of minor D3 boudinage and sheafing (6). (c) D4 deformation in response to E-W
extension. Normal faulting and dyke intrusion disrupt the D2 mineralization.
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STRUCTURES • Au MINERALIZATION, ZIMBABWE 185

Fig. 10. (a) Surface plan of the Cam & Motor gold deposit (after Collender 1964). Later deformation on the
mineralized structures, notably clockwise rotation of the main Motor shear, is consistent with dextral strike-slip
shearing. (b) Plan of the veins on 4 Level, Indarama gold deposits (after Nutt 1985). The fiat-lying veins form a
conjugate pair with generally reverse sense of displacement on the veins, consistent with ENE-WSW directed
compression.

the veins themselves are folded after mineraliz- Undergroun, there is good evidence for dominantly
ation implying such a protracted deformation- reverse-sense shearing during mineralization with
mineralization event. Andesite lavas make the best overthrusting of the main Brompton vein via minor
host rocks for mineralization; pillow lavas, duplex structures. Mineralization is disrupted by
greywackes and sediments make poor host later faulting on cross structures which show both
rocks which may be a function of the rheological sinistral and dextral offsets in different areas
properties of the lithologies. (Tomlinson 1982).

Brompton mine Venice-What Cheer mines

This district contains the currently producing Mineralization in this region occurs in two distinct
Brompton mine and related Revie and Pink orientations. Steeply easterly dipping NNE-SSW-
deposits. The main host rocks are somewhat un- trending veins contrast with shallow southerly
usually the basement Rhodesdale gneiss complex dipping WNW-ESE-trtending veins, both inter-
which is locally intruded by mafic dykes, now preted as forming under reverse thrust faulting
altered to amphibolites. Mineralization is related to (Nutt et al. 1988). Catchpole (1987) suggests that
broadly NNE-SSW-trending linements which thrusting on the shallowly dipping veins post-dates
probably represent parallel structures which host the steeper set. Formation of both vein sets is
thin felsite intrusions and ribbon quartz veins. consistent with NNE-SSW-directed compression.
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186 R.J. HERRINGTON

Battlefields area Early deformation

The productive deposits in the Battlefields area Early deformation in the Shurugwi greenstone belt
(Invincible etc.) strike NNW to WNW and dip in the south of the cratonic area probably predates
mainly southwestwards. Mineralization appears to the bulk of the deformation elsewhere (Stowe
be related to early thrusting on these structured 1974). After this event NNW-SSE-directed
which are cut later by ENE-WSW-trending shortening across the belt probably led to the
sinistral faults. Farther south, the Washington mine regional folding events in the 2700 Ma greenstone
has NNE-SSW-trending veining with evidence for belts, which largely predated intrusion of the
both reverse sense thrusting and perhaps later Sesombi suite of granitoids (Coward 1976;
oblique dextral shear sense (Pitfield & Campbell Coward et al. 1976). This appears to precede gold
1990). These shear senses are consistent with mineralization.
dominantly NNE-SSW compression followed by
later rotation to a roughly E-W oriented principal Later deformation
stress.
Development of the observed WSW-ENE shorten-
ing in the Midlands and Bulawayo greenstone belts
cannot be explained by a simple compression
event. McCourt & Veamcombe (1987) propose a
K w e k w e area component of an E-W collision event lying to the
At the Indarama mine, north of Kwekwe, conjugate east to account for the westerly directed thrusting of
low-angle veins are developed with a roughly N-S the Limpopo Central Zone, since it is clear that the
orientation consistent with simple shear developed cratonic area moved some 200 km west with
in response to a roughly ENE-WSW compression respect to the Limpopo belt (Coward 1976). This
event (Fig. 10b). The associated Broom stock event led to major shortening across the south-west
deposit, lying to the north, occurs in the N-S- greenstone belts which are elongated in a N-S
trending fold nose of oxide facies BIF which orientation (Coward 1980).
is highly fractured at the fold closure. This fold The whole of the cratonic area was probably not
closure is also consistent with roughly E-W- displaced, however, as dextral strike-slip move-
directed compression. ment is recorded on some of the NE-SW-trending
Farther south, the major Globe & Phoenix shears on the northern margin of the Rhodesdale
deposits are hosted within the so called Kwekwe gneiss block (Pitfield & Campbell 1989). Therefore
ultramafic unit and the adjoining Rhodesdale the Rhodesdale gneiss block alone may have
gneiss. The deposits comprise three main vein moved westwards with strike-slip motion occurring
sets (Foster et al. 1991). Early carbonization and on the bounding shears both north and south. This
silicification of the ultramafics was crucial ground type of event could lead to a complex series major
preparation, probably during development of the strike-slip movement on the previously developed
major Rhodesdale boundary shear complex. NE-SW thrust faults.
Mineralization occurred during reverse sense The recent models for emplacement of the Great
motion on NNW vein-infilled shears and supports a Dyke point to crustal extension during a period
model of E-W- or NE-SW-directed compression, of pure shear (Wilson & Prendegast 1989) with
possibly coincident with dextral shear along NNW development of the sub-parallel Popoteke Fault set.
striking shears (Porter & Foster 1991). Light (1982) relates this event with the collision of
the Zimbabwe and Kaapvaal cratons, which infers
a continued period of NNW-SSE-oriented com-
pression right up to the end of the Archaean. In this
Deformation model for the Kadoma region case the only way for the Rhodesdale gneiss block
to have moved westwards, is in some kind of
with reference to regional events lateral extrusion model, where the central portions
Summarizing the observations above with the of the largely undeformed Rhodesdale gneiss are
regional work of previous authors (Stowe 1971, squeezed westwards (Treloar et al. 1992). Support
1974; James 1975; Coward 1976; Coward et al. for this lateral movement of the block in the central
1976; Coward & Fairhead 1980; Treloar et al. part of the craton comes from the observation of
1992), the proposed sequence of late Archaean dominantly reverse thrust movement on N-S-
regional deformation, which led to the gold- trending mineralized structures in the KweKwe
mineralization events across the Midlands area, can area (Nutt et al. 1988; Porter & Foster 1991).
be linked to deformation over the Zimbabwe craton The structural features seen in the gold deposits
and can be broadly divided into two stages: early of the Midlands greenstone belt are consistent with
and later deformation. such a model of NNW-SSE compression linked to
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STRUCTURES t~ A u MINERALIZATION, ZIMBABWE 187

(a) (b)
r
// Kodo~j co~ a M o ~

t
2a. ,. ~!~o~

Sesornbl
Dalny Tonalite
(d)

1~ ~;+;+:+:+ I/ j..:..
/-/ + + .~ a a o m a _ (Tam & Motor

i G ; oo

Fig. 11. Synoptic diagram of regional deformation events. (a) Roughly NNW--SSE-directed compression initiates
major structures at greenstone belt boundaries. Initiation of mine structures, possibly at culmination of major regional
folding (D1). (b) Continued NNW--SSE compression focused on structures. Gold mineralization during trans-
pressional motion on lower order structures related to the 'craton-scale' shear zones (D2). (c) Switch of deformation
to cross structures in Pathway-Golden Valley area may relate to lateral extrusion of Rhodesdale gneiss block west-
wards. Strike-slip component on most structures in the Kadoma region reverses. Stress regime becomes more
favourable for emplacement of Sesombi tonalite suite along apex of Kadoma anticline (D3). (d) Late extension
results in normal faulting and dolerite dyke swarm intrusion (possibly post-Archaean?) (D4).
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188 R.J. HERRINGTON

lateral extrusion of the Rhodesdale gneiss block boundary shear systems, probably in response to
westwards (Fig. 11 and Table 1). Initiation of the lateral extrusion of the Rhodesdale gneiss block
structures during NNW-SSE compression resulted westwards (Stage C). This phase of deformation
in early folding such as the Kadoma anticline (Bliss accounts for the major dextral offsetts along the
1970), together with initiation of the major Lily fault (Bliss 1970) and the Munyati shear close
mineralized shear systerms as thrust faults (Stage to Battlefields (Pitfield & Campbell 1989). The
A). Simple shear evolved to transpressive shear main part of this deformation at Patchway is shown
with development of oblique dextral and sinistral to be dominantly reverse plus a component of
mineralized shear systems (Stage B). At Patchway, sinistral strike-slip. Such a m o v e m e n t sense
reverse plus sinistral shearing is evident on the suggests continued compression, probably from the
main gold-bearing structures at this time. In the northwest. Carter & Foster (1990) concludes a
Cam & Motor region, the Motor shear, which was similar slip vector for the Dalny structure during
probably initiated as a roughly N-S wrench fault, the bulk of the deformation during mineralization.
was likely to have been favourably oriented for This event is likely to have led to the current
formation of the Cam and associated vein systems morphology of the Cam & Motor system where
as the branches of a compressive flower structure later dextral strike-slip shearing is evident (Fig.
(Woodcock & Fischer 1986) under sinistral strike- 10a). Pitfield & Campbell (1990) note stretching
slip shear (Fig. 12). Rotation of the principal stress lineations on the Rhodesdale boundary shear-zone
direction clockwise to an E N E - W S W orientation pitching to the NE, again consistent with the move-
led to evolution of dominantly dextral transpressive ment sense on the Lily fault associated structures.
shear on the major Lily, Munyati and Rhodesdale These authors further suggest mineralization in the

Table 1. Tabulated summary of the deformation events in Midland greenstone belt during the Late Archaean, with
particular reference to the Kadoma region

Regional-scale structural evolution Deposit-scale structural evolution

Stage Stage
(see (see
Fig. 11) Deformation events Fig. 11) Deformation events Mineralization

Early NNW-SSE compression, D1 Metamorphism in greenstone Pillow margin

major folds, initiation of sequence, large-scale quartz infillings
major faults? folding
Continued NNW-SSE D2 Reverse plus sinistral strike- Quartz-sulphide
compression, reverse plus (A on slip faulting on second- gold veins
sinistral strike-slip motion Fig. 9) order structures. Gold--quartz
on first-order structures mineralization in 020~
structures at Patchway and
Brompton; mineralization
in 040--045~ structures at
Cam & Motor and Dalny
Intrusion of Sesombi tonalite D3 Sinistral strike-slip motion on Quartz-tourmaline
suite linked to expulsion of (B on 070 ~ structures in the (+ sulphides,
Rhodesdale gneiss block Fig. 9) Golden Valley-Patchway gold)
westwards. Switch to dextral area. Attenuation and
strike-slip sheafing on the faulting of earlier D2 gold-
first order structures bearing veins, waning phase
of gold mineralization on
070 ~ structures (e.g. Patchway
and Erin mine), folding of
Cam & Motor veins?
Regional E-W extension D4 N-S-oriented normal faults, Quartz-tourmaline
culminating in emplace- (C on late gold-poor extension extension veins,
ment of dolerite dyke Fig. 9) veins, scheelite veins in quartz-scheelite
swarln tonalite bodies, lastly veins
intrusion of dolerite dykes
Late Late brittle fractures, 'Barren' quartz
dominantly striking veins
150--160~ barren quartz
veins
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STRUCTURES • Au MINERALIZATION, ZIMBABWE 189

I gold mineralization, largely along 070 ~ structures

y
I with the intrusion of the larger tonalite bodies such

1 as the Whitewaters stock (and regionally the

Sesombi tonalite suite). Orientation of the stress
field in the Kadoma region into an ENE-WSW
direction would be conducive to intrusion of these
bodies parallel to the local a l at this time. The

:J strong geochemical affinity of these tonalite diapirs

and the mine felsite intrusives is quite clear, and the

,y
intrusion of the diapirs would be a logical result of
the large body of magma rising higher into the
upper crust. These tonalities show that they have
also suffered some deformation, particularly in the
marginal zones, which is strong evidence for a
syntectonic intrusion event. At the end of this event
the brittle tonalite hosted scheelite-bearing veins
probably formed.
Any regional model must take account of the
similar, but easterly dipping structures are seen to
the east of Lion Hill which are host to small gold
deposits (Bliss 1970). Anhaeusser (1976) shows
how these deposits are distributed in arcuate
fashion around the tonalite intrusives and thus
I alludes to a genetic relationship between the veins
Opl~OX. and the tonalites. However, initiation of the host
200 m structures to these deposits can be explained if
I
! these initiated as the conjugate thrusts to the
Fig. 12. Plan of the postulated early orientation and Patchway-Golden Valley veins and later structural
sense of displacement on the Cam & Motor structures modification by the foreceful emplacement of the
during 'B' phase of deformation shown on Fig. 11. Whitewaters tonalite could explain the observed
Current orientation of the Cam & Motor structures
arcuate distribution.
(Fig. 10a) is due to modification during Phase 'C' of
the deformation. Lastly, Stage D is coincident with the intrusion
of the regionally extensive vein swarms of the
Proterozoic (Wilson et al. 1987), coincident with
Battlefields area may be related to this early thrust continued N-S compression after the end of the
plus strike-slip faulting. Nutt et al. (1988) report on Archaean.
deposits in the KweKwe region farther south where
high angle reverse faulting accompanies mineraliz- The author wishes to acknowledge the support of an RTZ
ation. Since the mineralization is likely to be of bursury for PhD studies at Imperial College on which the
similar age to that in the Kadoma region, it supports paper is largely based. I should also like to acknowledge
the proposed lateral extrusion of the Rhodesdale Royal Society support for a study visit to the University of
block westwards at this time. If this event occurred Zimbabwe in 1993, kindly permitted by The Natural
at the same time as the generally applied NE-SW History Museum. I would like to thank my hosts and
compression, as seems likely, then rather complex various friends there, particularly T. Blenkinsop, for much
displacement relationships might be expected. help and discussion but would not like to hold them
responsible for my views. Many thanks also to RTZ and
The bulk of gold mineralization links with the
Falcon mines in particular, for access to the various
switch from Stage A deformation, the early simple mines. I must thank my colleagues at the NHM for their
shear during NNW-SSE-directed shortening, to review of early drafts of the manuscript and to two
Stage B, the later transpressive shearing. anonymous reviewers whose comments much improved
Stage C was probably accompanied by waning the paper.

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