Python Papper
Python Papper
2) b) Data visualization.
Data visualization is an important aspect of data analysis as it helps in understanding the
data, identifying patterns, trends, and relationships, and communicating insights
effectively. In Python, popular libraries such as Matplotlib, Seaborn, and Plotly can be
used for creating various types of plots and charts. Here is an example of creating a
simple bar chart using Matplotlib:
```python
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# Data for the bar chart
languages = ['Python', 'Java', 'C++', 'JavaScript', 'Ruby']
popularity = [30, 25, 20, 15, 10]
# Create a bar chart
plt.figure(figsize=(8, 6))
plt.bar(languages, popularity, color='skyblue')
# Add labels and title
plt.xlabel('Programming Languages')
plt.ylabel('Popularity (%)')
plt.title('Popularity of Programming Languages')
plt.grid(axis='y', linestyle='--', alpha=0.7)
# Display the plot
plt.show()
```
In this example, we use Matplotlib to create a simple bar chart showing the popularity of
different programming languages. We provide the data in lists (`languages` and
`popularity`) and use the `plt.bar()` function to create the bar chart. We then add labels,
a title, and gridlines to enhance the visualization. Finally, we display the plot using
`plt.show()`.
You can explore other types of plots such as line charts, scatter plots, pie charts,
histograms, etc., by referring to the documentation of Matplotlib, Seaborn, or other data
visualization libraries. These libraries offer a wide range of customization options to
create visually appealing and informative visualizations for your data analysis tasks.
3) c) Custom Exception.
In Python, you can create custom exceptions by defining a new class that inherits from
the built-in `Exception` class or any other existing exception class. Here is an example of
how to create a custom exception in Python:
```python
# Define a custom exception class
class CustomError(Exception):
def __init__(self, message="A custom error occurred"):
self.message = message
super().__init__(self.message)
# Raise the custom exception
def divide_numbers(num1, num2):
if num2 == 0:
raise CustomError("Division by zero is not allowed")
return num1 / num2
# Test the custom exception
try:
result = divide_numbers(10, 0)
except CustomError as e:
print("Custom Exception:", e)
else:
print("Result:", result)
```
In this example, we define a custom exception class `CustomError` that inherits from the
`Exception` class. We provide an optional `message` parameter that allows us to
customize the error message. Inside the `divide_numbers` function, we check if the
second number is zero, and if so, we raise our custom exception with a specific error
message.
When we call the `divide_numbers` function with `10` and `0`, it will raise the
`CustomError` exception with the message "Division by zero is not allowed". We catch
this exception using a `try-except` block and handle it accordingly.
By creating custom exceptions, you can make your code more robust and provide
meaningful error messages for specific scenarios in your applications.
Paper-2 [5803-505]
4) d) What is scikit-learn?
Scikit-learn is a popular open-source machine learning library for Python. It is built on
top of NumPy, SciPy, and Matplotlib, and provides a wide range of machine learning
algorithms and tools for tasks such as classification, regression, clustering,
dimensionality reduction, and more. Scikit-learn is designed to be user-friendly, efficient,
and accessible to both beginners and experienced machine learning practitioners.
Key features of scikit-learn include:
1. **Simple and Consistent API**: Scikit-learn provides a consistent and easy-to-use API
for training, testing, and deploying machine learning models. This makes it
straightforward to experiment with different algorithms and techniques.
2. **Wide Range of Algorithms**: The library includes a variety of supervised and
unsupervised learning algorithms, including linear models, support vector machines,
decision trees, random forests, clustering algorithms, and more. This allows users to
choose the most suitable algorithm for their specific task.
3. **Model Evaluation and Selection**: Scikit-learn provides tools for model evaluation,
hyperparameter tuning, cross-validation, and performance metrics. This helps users
assess the performance of their models and select the best configuration for their data.
4. **Feature Extraction and Transformation**: The library offers utilities for feature
extraction, preprocessing, and transformation, including methods for handling missing
values, scaling data, encoding categorical variables, and more.
5. **Integration with Other Libraries**: Scikit-learn integrates well with other Python
libraries such as NumPy, SciPy, Pandas, and Matplotlib, allowing for seamless data
manipulation, visualization, and analysis in machine learning workflows.
6. **Active Development and Community Support**: Scikit-learn is actively maintained
and supported by a vibrant community of developers and machine learning enthusiasts.
Regular updates, bug fixes, and new features ensure that the library stays current with
the latest advancements in the field.
5) e) Write the definition of class method.
A class method in Python is a method that is bound to the class rather than an instance
of the class. It can be called on the class itself or on an instance of the class. Class
methods are defined using the `@classmethod` decorator and have a special first
parameter conventionally named `cls`, which refers to the class itself.
Here is the definition of a class method in Python:
"A class method in Python is a method that is associated with the class itself rather than
with instances of the class. It is defined using the `@classmethod` decorator and takes
the class (conventionally named `cls`) as its first parameter. Class methods can access
and modify class-level variables and perform operations that are not specific to
individual instances of the class."
Here is an example demonstrating the use of a class method in Python:
```python
class MyClass:
class_variable = 0
def __init__(self, value):
self.instance_variable = value
@classmethod
def increment_class_variable(cls):
cls.class_variable += 1
# Accessing the class method on the class itself
MyClass.increment_class_variable()
print(MyClass.class_variable) # Output: 1
# Accessing the class method on an instance of the class
obj1 = MyClass(10)
obj1.increment_class_variable()
print(obj1.class_variable) # Output: 2
```
In this example:
- We define a class method `increment_class_variable` using the `@classmethod`
decorator, which increments the `class_variable` belonging to the class.
- We demonstrate calling the class method both on the class itself
(`MyClass.increment_class_variable()`) and on an instance of the class
(`obj1.increment_class_variable()`).
- The class method can access and modify the `class_variable`, which is shared among all
instances of the class.
Class methods are useful for defining methods that operate on the class itself or perform
tasks that are not specific to individual instances.
7) g) List-out-Geometry methods.
8) h) What is Tkinter in Python?
Tkinter is a standard GUI (Graphical User Interface) toolkit in Python used for creating
desktop applications with graphical interfaces. It is included with most Python
installations, making it easily accessible for developers to create interactive and visually
appealing applications.
Tkinter is based on the Tk GUI toolkit, which is a popular cross-platform GUI library.
Tkinter provides a set of built-in widgets (buttons, labels, text boxes, etc.) that can be
used to design and build GUI applications. Developers can create windows, dialogs,
menus, and other GUI elements using Tkinter to create user-friendly applications.
Key features of Tkinter include:
- Simple and easy-to-use interface: Tkinter provides a simple and intuitive interface for
creating GUI applications in Python.
- Cross-platform compatibility: Tkinter applications can run on various operating systems,
including Windows, macOS, and Linux, without requiring any modifications.
- Customizable widgets: Tkinter offers a variety of built-in widgets that can be customized
to suit the design and functionality requirements of the application.
- Event-driven programming: Tkinter follows an event-driven programming model, where
actions such as button clicks or key presses trigger events that can be handled by the
application.
Here is a simple example of a Tkinter application that creates a window with a button:
```python
import tkinter as tk
def button_click():
print("Button clicked!")
# Create the main window
root = tk.Tk()
root.title("Tkinter Example")
# Create a button widget
button = tk.Button(root, text="Click Me", command=button_click)
button.pack()
# Start the main event loop
root.mainloop()
```
In this example:
- We import the `tkinter` module and create a main window using `tk.Tk()`.
- We define a function `button_click()` that prints a message when the button is clicked.
- We create a button widget with the text "Click Me" and associate the `button_click()`
function with the button using the `command` parameter.
- Finally, we start the main event loop with `root.mainloop()` to display the window and
handle user interactions.
Tkinter is a versatile and widely-used GUI toolkit in Python that enables developers to
create interactive desktop applications with ease. It is well-documented and supported,
making it a popular choice for developing GUI applications in Python.
3) c) Define an abstract class shape and its subclass (square / circle). The
subclass has an init function which takes an argument (length/radius) Both
classes have an area & volume function which can print the area and
volume of shape where the area of shape by default 0.
Here's how you can define an abstract class `Shape` and its subclasses `Square` and
`Circle` in Python, along with methods to calculate area and volume:
```python
import abc
class Shape(abc.ABC):
def __init__(self):
pass
@abc.abstractmethod
def area(self):
pass
@abc.abstractmethod
def volume(self):
pass
class Square(Shape):
def __init__(self, length):
super().__init__()
self.length = length
def area(self):
return self.length * self.length
def volume(self):
return 0 # Volume of 2D shape is 0
class Circle(Shape):
def __init__(self, radius):
super().__init__()
self.radius = radius
def area(self):
return 3.14 * self.radius * self.radius
def volume(self):
return 0 # Volume of 2D shape is 0
# Example usage
square = Square(5)
print("Square Area:", square.area()) # Output: Square Area: 25
print("Square Volume:", square.volume()) # Output: Square Volume: 0
circle = Circle(3)
print("Circle Area:", circle.area()) # Output: Circle Area: 28.26
print("Circle Volume:", circle.volume()) # Output: Circle Volume: 0
```
In this code:
- `Shape` is defined as an abstract class using Python's `abc` module.
- `Square` and `Circle` are subclasses of `Shape`.
- Each subclass (`Square` and `Circle`) has its own `__init__` method that takes the
necessary parameters (`length` for `Square` and `radius` for `Circle`).
- Both subclasses implement the abstract methods `area()` and `volume()` to calculate
the area and volume of the shape. Since a 2D shape has no volume, the `volume()`
method returns 0 by default.
- Example usage demonstrates how to create instances of `Square` and `Circle` classes
and calculate their areas and volumes.
4) d) Write a Python program to check whether a number is in a given range.
Here's a Python program to check whether a number is within a given range:
```python
def check_range(number, start, end):
"""
Check if the given number is within the specified range.
Parameters:
number (int): The number to check.
start (int): The start of the range.
end (int): The end of the range.
Returns:
bool: True if the number is within the range, False otherwise.
"""
if start <= number <= end:
return True
else:
return False
# Example usage
number_to_check = 7
start_of_range = 1
end_of_range = 10
if check_range(number_to_check, start_of_range, end_of_range):
print(f"{number_to_check} is within the range {start_of_range}-{end_of_range}.")
else:
print(f"{number_to_check} is not within the range {start_of_range}-{end_of_range}.")
```
This program defines a function `check_range()` that takes three parameters: `number`
(the number to check), `start` (the start of the range), and `end` (the end of the range). It
then checks if the `number` is within the specified range by using a comparison
statement (`start <= number <= end`). If the number is within the range, the function
returns `True`; otherwise, it returns `False`.
You can replace `number_to_check`, `start_of_range`, and `end_of_range` with the
values you want to check.
5) e) Write a Python class to find the validity of a string of parentheses, '(', ')',
'{', '}', '[', ']'. These brackets must be closed in the correct order for example
"()" and "() []{}" are valid but "[)", "({D]" and "{{{" are invalid.
You can implement a Python class to find the validity of a string of parentheses using a
stack data structure. Here's a possible implementation:
```python
class ValidParentheses:
def __init__(self):
self.opening_brackets = {'(', '[', '{'}
self.closing_brackets = {')', ']', '}'}
self.matching_brackets = {'(': ')', '[': ']', '{': '}'}
def is_valid(self, s: str) -> bool:
stack = []
for char in s:
if char in self.opening_brackets:
stack.append(char)
elif char in self.closing_brackets:
if not stack:
return False # No opening bracket to match
last_opening_bracket = stack.pop()
if self.matching_brackets[last_opening_bracket] != char:
return False # Mismatched brackets
return len(stack) == 0 # True if all brackets are matched
# Example usage
valid_parentheses_checker = ValidParentheses()
print(valid_parentheses_checker.is_valid("()")) # Output: True
print(valid_parentheses_checker.is_valid("()[]{}")) # Output: True
print(valid_parentheses_checker.is_valid("[)")) # Output: False
print(valid_parentheses_checker.is_valid("({D]")) # Output: False
print(valid_parentheses_checker.is_valid("{{{")) # Output: False
```
In this implementation:
- The `ValidParentheses` class defines the necessary attributes and methods for checking
the validity of parentheses.
- The `is_valid` method takes a string `s` containing parentheses and iterates through
each character.
- It uses a stack to keep track of opening brackets encountered so far.
- When encountering an opening bracket, it pushes it onto the stack.
- When encountering a closing bracket, it pops the top element from the stack and
checks if it matches the current closing bracket. If there is no match or if the stack is
empty, it returns `False`.
- After iterating through all characters, it returns `True` if the stack is empty (indicating all
opening brackets have been matched with closing brackets) and `False` otherwise.
2) b) Assertion
In Python, the `assert` statement is used as a debugging aid to test assumptions in code.
It allows you to test conditions that should always be true during the execution of the
program. If the condition is not met, an `AssertionError` exception is raised, indicating a
bug in the program.
The syntax of the `assert` statement is:
```python
assert condition, message
```
- `condition`: The expression that should evaluate to `True`. If it evaluates to `False`, an
`AssertionError` is raised.
- `message` (optional): An optional message that can provide more information about
the assertion failure. This message is displayed when the assertion fails.
Example of using `assert`:
```python
x = 10
assert x > 0, "x should be greater than 0"
print("x is positive")
```
In this example:
- The `assert x > 0, "x should be greater than 0"` statement checks if the value of `x` is
greater than 0. If the condition is `False`, an `AssertionError` with the message "x should
be greater than 0" is raised.
- If the condition is `True`, the program continues to execute the next statement.
It's important to note that assertions are typically used during development and testing
to catch logical errors or assumptions that should hold true. They can be disabled in
production code by running the Python interpreter with the `-O` (optimize) flag or by
setting the `PYTHONOPTIMIZE` environment variable to a non-zero value.
While assertions can help in debugging and testing code, they should not be used for
error handling or input validation in production code. Instead, exceptions should be used
for handling expected errors and validating user input.
3) c) Tuple
In Python, a tuple is an ordered collection of elements, similar to a list. However, tuples
are immutable, meaning that once created, their elements cannot be changed. Tuples
are defined using parentheses `()` and can contain elements of different data types.
Key points about tuples in Python:
1. Creating a Tuple: Tuples are created by enclosing elements in parentheses `()`.
Elements are separated by commas.
```python
my_tuple = (1, 2, 'hello', 3.14)
```
2.Accessing Elements: Elements in a tuple can be accessed using indexing. Indexing
starts at 0.
```python
print(my_tuple[0]) # Output: 1
```
3.Immutable: Tuples are immutable, so you cannot change the elements once a tuple is
created. However, you can create a new tuple based on an existing tuple.
```python
my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)
# This will raise an error
my_tuple[0] = 10
```
4.Tuple Packing and Unpacking: Tuples can be packed (combining values into a tuple) and
unpacked (assigning values of a tuple to variables) easily.
```python
# Packing
my_tuple = 1, 2, 3
# Unpacking
a, b, c = my_tuple
```
5. Tuple Methods: Tuples have limited methods because of their immutability. Some
common methods include `count()` and `index()`.
```python
my_tuple = (1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3)
print(my_tuple.count(2)) # Output: 2
print(my_tuple.index(3)) # Output: 3
```
6.Use Cases: Tuples are often used when you want to store a fixed collection of items
that should not be changed. They are also used for returning multiple values from a
function.
Tuples are commonly used in Python for various purposes, such as representing fixed
collections of data, passing multiple values to functions, and as keys in dictionaries. Their
immutability makes them suitable for scenarios where you want to ensure that the data
remains constant throughout the program.