Operations Management 10Th Edition Nigel Slack Full Chapter

Operations Management 10th Edition
Nigel Slack
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OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
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OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
TENTH EDITION
Nigel Slack
Alistair Brandon-Jones
Nicola Burgess
PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED
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First published under the Pitman Publishing imprint 1995 (print)

Second edition (Pitman Publishing) 1998 (print)
Third edition 2001 (print)
Fourth edition 2004 (print)
Fifth edition 2007 (print)
Sixth edition 2010 (print)
Seventh edition 2013 (print and electronic)
Eighth edition 2016 (print and electronic)
Ninth edition 2019 (print and electronic)
Tenth edition 2022 (print and electronic)
© Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, Christine Harland, Alan Harrison, Robert

Johnston 1995, 1998 (print)
© Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, Robert Johnston 2001, 2004, 2007, 2010 (print)
© Nigel Slack, Alistair Brandon-Jones, Robert Johnston 2013, 2016 (print and
electronic)
© Nigel Slack and Alistair Brandon-Jones 2019 (print and electronic)
© Nigel Slack, Alistair Brandon-Jones and Nicola Burgess 2022 (print and
electronic)
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ISBN: 978-1-292-40824-8 (print)

978-1-292-40821-7 (PDF)
978-1-292-40822-4 (ePub)
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Slack, Nigel, author. | Brandon-Jones, Alistair, author. | Burgess,
Nicola, author.
Title: Operations management / Nigel Slack, Alistair Brandon-Jones, Nicola
Burgess.
Description: Tenth edition. | Harlow, England ; New York : Pearson, 2022. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021056511 | ISBN 9781292408248 (print) | ISBN
9781292408217 (PDF) | ISBN 9781292408224 (ePub)
Subjects: LCSH: Production management. | Manufacturing processes. |
Industrial management .
Classification: LCC TS155 .S562 2022 | DDC 658.5--dc23/eng/20220118
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021056511
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
26 25 24 23 22
Front cover image: Andriy Onufriyenko/Moment/Getty Images

Cover design by Michelle Morgan, At The Pop Ltd.
Print edition typeset in 9.25/12 Sabon LT Pro by Straive

Printed in Slovakia by Neografia
NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT
EDITION
BRIEF CONTENTS
Guide to ‘Operations in practice’ examples and case studies

Preface
To the instructor. . .
To the student. . .
Ten steps to getting a better grade in operations management
About the authors
Authors’ acknowledgements
PART ONE
Directing the operation
1 Operations management
2 Operations performance
3 Operations strategy
4 Managing product and service innovation
5 The structure and scope of supply
PART TWO
Designing the operation
6 Process design
7 The layout and look of facilities
8 Process technology
9 People in operations Supplement to Chapter 9 — Work study
PART THREE
Deliver
10 Planning and control

11 Capacity management Supplement to Chapter 11 — Analytical
queuing models
12 Supply chain management
13 Inventory management
14 Planning and control systems Supplement to Chapter 14 —
Materials requirements planning (MRP)
PART FOUR
Development
15 Operations improvement
16 Lean operations
17 Quality management Supplement to Chapter 17 — Statistical
process control (SPC)
18 Managing risk and recovery
19 Project management
Glossary
Index
Credits
CONTENTS
Guide to ‘Operations in practice’ examples and case studies

Preface
To the instructor. . .
To the student. . .
Ten steps to getting a better grade in operations management
About the authors
Authors’ acknowledgements
PART ONE
DIRECTING THE OPERATION
1 Operations management
Introduction
1.1 What is operations management?
1.2 Why is operations management important in all types of organisations?
1.3 What is the input–transformation–output process?
1.4 What is the process hierarchy?
1.5 How do operations (and processes) differ?
1.6 What do operations managers do?
Summary answers to key questions
Case study: Kaston-Trenton Service (KTS)
Problems and applications
Selected further reading
Notes on chapter
2 Operations performance
Introduction
2.1 Why is operations performance vital in any organisation?
2.2 How is operations performance judged at a societal level?
2.3 How is operations performance judged at a strategic level?
2.4 How is operations performance judged at an operational level?
2.5 How can operations performance be measured?
2.6 How do operations performance objectives trade off against each other?
Case study: IKEA looks to the future
Notes on chapter
3 Operations strategy
Introduction
3.1 What is strategy and what is operations strategy?
3.2 How does operations strategy align with business strategy (top-down)?
3.3 How does operations strategy align with market requirements (outside-in)?
3.4 How does operations strategy align with operational experience (bottom-up)?
3.5 How does operations strategy align with operations resources (inside-out)?
3.6 How are the four perspectives of operations strategy reconciled?
3.7 How can the process of operations strategy be organised?
Case study: McDonald’s: half a century of growth
Notes on chapter
4 Managing product and service innovation

Introduction
4.1 What is product and service innovation?
4.2 What is the strategic role of product and service innovation?
4.3 What are the stages of product and service innovation?
4.4 How should product and service innovation be resourced?
Case study: Widescale studios and the Fierybryde development
Notes on chapter
5 The structure and scope of supply

Introduction
5.1 What is the structure and scope of supply?
5.2 How should the supply network be configured?
5.3 How much capacity should operations have?
5.4 Where should operations be located?
5.5 How vertically integrated should an operation’s supply network be?
5.6 What activities should be in-house and what should be outsourced?
Case study: Aarens Electronic
Notes on chapter
PART TWO
DESIGNING THE OPERATION
6 Process design
Introduction
6.1 What is process design?
6.2 What should be the objectives of process design?
6.3 How do volume and variety affect process design?
6.4 How are processes designed in detail?
Case study: The Action Response Applications Processing Unit (ARAPU)
Notes on chapter
7 The layout and look of facilities

Introduction
7.1 How can the layout and look of facilities influence performance?
7.2 What are the basic layout types and how do they affect performance?
7.3 How does the appearance of an operation’s facilities affect its performance?
7.4 What information and analysis is needed to design the layout and look of
facilities?
Case study: Misenwings SA
Notes on chapter
8 Process technology
Introduction
8.1 What is process technology and why is it getting more important?
8.2 How can one understand the potential of new process technology?
8.3 How can new process technologies be evaluated?
8.4 How are new process technologies developed and implemented?
Case study: Logaltel Logistics
Notes on chapter
9 People in operations
Introduction
9.1 Why are people so important in operations management?
9.2 How can the operations function be organised?
9.3 How do we go about designing jobs?
9.4 How are work times allocated?
Case study: Grace faces (three) problems
Notes on chapter
Supplement to Chapter 9: Work study

Introduction
Method study in job design
Work measurement in job design
PART THREE
DELIVER
10 Planning and control

Introduction
10.1 What is planning and control?
10.2 How do supply and demand affect planning and control?
10.3 What is ‘loading’?
10.4 What is ‘sequencing’?
10.5 What is ‘scheduling’?
10.6 What is ‘monitoring and control’?
Case study: Audall Auto Servicing
Notes on chapter
11 Capacity management
Introduction
11.1 What is capacity management?
11.2 How is demand measured?
11.3 How is capacity measured?
11.4 How is the demand side managed?
11.5 How is the supply side managed?
11.6 How can operations understand the consequences of their capacity
management decisions?
Case study: FreshLunch
Notes on chapter
Supplement to Chapter 11: Analytical queuing models

Introduction
Notation
Variability
Incorporating Little’s law
Types of queuing system
12 Supply chain management

Introduction
12.1 What is supply chain management?
12.2 How should supply chains compete?
12.3 How should relationships in supply chains be managed?
12.4 How is the supply side managed?
12.5 How is the demand side managed?
12.6 What are the dynamics of supply chains?
Case study: Big or small? EDF’s sourcing dilemma
Notes on chapter
13 Inventory management
Introduction
13.1 What is inventory?
13.2 Why should there be any inventory?
13.3 How much should be ordered? The volume decision
13.4 When should an order be placed? The timing decision
13.5 How can inventory be controlled?
Case study: Supplies4medics.com
Notes on chapter
14 Planning and control systems

Introduction
14.1 What are planning and control systems?
14.2 What is enterprise resource planning, and how did it develop into the most
common planning and control system?
14.3 How should planning and control systems be implemented?
Case study: Psycho Sports Ltd
Notes on chapter
Supplement to Chapter 14: Materials requirements planning

(MRP)
Introduction
Master production schedule
The bill of materials (BOM)
Inventory records
The MRP netting process
MRP capacity checks
Summary of supplement
PART FOUR
DEVELOPMENT
15 Operations improvement
Introduction
15.1 Why is improvement so important in operations management?
15.2 What are the key elements of operations improvement?
15.3 What are the broad approaches to improvement?
15.4 What techniques can be used for improvement?
15.5 How can the improvement process be managed?
Case study: Sales slump at Splendid Soup Co.
Notes on chapter
16 Lean operations
Introduction
16.1 What is lean?
16.2 How does lean consider flow?
16.3 How does lean consider (and reduce) waste?
16.4 How does lean consider improvement?
16.5 How does lean consider the role of people?
16.6 How does lean apply throughout the supply network?
Case study: St Bridget’s Hospital: seven years of lean
Notes on chapter
17 Quality management
Introduction
17.1 What is quality and why is it so important?
17.2 What steps lead towards conformance to specification?
17.3 What is total quality management (TQM)?
Case study: Rapposcience Labs
Notes on chapter
Supplement to Chapter 17: Statistical process control (SPC)

Introduction
Control charts
Variation in process quality
Control charts for attributes
Control chart for variables
Process control, learning and knowledge
Summary of supplement
18 Managing risk and recovery

Introduction
18.1 What is risk management?
18.2 How can operations assess the potential causes and consequences of
failure?
18.3 How can failures be prevented?
18.4 How can operations mitigate the effects of failure?
18.5 How can operations recover from the effects of failure?
Case study: Slagelse Industrial Services (SIS)
Notes on chapter
19 Project management
Introduction
19.1 What are projects?
19.2 What is project management?
19.3 How is the project environment understood?
19.4 How are projects defined?
19.5 How are projects planned?
19.6 How are projects controlled and learned from?
Case study: Kloud BV and Sakura Bank K.K.
Notes on chapter
Glossary
Index
Credits
Companion Website
For open-access student resources specifically written to complement this
textbook and support your learning, please visit
go.pearson.com/uk/he/resources
Lecturer Resources
For password-protected online resources tailored to support the use of this
textbook in teaching, please visit go.pearson.com/uk/he/resources
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Guide to ‘Operations in practice’
examples and case studies
PREFACE
Operations may not run the world, but it makes

the world run
This is our 10th edition

It’s the 10th edition of this text, which means it’s been around a long time!
Since the first edition was published, a lot has happened to the subject of
operations management. Supply networks, technologies, how people work
and, above all, how the social responsibility of operations is viewed, have
all changed radically. And so has this text. Over the years, we have changed
the treatment and content to reflect key developments as (and often before)
they fully emerge. Our philosophy has always been that we should keep
pace with what is happening in the real world of operations management as
it is practised.
One of the things that has affected the real world of operations
management, is the COVID-19 pandemic. This edition was prepared as the
Global pandemic was profoundly disrupting many established operations
practices. Some pandemic-related changes will undoubtably endure, others
will not. Some changes were simply accelerated versions of what was
happening before the pandemic – for example, working from home. Others
were relatively novel – workplace barriers, travel restrictions and socially
distanced working. At the time of writing, it is not at all clear how
widespread or long-lasting some of these changes will be. We have tried to
use the COVID-19 pandemic to illustrate underlying principles of
operations management and explain some of its effects, but without letting
pandemic issues dominate the text.
It is adapting the content and coverage of the subject that has allowed us
to maintain our market-leading position over the 10 editions. In 2021, this
text was listed in the top 10 most highly cited business, marketing,
accounting and economics textbooks worldwide, according to the Financial
Times Teaching Power Rankings. It is our ambition to continue to include
the many exciting developments in the subject well into the future. To help
achieve this ambition, we are delighted to welcome a third author to the
team. Our friend and colleague, Dr Nicola Burgess is a Reader at Warwick
Business School. She has considerable teaching, research and
administrative experience, and brings significant expertise to the team,
particularly in the fields of ‘lean’ operations, operations improvement and
healthcare management.
Why you need to study operations management

Because operations management is everywhere. Every time you experience
a service and every time you buy a product, you are benefiting from the
accomplishments of the operations managers who created them. Operations
management is concerned with creating the services and products upon
which we all depend. And all organisations produce some mixture of
services and products, whether that organisation is large or small,
manufacturing or service, for profit or not for profit, public or private. And,
if you are a manager, remember that operations management is not confined
to the operations function. All managers, whether they are called operations
or marketing or human resources or finance, or whatever, manage processes
and serve customers (internal or external). This makes at least part of their
activities ‘operations’.
Because operations management is important. Thankfully, most
companies have now come to understand the importance of operations. This
is because they have realised that, in the short-term, effective operations
management gives the potential to improve both efficiency and customer
service simultaneously. Even more important, operations management can
provide the capabilities that ensure the survival and success of an enterprise
in the long term.
Because operations management is exciting. It is at the centre of so
many of the changes affecting the business world – changes in customer
preference, changes in supply networks, changes in how we see the
environmental and social responsibilities of enterprises, profound changes
in technologies, changes in what we want to do at work, how we want to
work, where we want to work and so on. There has rarely been a time when
operations management was more topical or more at the heart of business
and cultural shifts.
Because operations management is challenging. Promoting the
creativity that will allow organisations to respond to so many changes is
becoming the prime task of operations managers. It is they who must find
the solutions to technological and environmental challenges, the pressures
to be socially responsible, the increasing globalisation of markets and the
difficult-to-define areas of knowledge management.
The aim of this text

This text provides a clear, authoritative, well-structured and interesting
treatment of operations management as it applies to a variety of businesses
and organisations. The text provides both a logical path through the
activities of operations management and an understanding of their strategic
context.
More specifically, this text is:
▶ Strategic in its perspective. It is unambiguous in treating the operations

function as being central to competitiveness.
▶ Conceptual in the way it explains the reasons why operations managers
need to take decisions.
▶ Comprehensive in its coverage of the significant ideas and issues that are
relevant to most types of operation.
▶ Practical in that the issues and challenges of making operations
management decisions in practice are discussed. The ‘Operations in
practice’ boxes throughout each chapter and the case studies at the end
of each chapter, all explore the approaches taken by operations
managers in practice.
▶ International in the examples that are used. There are over 100
descriptions of operations practice from all over the world, over half of
which are new for this edition.
▶ Balanced in its treatment. This means we reflect the balance of
economic activity between service and manufacturing operations.
Around 75 per cent of examples are from organisations that deal
primarily in services and 25 per cent from those that are primarily
manufacturing.
Who should use this text?

This text is for anyone who is interested in how services and products are
created:
▶ Undergraduate students on business studies, technical or joint degrees

should find it sufficiently structured to provide an understandable route
through the subject (no prior knowledge of the area is assumed).
▶ MBA students should find that its practical discussions of operations
management activities enhance their own experience.
▶ Postgraduate students on other specialist masters degrees should find
that it provides them with a well-grounded and, at times, critical
approach to the subject.
Distinctive features
Clear structure
The structure of the text uses the ‘4Ds’ model of operations management
that distinguishes between the strategic decisions that govern the direction
of the operation, the design of the processes and operations that create
products and services, planning and control of the delivery of products and
services, and the development, or improvement, of operations.
Illustrations-based
Operations management is a practical subject and cannot be taught
satisfactorily in a purely theoretical manner. Because of this we have used
short ‘Operations in practice’ examples that explain some of the issues
faced by real operations.
Worked examples
Operations management is a subject that blends qualitative and quantitative
perspectives; worked examples are used to demonstrate how both types of
technique can be used.
Critical commentaries
Not everyone agrees about what is the best approach to the various topics
and issues with operations management. This is why we have included
‘critical commentaries’ that pose alternative views to the ones being
expressed in the main flow of the text.
Responsible operations
In every chapter, under the heading of ‘Responsible operations’, we
summarise how the topic covered in the chapter touches upon important
social, ethical and environmental issues.

Each chapter is summarised in the form of a list of bullet points. These
extract the essential points that answer the key questions posed at the
beginning of each chapter.
Case studies
Every chapter includes a case study suitable for class discussion. The cases
are usually short enough to serve as illustrations, but have sufficient content
also to serve as the basis of case sessions.

Every chapter includes a set of problem-type exercises. These can be used
to check your understanding of the concepts illustrated in the worked
examples. There are also activities that support the learning objectives of
the chapter that can be done individually or in groups.

Every chapter ends with a short list of further reading that takes the topics
covered in the chapter further, or treats some important related issues. The
nature of each piece of further reading is also explained.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR. . .
Teaching and learning resources for the 10th

edition
New for the 10th edition

In the 10th edition we have retained the extensive set of changes that we
made in the 9th edition. In addition, with slight modification, we have
retained the ‘4Ds’ structure (direct, design, deliver and develop) that has
proved to be exceptionally popular. Needless to say, as usual, we have tried
to keep up to date with the (increasingly) rapid changes taking place in the
wonderful world of operations.
Specifically, the 10th edition includes the following key changes:
▶ The coverage of ‘lean operations’, which was included in the ‘Deliver’

part in previous editions, has been moved to the ‘Develop’ part. This
reflects the change in how ‘lean’ is seen in the subject. Its emphasis has
shifted more towards a holistic approach to operations and
improvement. And, while its role in planning and control remains
relevant, lean is increasingly seen as an improvement approach.
▶ The ‘Problems and applications’ questions have been extended. Each
chapter now has up to 10 questions that will help to practise analysing
operations. They can be answered by reading the chapter. Model
answers for the first two questions can be found on the companion
website for this text. Answers to all questions are available to tutors
adopting the text.
▶ Many totally new end-of-chapter case studies have been included. Of
the 19 chapters, 10 cases are new to this text. We believe that these
cases will add significantly to students’ learning experience. However,
several of the most popular cases have been retained.
▶ In every chapter we have included a new section called ‘Responsible
operations’. This summarises how the topic covered in the chapter
touches upon important social, ethical and environmental issues. We
have found that using this feature to develop the important issues of
social, ethical and environmental responsibility through each session
provides a useful learning thread that students respond to.
▶ We have extended and refreshed the popular ‘Operations in practice’
examples throughout the text. Of more than 100 examples, around 50
per cent are new to this text.
▶ We have further strengthened the emphasis on the idea that ‘operations
management’ is relevant to every type of business and all functional
areas of the organisation.
▶ We have placed greater stress on the worked examples in each chapter,
so as to give students more help in analysing operations issues.
▶ Many new ideas in operations management have been incorporated.
However, we have retained the emphasis on the foundations of the
subject.
▶ A completely new instructor’s manual is available to lecturers adopting
this textbook, together with PowerPoint presentations for each chapter.
TO THE STUDENT. . .
Making the most of this text

All academic texts in business management are, to some extent,
simplifications of the messy reality that is actual organisational life. Any
text has to separate topics, in order to study them, which in reality are
closely related. For example, technology choice impacts on job design that
in turn impacts on quality management; yet, for simplicity, we are obliged
to treat these topics individually. The first hint, therefore, in using this text
effectively is to look out for all the links between the individual topics.
Similarly with the sequence of topics, although the chapters follow a logical
structure, they need not be studied in this order. Every chapter is, more or
less, self-contained. Therefore, study the chapters in whatever sequence is
appropriate to your course or your individual interests. But because each
part has an introductory chapter, those students who wish to start with a
brief ‘overview’ of the subject may wish first to study Chapters 1, 6, 10 and
15 and the chapter summaries of selected chapters. The same applies to
revision – study the introductory chapters and summary answers to key
questions.
The text makes full use of the many practical examples and illustrations
that can be found in all operations. Many of these were provided by our
contacts in companies, but many also come from journals, magazines and
newsfeeds. So if you want to understand the importance of operations
management in everyday business life, look for examples and illustrations
of operations management decisions and activities in newsfeeds, social
media and magazines. There are also examples that you can observe every
day. Whenever you use a shop, eat a meal in a restaurant, download music,
access online resources or ride on public transport, consider the operations
management issues of all the operations of which you are a customer.
The end-of-chapter cases and problems are there to provide an
opportunity for you to think further about the ideas discussed in the
chapters. The problems can be used to test out your understanding of the
specific points and issues discussed in the chapter and discuss them as a
group, if you choose. If you cannot answer these you should revisit the
relevant parts of the chapter. The cases at the end of each chapter will
require some more thought. Use the questions at the end of each case study
to guide you through the logic of analysing the issue treated in the case.
When you have done this individually try to discuss your analysis with
other course members. Most important of all, every time you analyse one of
the case studies (or any other case or example in operations management)
start off your analysis with the two fundamental questions:
▶ How is this organisation trying to compete (or satisfy its strategic

objectives if a not-for-profit organisation)?
▶ What can the operation do to help the organisation compete more
effectively?
Ten steps to getting a better grade
in operations management
We could say that the best rule for getting a better grade is to be good. I
mean really, really good! But there are plenty of us who, while fairly good,
don’t get the grade we really deserve. So, if you are studying operations
management, and you want a really good grade, try following these simple
steps:
Step 1 Practise, practise, practise. Use the ‘Key questions’ and the
‘Problems and applications’ to check your understanding.
Step 2 Remember a few key models and apply them wherever you can.
Use the diagrams and models to describe some of the examples that are
contained within the chapter.
Step 3 Remember to use both quantitative and qualitative analysis.

You’ll get more credit for appropriately mixing your methods: use a
quantitative model to answer a quantitative question and vice versa but
qualify this with a few well-chosen sentences. Each chapter incorporates
qualitative and quantitative material.
Step 4 There’s always a strategic objective behind any operational issue.
Ask yourself, ‘would a similar operation with a different strategy do things
differently?’ Look at the ‘Operations in practice’ examples in the text.
Step 5 Research widely around the topic. Use websites that you trust –
don’t automatically believe what you read. You’ll get more credit for using
references that come from genuine academic sources.
Step 6 Use your own experience. Every day, you’re experiencing an
opportunity to apply the principles of operations management. Why is the
queue at the airport check-in desk so long? What goes on on in the kitchen
of your favourite restaurant?’
Step 7 Always answer the question. Think ‘what is really being asked
here? What topic or topics does this question cover?’ Find the relevant
chapter or chapters, and search the key questions at the beginning of each
chapter and the summary at the end of each chapter to get you started.
Step 8 Take account of the three tiers of accumulating marks for your
answers:
(a) First, demonstrate your knowledge and understanding. Make full use
of the text to find out where you need to improve.
(b) Second, show that you know how to illustrate and apply the topic. The case studies
and ‘Operations in practice’ sections provide many different examples.
(c) Third, show that you can discuss and analyse the issues critically. Use the critical
commentaries within the text to understand some of the alternative viewpoints.
Generally, if you can do (a) you will pass; if you can do (a) and (b) you will
pass well; and if you can do all three, you will pass with flying colours!
Step 9 Remember not only what the issue is about, but also understand
why! Try to understand why the concepts and techniques of operations
management are important, and what they contribute to an organisation’s
success. Your new-found knowledge will stick in your memory, allow you
to develop ideas and enable you to get better grades.
Step 10 Start now! Don’t wait until two weeks before an assignment is
due. Read on, and GOOD LUCK!
Nigel Slack, Alistair Brandon-Jones and Nicola Burgess

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Nigel Slack is an Emeritus Professor of Operations Management and

Strategy at Warwick University, and an Honorary Professor at Bath
University. Previously he has been Professor of Service Engineering at
Cambridge University, Professor of Manufacturing Strategy at Brunel
University, a University Lecturer in Management Studies at Oxford
University and Fellow in Operations Management at Templeton College,
Oxford. He worked initially as an industrial apprentice in the hand-tool
industry and then as a production engineer and production manager in light
engineering. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Engineering and Master’s and
Doctor’s degrees in Management, and is a Chartered Engineer. He is the
author of many books and papers in the operations management area,
including The Manufacturing Advantage, published by Mercury Business
Books (1991), Making Management Decisions (1991) published by Prentice
Hall, Service Superiority (with Robert Johnston, 1993), published by
EUROMA, The Blackwell Encyclopedic Dictionary of Operations
Management (with Michael Lewis) published by Blackwell, Operations
Strategy, now in its 6th edition (with Michael Lewis, 2020) published by
Pearson, Perspectives in Operations Management (Volumes I to IV with
Michael Lewis, 2003) published by Routledge, Operations and Process
Management, now in its 6th edition (with Alistair Brandon-Jones, 2021)
published by Pearson, Essentials of Operations Management, now in its
2nd edition (with Alistair Brandon-Jones, 2018) also published by Pearson,
and The Operations Advantage, published by Kogan Page (2017). He has
authored numerous academic papers and chapters in books. He has also
acted as a consultant to many international companies around the world in
many sectors, especially financial services, transport, leisure, energy and
manufacturing. His research is in the operations and manufacturing
flexibility and operations strategy areas.
Alistair Brandon-Jones is a Full Chaired Professor of Operations and

Supply Chain Management, and Head of the Information, Decisions and
Operations Division in Bath University’s School of Management. He is a
Visiting Professor for Hult International Business School and Danish
Technical University, and a non-executive director at Brevio
(www.brevio.org) focused on smarter grant-making in the Third Sector.
Between 2014 and 2017, he was Associate Dean for Post-Experience
Education, responsible for the MBA, EMBA, DBA and EngDoc
programmes. He was formerly a Reader at Manchester Business School, an
Assistant and Associate Professor at Bath University, and a Teaching
Fellow at Warwick Business School, where he also completed his PhD. His
other books include Operations and Process Management (6th edition,
2021), Essentials of Operations Management (2nd edition, 2018) and
Quantitative Analysis in Operations Management (2008). Alistair is an
active empirical researcher focusing on digitisation of operations and
supply chain management, professional service operations and healthcare
operations. This research has been published extensively in world-elite
journals including Journal of Operations Management, International
Journal of Operations & Production Management, International Journal of
Production Economics and International Journal of Production Research.
Alistair has led Operations Management, Operations Strategy, Supply
Chain Management, Project Management and Service Operations courses at
all levels and has been invited to lecture at various international institutions,
including the University of Cambridge, Hult International Business School,
SDA Bocconi, Warwick Business School, NOVA University, Danish
Technical University, Edinburgh Napier, Warwick Medical School and
University College Dublin. In addition, he has extensive consulting and
executive development experience with a range of organisations, including
Maersk, Schroders Bank, Royal Bank of Scotland, Baker Tilly, Rowmarsh,
QinetiQ Defence, Eni Oil and Gas, Crompton Greaves, Bahrain Olympic
Committee, Qatar Leadership Centre, National Health Service and the
Singapore Logistics Association. He has won a number of prizes for
teaching excellence and contributions to pedagogy, including from Times
Higher Education, Association of MBAs (AMBA), Production Operations
Management Society (POMS), University of Bath, University of
Manchester, University of Warwick and Hult International Business School.
Nicola Burgess is Reader in Operations Management at Warwick

Business School. She has worked extensively with public sector
organisations to understand operations management and improvement in a
public sector context. Nicola’s research has enabled her to work closely
with policy makers as well as practitioners and she serves in an advisory
capacity on healthcare programme boards. She also works closely with
social enterprise in an advisory, research and teaching capacity. Her
research has been published in world-leading journals including Journal of
Operations Management, European Journal of Operations Research,
Human Resource Management and the British Medical Journal. Nicola has
taught operations management, operations strategy and supply chain
management at all levels from undergraduate to postgraduate and
contributes to the world-leading Distance Learning MBA at Warwick
Business School. She is also Course Director for the innovative Foundation
Year at Warwick Business School. Her teaching has been recognised by
students as being ‘passionate’ and ‘innovative’, reflecting a desire to foster
student engagement, enthusiasm and understanding of operations
management, both inside and outside of the classroom.
AUTHORS’
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
During the preparation of the 10th edition of this text (and previous
editions) we have received an immense amount of help from friends and
colleagues in the operations management community. In particular,
everybody who has attended one of the regular ‘faculty workshops’
deserves thanks for the many useful comments. The generous sharing of
ideas from these sessions has influenced this and all the other OM texts that
we prepare. Our thanks go to everyone who attended these sessions and
other colleagues who have helped us. It is, to some extent, invidious to
single out individuals – but we are going to.
We thank Pär Åhlström of Stockholm School of Economics, James
Aitken of University of Surrey,Eamonn Ambrose of University College
Dublin, Erica Ballantyne of Sheffield University, Andrea Benn of
University of Brighton, Yongmei Bentley of the University of Bedfordshire,
Helen Benton of Anglia Ruskin University, Ran Bhamra of Loughborough
University, Tony Birch of Birmingham City University, Briony Boydell of
University of Portsmouth, Emma Brandon-Jones, John K Christiansen of
Copenhagen Business School, Philippa Collins of Heriot-Watt University,
Paul Coughlan of Trinity College Dublin, Doug Davies of University of
Technology, Sydney, J.A.C. de Haan of Tilburg University, Ioannis
Dermitzakis of Anglia Ruskin University, Stephen Disney of Cardiff
University, Carsten Dittrich of the University of Southern Denmark, Tony
Dromgoole of the Irish Management Institute, David Evans of Middlesex
University, Ian Evans of Sunderland University, Margaret Farrell of Dublin
Institute of Technology, Andrea Foley of Portsmouth University, Paul
Forrester of Keele University, Abhijeet Ghadge of Heriot Watt University,
Andrew Gough of Northampton University, Ian Graham of Edinburgh
University, John Gray of The Ohio State University, Alan Harle of
Sunderland University, Catherine Hart of Loughborough Business School,
Susan Helper of Case Western Reserve University, Graeme Heron of
Newcastle Business School, Steve Hickman of University of Exeter, Chris
Hillam of Sunderland University, Ian Holden of Bristol Business School,
Mickey Howard of Exeter University, Stavros Karamperidis of Heriot Watt
University, Tom Kegan of Bell College of Technology, Hamilton, Benn
Lawson of the University of Cambridge, Xiaohong Li of Sheffield Hallam
University, John Maguire of the University of Sunderland, Charles Marais
of the University of Pretoria, Lynne Marshall, Nottingham Trent University,
Roger Maull of Exeter University, Bart McCarthy of Nottingham
University, Peter McCullen of University of Brighton, John Meredith Smith
of EAP, Oxford, Joe Miemczyk of ESCP Business School Europe, Michael
Milgate of Macquarie University, Keith Millar of Ulster University, Keith
Moreton of Staffordshire University, Phil Morgan of Oxford Brooks
University, Adrian Morris of Sunderland University, Nana Nyarko of
Sheffield Hallam University, Beverly Osborn of The Ohio State University,
John Pal of Manchester Metropolitan University, Sofia Salgado Pinto of the
Católica Porto Business School, Gary Priddis of University of Brighton,
Carrie Queenan of University of South Carolina, Gary Ramsden of
University of Lincoln, Steve Robinson of Southampton Solent University,
Frank Rowbotham of University of Birmingham, James Rowell of
University of Buckingham, Hamid Salimian of University of Brighton,
Sarah Schiffling of University of Lincoln, Alex Skedd of Northumbria
Business School, Andi Smart of Exeter University, Nigel Spinks of the
University of Reading, Dr Ebrahim Soltani of the University of Kent, Rui
Soucasaux Sousa of the Católica Porto Business School, Martin Spring of
Lancaster University,James Stone of Aston University, R. Stratton of
Nottingham Trent University, Ali Taghizadegan of University of Liverpool,
Kim Hua Tan of the University of Nottingham, Dr Nelson Tang of the
University of Leicester, Meinwen Taylor of South Wales University,
Christos Tsinopoulos of Durham University, David Twigg of Sussex
University, Arvind Upadhyay of University of Brighton, Helen Valentine of
the University of the West of England, Andy Vassallo of University of East
Anglia, Vessela Warren of University of Worcester, Linda Whicker of Hull
University, John Whiteley of Greenwich University, Bill Wright of BPP
Professional, Ying Xie of Anglia Ruskin University, Des Yarham of
Warwick University, Maggie Zeng of Gloucestershire University and Li
Zhou of University of Greenwich University.
In this edition we have received specific help with the new case studies.
Our grateful thanks go to Vaggelis Giannikas, University of Bath, Jas Kalra,
Newcastle University, Jens Roehrich, University of Bath, Nigel Spinks,
Henley and Brian Squire, University of Bath.
Our academic colleagues in the Operations Management Group at
Warwick Business School and Bath University also helped, both by
contributing ideas and by creating a lively and stimulating work
environment.
At Warwick, thanks go to Vikki Abusidualghoul, Daniella Badu, Haley
Beer, Mehmet Chakkol, Altricia Dawson, Mark Johnson, Anna Michalska,
Pietro Micheli, Giovanni Radaelli, Ross Ritchie, Rhian Silvestro, and Chris
Voss.
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important affairs arise, to invite the head official to be
present in the Executive Council whose department is more
directly concerned with the subject to be treated of. The said
head official shall then have a vote in the Executive Council,
be equally responsible for the resolution taken, and sign it
along with the others.
ARTICLE 83.
According to the intention of Article 82 the following shall
be considered "Head Officials": The State Attorney, Treasurer,
Auditor, Superintendent of Education, Orphan-Master, Registrar
of Deeds, Surveyor-General, Postmaster-General, Head of the
Mining Department, Chief Director of the Telegraph Service,
and Chief of Public Works.
ARTICLE 84.
The President shall be Chairman of the Executive Council, and
in case of an equal division of votes have a casting vote. For
the ratification of sentences of death, or declarations of
war, the unanimous vote of the Executive Council shall be
requisite for a decision. …
ARTICLE 87.
All resolutions of the Executive Council and official letters
of the President must, besides being signed by him, also be
signed by the Secretary of State. The latter is at the same
time responsible that the contents of the resolution, or the
letter, is not in conflict with the existing laws.
ARTICLE 88.
The two enfranchised burghers or members of the Executive
Council contemplated by Article 82 are chosen by the Volksraad
for the period of three years, the Commandant-General for ten
years; they must be members of a Protestant Church, have had
no sentence in a criminal court to their discredit, and have
reached the age of thirty years.
ARTICLE 89.
The Secretary of State is chosen also by the Volksraad, but is
appointed for the period of four years. On resignation or
expiration of his term he is re-eligible. He must be a member
of a Protestant Church, have had no sentence in a criminal
court to his discredit, possess fixed property in the
Republic, and have reached the age of thirty years. …
ARTICLE 93.
The military force consists of all the men of this Republic
capable of bearing arms, and if necessary of all those of the
natives within its boundaries whose chiefs are subject to it.
ARTICLE 94.
Besides the armed force of burghers to be called up in times
of disturbance or war, there exists a general police and corps
of artillery, for which each year a fixed sum is drawn upon
the estimates.
ARTICLE 95.
The men of the white people capable of bearing arms are all
men between the ages of sixteen and sixty years; and of the
natives, only those which are capable of being made
serviceable in the war.
ARTICLE 96.
For the subdivision of the military force the territory of
this Republic is divided into field-cornetcies and districts.
…
ARTICLE 97.
The men are under the orders of the following officers,
ascending in rank: Assistant Field-Cornets, Field-Cornets,
Commandants, and a Commandant-General.
Selected Official Documents of the South African Republic

and Great Britain (Supplement to the Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science,
July, 1900).
--CONSTITUTION (GRONDWET) OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN

REPUBLIC.: End--
CONSTITUTION OF SOUTH CAROLINA: The revision of 1895-6.

Disfranchisement provision.
See (in this volume)

SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1896.
CONSTITUTION OF SOUTH DAKOTA:

Amendment introducing the Initiative and Referendum.

SOUTH DAKOTA: A. D. 1898.
CONSTITUTION OF SWITZERLAND:
Amendments.

SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1897.
{170}
CONSTITUTION OF UTAH.

UTAH: A. D. 1895-1896.
CONWAY, Sir W. Martin:

Explorations of Spitzbergen.

POLAR EXPLORATION, 1896, 1897.
COOK, or HERVEY ISLANDS:
Annexation to New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND: A. D. 1900 (OCTOBER).
COOMASSIE,
KUMASSI:
Occupation by the British.
Siege and relief.

ASHANTI.
COPTIC CHURCH:
Authority of the Pope re-established.

PAPACY: A. D. 1896 (MARCH).
COREA.

KOREA.
CORNWALL AND YORK, The Duke of.

WALES, THE PRINCE OF.
COSTA RICA.

CENTRAL AMERICA.
COTTON-MILL STRIKE, New England.

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES: A. D. 1898.
COTTON STATES EXPOSITION, The.

ATLANTA: A. D. 1895.
COURT OF ARBITRATION, The Permanent.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
CREEKS, United States agreement with the.

INDIANS, AMERICAN: A. D. 1893-1899.
CRETE:
Recent archæological explorations.
Supposed discovery of the Palace of Minos and
the Cretan Labyrinth.
Fresh light on the origin of the Alphabet.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: CRETE.
CRETE: A. D. 1896.
Conflict between Christians and Mussulmans,
and its preceding causes.

TURKEY: A. D. 1896.
CRETE: A. D. 1897.
Fresh conflicts.
Reports of the British Consul-General and others.
Greek interference and demands for annexation to Greece.
Action of the Great Powers.
Blockade of the island.

TURKEY: A. D. 1897 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).
CRETE: A. D. 1897.
Withdrawal of Greek troops.
Acceptance of autonomy by the Greek government.

TURKEY: A. D. 1897 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
CRETE: A. D. 1897-1898.
Prolonged anarchy, and blockade by the Powers.
Final departure of Turkish troops and officials.
Government established under Prince George of Greece.

TURKEY: A. D. 1897-1899.
CRETE: A. D. 1901.
Successful administration of Prince George of Greece.

TURKEY: A. D. 1901.
CRISPI, Signor:
Ministry.

ITALY: A. D. 1895-1896.
CRISPI, Signor:
Parliamentary investigation of charges against.
ITALY: A. D. 1898 (MARCH-JUNE).
CROKER, "Boss."

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1894-1895; and 1897.
CROMER, Viscount:
Administration in Egypt.

EGYPT: A. D. 1898.
CROMWELL, Oliver, Proposed statue of.
A proposal in the English House of Commons, in 1895, to vote

£500 for a statue of Cromwell was so violently opposed by the
Irish members that the government was compelled to withdraw
the item from the estimates.
CRONJE, General Piet:

In the South African war.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER);
and 1900 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).
CROZIER, Captain William:

American Commissioner to the Peace Conference at The Hague.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
----------CUBA: Start--------
Map of Cuba and West Indies.
CUBA: A. D. 1868-1885.
Ten years of insurrection.
The United States and Spain.
The Affair of the Virginius.
End of Slavery.
"The abolition of slavery in the southern states left the

Spanish Antilles in the enjoyment of a monopoly of slave
labor, which, in the production of sugar, especially, gave
them advantages which overcame all competition. This led to
the formation of a strong Spanish party, for whom the cause of
slavery and that of Spanish dominion were identical. These
were known as Peninsulars or Spanish immigrants. They were the
official class, the wealthy planters and slave-owners, and the
real rulers of Cuba. Their central organization was the Casino
Espagñol of Havana, which was copied in all the towns of the
island, and through these clubs they controlled the
volunteers, who at times numbered 60,000 or 70,000. … These
volunteers never took the field, but held possession of all
the cities and towns, and thus were able to defy even the
captain-general. They were obedient to his orders only so long
as he was acting in close accord with the wishes of their
party. On the other hand, there was a party composed of
Creoles, or native Cubans, whose cry was 'Cuba for the
Cubans!' and who hoped to effect the complete separation of
the island from Spain, either through their own efforts or
through the assistance of the United States. …
"The Spanish revolution of September, 1868, was the signal for

an uprising of the native or Creole party in the eastern part
of the island under the leadership of Cespedes. This movement
was not at first ostensibly for independence, but for the
revolution in Spain, the cries being, 'Hurrah for Prim!'
'Hurrah for the Revolution!' Its real character was, however,
apparent from the first, and its supporters continued for a
period of ten years, without regard to the numerous
vicissitudes through which the Spanish Government passed—the
provisional government, the regency, the elective monarchy,
the republic, and the restored Bourbon dynasty—to wage a
dogged, though desultory warfare against the constituted
authorities of the island. This struggle was almost
conterminous with President Grant's Administration of eight
years."
{171}
President Grant made early offers of mediation between Spain
and the insurgents, but no agreement as to terms could be
reached. An increasing sympathy with the Cubans raised demands
in the United States for their recognition as belligerents,
with belligerent rights, and the President is said to have
been ready to yield to the demand, but was deterred by the
influence of his Secretary of State, Mr. Fish, who contended
that the insurgents had established no government that could
claim such rights. The Cuban sympathizers in Congress were
accordingly checked by an opposing message (June 13, 1870),
and no interference occurred.
"In February, 1873, when King Amadeus resigned his crown and a
republic was proclaimed in Spain, the United States made haste to
give the new government recognition and support, which led to
friendly relations between the two countries for a time, and
promised happy results. The Spanish republicans were being
urged to give the Cubans self-government and end slavery in
the whole Spanish domain, and they were lending, at least, a
considerate ear to the advice. But negotiation on that topic
was soon disturbed. On October 31, 1873, the steamer
'Virginius,' sailing under American colors and carrying a
United States registry, was captured on the high seas by the
'Tornado,' a Spanish war vessel, and on the afternoon of the
first of November taken into the port of Santiago de Cuba. The
men and supplies she bore were bound for the insurgents, but
the capture did not occur in Cuban waters. General Burriel,
the commandant of the city, summoned a court-martial, and, in
spite of the protests of the American consul, condemned to
death—at the first sitting—four of the passengers—General W.
A. C. Ryan, an Irish patriot, and three Cubans. They were shot
on the morning of November 4. On the 7th twelve other
passengers were executed, and on the 8th Captain Fry and his
entire crew, numbering 36, making the total number of
executions 53." This barbarous procedure caused hot excitement
in the United States, and demands for reparation were made so
sharply that the two countries came near to war. In the end it
was shown that the "Virginius" was sailing under the American
flag without right, being owned by Cubans and controlled by
them. The vessel was surrendered, however, but foundered off
Cape Fear, while being conveyed to the United States. Her
surviving passengers were released, and an indemnity was paid
for all who were put to death. The brutal officer who took
their lives was never brought to justice, though his
punishment was promised again and again. On the settlement of
the Virginius question, the government of the United States
resumed its efforts to wring concessions to the Cubans from
Spain, and sought to have its efforts supported by Great
Britain and other European powers. Cold replies came from all
the cabinets that were approached. At the same time, the
Spanish government met the demand from America with promises
so lavish (April, 1876), going so far in appearance towards
all that had been asked, that no ground for intervention
seemed left. The act of Secretary Fish, in proposing
intervention to foreign powers, was sharply criticised as a
breach of the Monroe doctrine; but he made no defense.
"The Cuban struggle continued for two years longer. In

October, 1877, several leaders surrendered to the Spanish
authorities and undertook the task of bringing over the few
remaining ones. Some of these paid for their efforts with
their lives, being taken and condemned by court-martial, by
order of the commander of the Cuban forces. Finally, in
February, 1878, the terms of pacification [under an agreement
called the Treaty of El Zanjon] were made known. They embraced
representation in the Spanish Cortes, oblivion of the past as
regarded political offences committed since the year 1868, and
the freedom of slaves in the insurgent ranks. In practice,
however, the Cuban deputies were never truly representative,
but were men of Spanish birth, designated usually by the
captain-general. By gradual emancipation, slavery ceased to
exist in the island in 1885. The powers of the
captain-general, the most objectionable feature of Spanish
rule, continued uncurtailed."
J. H. Latané,
The Diplomatic Relations of the United States
and Spanish America,
chapter 3.
CUBA: A. D. 1895.
Insurrection renewed.
Early in 1895 a new uprising of the oppressed Cubans was
begun, and on the 7th of December, in that year, T. Estrada
Palma, writing as their authorized representative, presented
to the State Department at Washington a statement setting
forth the causes of the revolt and describing its state of
organization at that time. The causes, he wrote, "are
substantially the same as those of the former revolution,
lasting from 1868 to 1878, and terminating only on the
representation of the Spanish Government that Cuba would be
granted such reforms as would remove the grounds of complaint
on the part of the Cuban people. Unfortunately the hopes thus
held out have never been realized. The representation which
was to be given the Cubans has proved to be absolutely without
character; taxes have been levied anew on everything
conceivable; the offices in the island have increased, but the
officers are all Spaniards; the native Cubans have been left
with no public duties whatsoever to perform, except the
payment of taxes to the Government and blackmail to the
officials, without privilege even to move from place to place
in the island except on the permission of the governmental
authority. Spain has framed laws so that the natives have
substantially been deprived of the right of suffrage. The
taxes levied have been almost entirely devoted to support the
army and navy in Cuba, to pay interest on the debt that Spain
has saddled on the island, and to pay the salaries of the vast
number of Spanish officeholders, devoting only $746,000 for
internal improvements out of the $26,000,000 collected by tax.
No public schools are within reach of the masses for their
education. All the principal industries of the island are
hampered by excessive imposts. Her commerce with every country
but Spain has been crippled in every possible manner, as can
readily be seen by the frequent protests of shipowners and
merchants. The Cubans have no security of person or property.
The judiciary are instruments of the military authorities.
Trial by military tribunals can be ordered at any time at the
will of the Captain-General. There is, beside, no freedom of
speech, press, or religion. In point of fact, the causes of
the Revolution of 1775 in this country were not nearly as
grave as those that have driven the Cuban people to the
various insurrections which culminated in the present
revolution. …
{172}
"Years before the outbreak of the present hostilities the

people within and without the island began to organize, with a
view of preparing for the inevitable revolution, being
satisfied, after repeated and patient endeavors, that peaceful
petition was fruitless. In order that the movement should be
strong from the beginning, and organized both as to civil and
military administration, the Cuban Revolutionary party was
founded, with José Marti at its head. The principal objects
were by united efforts to obtain the absolute independence of
Cuba, to promote the sympathy of other countries, to collect
funds with these objects in view, and to invest them in
munitions of war. The military organization of this movement
was completed by the election of Maximo Gomez as commander in
chief. This election was made by the principal officers who
fought in the last revolution. The time for the uprising was
fixed at the solicitation of the people in Cuba, who protested
that there was no hope of autonomy, and that their deposits of
arms and ammunition were in danger of being discovered and
their leaders arrested. A large amount of war material was
then bought by Marti, and vessels chartered to transport it to
Cuba, where arrangements were made for its reception in the
provinces of Santiago, Puerto Principe, and Santa Clara; but
at Fernandina, Florida, it was seized by the United States
authorities. Efforts were successfully made for the
restitution of this material; nevertheless valuable time and
opportunity was thus lost. The people in Cuba clamored for the
revolution to proceed immediately, and in consequence the
uprising was not further postponed. The date fixed for the
uprising was the 24th of February. The people responded in
Santiago, Santa Clara, and Matanzas. The provinces of Puerto
Principe and Pinar del Rio did not respond, owing to lack of
arms. In Puerto Principe rigorous search had previous to the
24th been instituted, and all arms and ammunition confiscated
by the Government. The leaders in the provinces of Matanzas
and Santa Clara were imprisoned, and so the movement there was
checked for the time being. … In the province of Santiago the
revolution rapidly increased in strength under the leadership
of Bartolome Masso; one of the most influential and respected
citizens of Manzanillo; Guillermo Moncada, Jesus Rabi, Pedro
Perez, Jose Miro, and others. It was characterized by the
Spanish Government as a negro and bandit movement, but many of
the most distinguished and wealthy white citizens of the
district flocked to the insurgent camp. …
On the 1st of April, Generals Antonio and José Maceo, Flor

Crombet, and Augustin Cebreco, all veteran leaders in the
former revolt, landed at Duaba, in the province of Santiago,
and thousands rose to join them. Antonio Maceo then took
command of the troops in that province, and on the 11th of
April a detachment received Generals Maximo Gomez, José Marti,
Francisco Borrerro, and Angel Guerra. Captain-General Calleja
was, on the 16th of April, succeeded by General Arsenio
Martinez Campos, the present commander in chief of the Spanish
forces, who has the reputation of being Spain's greatest living
general. … The military organization of the Cubans is ample
and complete. Major General Maximo Gomez is the commander in
chief, as we have said, of all the forces, a veteran of the
last revolution, as indeed are all the generals almost without
exception. Major General Antonio Maceo is second in command of
the army of liberation, and was, until called upon to
cooperate with the commander in chief in the late march to the
western province, in command of Santiago. The army is at
present divided into five corps—two in Santiago, one in Puerto
Principe, and two in Santa Clara and Matanzas. …
"As above indicated, Jose Marti was the head of the

preliminary civil organization, and he, immediately upon
landing with Gomez in Cuba, issued a call for the selection of
representatives of the Cuban people to form a civil
government. His death [in an engagement at Boca de Dos Rios,
May 19] postponed for a time the selection of these men, but
in the beginning of September the call previously issued was
complied with. Representatives from each of the provinces of
Santiago, Puerto Principe, Santa Clara, and the western part
of the island, comprising the provinces of Matanzas and
Havana, making twenty in all, were elected to the constituent
assembly, which was to establish a civil government,
republican in form. … A constitution of the Republic of Cuba
was adopted on the 16th of September. … On the 18th of
September … officers of the Government were elected by the
constituent assembly in accordance with the terms of the
constitution. …
"The Spaniards charge, in order to belittle the insurrection,

that it is a movement of negroes. It should be remembered that
not more than one-third of the entire population are of the
colored race. As a matter of fact, less than one-third of the
army are of the colored race. Take, for instance, the generals
of corps, divisions, and brigades; there are but three of the
colored race, namely, Antonio and José Maceo and Augustin
Cebreco, and these are mulattoes whose deeds and victories
have placed them far above the generals of those who pretend
to despise them. None of the members of the constituent
assembly or of the government are of the colored race. The
Cubans and the colored race are as friendly in this war as
they were in times of peace. …
"The subject … which has caused probably the most discussion

is the order of General Gomez to prevent the grinding of sugar
cane and in case of the disobedience of said order the
destruction of the crop. … The reasons underlying this measure
are the same which caused this country to destroy the cotton
crop and the baled cotton in the South during the war of the
secession. The sugar crop is a source of large income to the
Spanish Government, directly by tax and export duty, as well
as indirectly. The action of the insurgents is perfect]y
justified, because it is simply a blockade, so to speak, on
land—a prevention of the gathering, and hence the export, of
the commodity with, naturally, a punishment for the violation
thereof. …
{173}
"In view of the history of this revolution as herein stated,

in view of the causes which led to it, its rapid growth, its
successes in arms, the establishment, operation, and resources
of the Government of the Cuban Republic, the organization,
number, and discipline of its army, the contrast in the
treatment of prisoners to that of the enemy, the territory in
its control and subject to the carrying out of its decrees, of
the futility of the attempts of the Spanish Government to crush
the revolution, in spite of the immense increase of its army
in Cuba and of its blockade and the many millions spent for
that purpose, the cruelties which on the part of the Spanish
have especially characterized this sanguinary and fiercely
conducted war, and the damage to the interests of the citizens
of this country under the present conditions, I, as the duly
accredited representative, in the name of the Cuban people in
arms who have fought singly and alone against the monarchy of
Spain for nearly a year, in the heart of a continent devoted
to republican institutions, in the name of justice, in the
name of humanity, in the name of liberty, petition you, and
through you the Government of the United States of America, to
accord the rights of belligerency to a people fighting for
their absolute independence."
United States, 54th Congress, 1st Session,

Senate Document Number 166.
CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897.
Captain-General Campos succeeded by General Weyler.
Weyler's Concentration Order and other edicts.
Death of Antonio Maceo.
Weyler succeeded by Blanco.
In January, 1896, Governor and Captain-General Campos, whose

policy had been as humane and conciliatory as his Spanish
surroundings would permit it to be, was recalled, and Don
Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau, Marquis of Teneriffe, and lately
Captain-General of Catalonia, was sent to take his place.
General Weyler arrived at Havana on the 10th of February, and
six days later, before he could possibly have acquired any
personal knowledge of the conditions with which he had to
deal, he issued three military edicts, in which a policy of
merciless ruin to the island was broadly set forth. The first
of these edicts or proclamations commanded as follows:
"Article 1.
All inhabitants of the district of Sancti Spiritus and the
provinces of Puerto Principe and Santiago de Cuba will have to
concentrate in places which are the headquarters of a
division, a brigade, a column, or a troop, and will have to be
provided with documentary proof of identity, within eight days
of the publication of this proclamation in the municipalities.
"Article 2.
To travel in the country in the radius covered by the columns
in operation, it is absolutely indispensable to have a pass
from the mayor, military commandants, or chiefs of
detachments. Anyone lacking this will be detained and sent to
headquarters of divisions or brigades, and thence to Havana,
at my disposition, by the first possible means. Even if a pass
is exhibited, which is suspected to be not authentic or granted
by authority to person with known sympathy toward the
rebellion, or who show favor thereto, rigorous measures will
result to those responsible.
"Article 3.
All owners of commercial establishments in the country
districts will vacate them, and the chiefs of columns will
take such measures as the success of their operations dictates
regarding such places which, while useless for the country's
wealth, serve the enemy as hiding places in the woods and in
the interior.
"Article 4.
All passes hitherto issued hereby become null and void."
The order of "concentration" contained in the first article of

this decree was slowly executed, but ultimately it produced
horrors of suffering and death which words could hardly
describe. The second of Weyler's edicts delegated his own
unlimited "judicial attributes," for the enforcement of the
"military code of justice," to certain subordinate commanders,
and gave sharp directions for their exercise. The third
specified a large number of offenses as being "subject to
military law," including in the category every use of tongue
or pen that could be construed as "favorable to the
rebellion," or as injurious to the "prestige" of the Spanish
army, or "the volunteers, or firemen, or any other force that
co-operates with the army." It is said to have been nearly a
year before the Weyler policy of "concentration" was generally
carried out; but even before that occurred the misery of the
country had become very great. Both parties in the war were
recklessly laying waste the land. The insurgent leaders had
published orders for a total destruction of sugar factories
and plantations, because the product supplied revenues to
Spain; and now the Spanish governor struck all traffic and
industry down in the rural districts, by driving the
inhabitants from their homes and fields, to concentrate and
pen them up in certain prescribed places, with practically no
provision for employment, or shelter or food. At the close of
the year 1896 the state of suffering in the island was not yet
at its worst; but already it was riveting the attention of the
neighboring people of the United States, exciting a hot
feeling against Spain and a growing desire for measures on the
part of the American government to bring it to an end.
Repeated attempts had already been made by frothy politicians
in Congress to force the country into an attitude toward Spain
that would challenge war; but the Executive, supported by a
congressional majority, and by the better opinion of the
American public, adhered with firmness to a policy which aimed
at the exhausting of pacific influences in favor of the Cuban
cause. In his annual message to Congress at the opening of the
session in December, 1896, President Cleveland set forth the
situation in the following words:
"It is difficult to perceive that any progress has thus far

been made towards the pacification of the island. … If Spain
still holds Havana and the seaports and all the considerable
towns, the insurgents still roam at will over at least
two-thirds of the inland country. If the determination of
Spain to put down the insurrection seems but to strengthen
with the lapse of time, and is evinced by her unhesitating
devotion of largely increased military and naval forces to the
task, there is much reason to believe that the insurgents have
gained in point of numbers, and character, and resources, and
are none the less inflexible in their resolve not to succumb,
without practically securing the great objects for which they
took up arms. If Spain has not yet re-established her
authority, neither have the insurgents yet made good their
title to be regarded as an independent state. Indeed, as the
contest has gone on, the pretense that civil government exists
on the island, except so far as Spain is able to maintain it,
has been practically abandoned. Spain does keep on foot such a
government, more or less imperfectly, in the large towns and
their immediate suburbs. But, that exception being made, the
entire country is either given over to anarchy or is subject
to the military occupation of one or the other party. … In
pursuance of general orders, Spanish garrisons are now being
withdrawn from plantations and the rural population required
to concentrate itself in the towns. The sure result would seem

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Guide to ‘Operations in practice’ examples and case studies

10 Planning and control

Guide to ‘Operations in practice’ examples and case studies

DIRECTING THE OPERATION

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